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Book_ i.? - 

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COPYRIGHT DEPOSnr. 



















































































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J5a> 




ACLOPEDIAs B EFERENCE: 



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£/?\3 





(Wi^toncaP, 5i)iograpfticaf ar|t) ^{a\\&\ic,a£, 


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EMBRACING 


THE MOST APPROVED AND SIMPLE METHODS OF 

Self-Instruction in Bookkeeping, Igenmansfyip, (Commercial Learn, Gtc. 


TOGETHER WITH 


LAWS AND FORMS USED IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 

Prepared under the Direct Supervision of the Publishers by a Specialist in each Department. 

IIl^^br^ated wit I i Or^mal J)r»av/i*2<^, Goloped /Aa[®^ ar^d J)ia^am^ 


• 0 ^ 0 * 


CHICAGO: 

R, S, FEALE & COMPANY, 


OF CGa/jTi'V 

e w » i . * U/' A \ 

l/* '\ 


1884 



MDCCCLXXXIV. 




















































AO, i os' 
,F 3S 



Copyright, 1884, by R. S. Peale. 





































;JP|IBBON has well said: “Every man has two educations: one which he receives 
from others, and one, more important, which he gives to himself.” Sir Walter 
Scott emphasizes the sentiment when he says, using almost the same words: “The 
best part of every man’s education is that which he gives to himself.” 

The mind has been endowed with no more laudable or profitable ambition than that 
of self-improvement. The educated man, in every walk of life, carries with him his own 
capital—a capital unaffected by monetary crises; an investment whose interest is not regu¬ 
lated by the success of speculation ; a treasure which none can dispute and of which none 
can deprive him. It is his greatest source of pleasure and profit, and it is the best legacy 
he can leave to his children. 

In preparing the present volume, it has been the endeavor of the publishers to omit 
no branch of study that may be useful in the busy life of these busy times, and a perusal 
of the book will convince the reader that every subject has been treated concisely and 
thoroughly, presenting in an attractive shape all those points that go to make a finished 
education. Practical application to the affairs of life has been constantly kept in view, 
and throughout has been maintained a systematic arrangement making reference easy, and 
a degree of artistic typography pleasing to the eye, making the search for knowledge 
doubly pleasurable. 


To the youth who has not had the advantages of an early education is here offered a 
means of thorough self-instruction — a complete commercial college bound in a book. The 
business man who consults these pages will find every variety of forms used in business 
life, and will not seek in vain for such legal information as may be needed. The profes¬ 
sional man will have in this work a vadc mecum of useful and practical information, saving 
both the expense of purchasing and the time of consulting a vast number of volumes. 

It is customary to burden the initial pages of a new publication with apologies. The 
publishers of this book have none to make. They have invested a large amount of diligent, 
painstaking labor and research, and no small amount of capital, and recognize the fact that 
they must depend upon merit and excellence for success. 


























































J- 




IS 




TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



in lA 





I. 

Educational Department.17 

The Origin of Language— Classification of the Tongues 
of the Earth. 

II. 

The English Language.21 

Its Origin, Growth, Development and Present Form — 
English Grammar — Formation and Derivation of 
Words — Spelling—The Use of Capital Letters — 
Punctuation — The Parts of Speech and Their Proper 
Use — Errors in Speech, etc. 

III. 

Composition. 4 ° 

How to Write the English Language Correctly — The 
Qualities Constituting a Good Style — Figures of 
Rhetoric — Prosody — Versification — Poetic License. 

IV. 

Elocution.48 

Vocal Culture and Gesture—How to Read and Speak 
Correctly and Elegantly—The Forms of Speech— 
Dramatic Action. 

V. 

Business and Social Correspondence.56 

Letter-Writing in all its Forms — Style, Arrangement 
and Composition of Letters — The Proper Use of 
Titles — Models for all Kinds of Correspondence. 

VI. 

A Self-Instructor in the German Language ... 72 

The New System of Object-Teaching — A Compre¬ 
hensive Collection of Words and Phrases Designed 
to Facilitate Conversation in German. 

VII. 

French Without a Master.90 

A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French 
Language. 

VIII. 

Short-Hand and Type-Writing.106 

How to Acquire and How to Practice these Arts—A 
History of Stenography, and a Practical Exposition 
of the Various Systems. 

IX. 

The Art of Book-Keeping.114 

The Systems of Single and Double Entry Compared 
Side by Side — The Principles Set Forth Clearly and 
Concisely — How to Prevent Errors and How to 



153 


Detect Them — Comprehensive Rules of Value to the 
Practical Accountant as well as to the Student — 
Abbreviations and the Use of Capital Letters—Com¬ 
plete Forms Illustrating the Two Systems. 

X. 

Practical and Ornamental Penmanship .... 

The Work of the Pen Described and Illustrated, From 
the Plainest Letter to the Most Elaborate Design — 
How to Learn and How to Teach Writing—Faults 
to be Guarded Against— Study and Practice — Copies 
for a Course of Twenty Lessons — Alphabets and 
Specimens for All Purposes — Examples of Black¬ 
board Writing and Drawing, Engrossing, Flourished 
Cards, Designs for Albums and Ornamental Lettering. 

XI. 

Biographical Dictionary.185 

Embracing Over Seven Thousand Names of Eminent 
Personages, Selected with Special Reference to the 
Literature of America, Great Britain and Germany. 


230 


XII. 

A Panorama of History. 

A Graphic Account of Every Nation on the Globe — 
Maps of the World and of all Countries of Historic 
Interest. 

XIII. 

Historical Charts.321 

The World’s History From the Flood to the Year 1883 
(in Colors). 

XIV. 

Department of Public Business .333 

A Complete Digest of Parliamentary Law and Rules— : 
How to Call, Organize and Conduct Meetings and 
Conventions — Committees and Their Work — A 
Comprehensive Table of Points of Order. 

XV. 

Memorials and Petitions .338 

The Right of Petition — Forms for Remonstrances, 
Petitions and Memorials. 

XVI. 

Lyceums and Debating Clubs .340 

Form of Constitution and By-Laws — Questions for 
Debate. 

XVII. 

How to Develop Talent in the Home Circle. . . 342 

Hints Concerning Home Entertainment—An Evening 
with the Lamplight Club. 


if> 




er 



















































VI 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


XVIII. 

The Study of Character in its Relation to Business 

Success. 347 

Phrenology and Physiognomy — The Two Paths of 
Life: Effects of Training and Modes of Life on the 
Human Countenance — Face-Reading — The Tem¬ 
peraments Illustrated—How to Read Character— 

A Synopsis of the Organs of the Brain. 

XIX. 

Causes of Success and Failure. 358 

How to Avoid Failure — Choosing an Occupation — 
Health—Self-Reliance — Attention to Detail—Per¬ 
severance — Decision of Character. 

XX. 

Commercial Laws and Forms. 365 

Notes, Bills, Orders, Receipts, etc., Properly Drawn for 
Every State—Negotiable Paper—.Endorsement in 
Blank, in Full, General, Qualified, Conditional, Re¬ 
strictive— The Endorser’s Responsibility— Necessary 
Legal Points — A Swindling Note— Points of Busi¬ 
ness Law — Laws of the United States and Canada 
Relating to Interest — Laws Relating to Limitation of 
Actions. 

XXI. 

How Business is Done on Boards of Trade and Stock 

Exchanges. 373 

A Realistic View of Commercial Gambling — Futures — 
Option Trading—Margins — Corners and Their Per¬ 
nicious Effects—The Bucket-Shops. 


XXII. 

Banks and Banking.378 

How the Business is Carried On—Discount — Officers 


and Employes — How to Do Business with a Bank — 
Deposits — How to Draw and Endorse a Check — 
Banking Frauds — Drafts and Bills of Exchange — 
Letters of Credit — Bills of Lading as Security — 

The Clearing-House System. 

XXIII. 

A Lightning Calculator.384 

Valuable Computations and Calculations for the Use of 
the Farmer, Mechanic and Business Man — Complete 
Tables of Simple and Compound Interest — Short 
Insurance Rates — Valuable Miscellaneous Facts and 
Figures — A Calendar for the Century — The Legal 
Bushel — Standard and Foreign Weights and Meas¬ 
ures— The Metric System. 

XXIV. 

Legal Business Department.399 

How to Avoid Litigation — All Kinds of Legal Forms 
and How They are Drawn and Executed. 

XXV. 

Special Laws of the States and Territories . . 438 

Assignments, Attachments, Chattel Mortgages, Divorce, 
Exemptions, Rights of Married Women, Deeds and 
Their Acknowledgment, Wills, and Mechanics’ Liens 
— A Complete Synopsis of State and Territorial 
Laws, Compiled from the Latest Sources. 

XXVI. 

Statistical Department.461 

Diagrams (in colors) of the Population, Religions, Edu¬ 
cation, Resources, Productions and Industries of the 


World—The Growth of the United States — The 
Large Cities of the United States According to Their 
Rank—The Great Cities of the World — Fast Time 
by Rail and Water— Fast Horses and Their Records 

XXVII. 

Physiology and Medicine.479 

The Various Ailments of the Human Body and How to 
Treat Them — How to Proceed in Emergencies — 
Hygienic Suggestions. 

XXVIII. 

Diseases of Domestic Animals.534 

Causes, Symptoms and Treatment—General Hints of 
Great Value. 

XXIX. 

Architecture for Modern Times.551 

Plans, Specifications and Estimates — Noteworthy Sug¬ 
gestions. 

XXX. 

The Laws of Etiquette.571 

A Compendium of the Rules and Habits of Polite 
Society—The True Spirit of Good Manners — 
Refinement and Good Breeding—The Art of Con¬ 
versation— The Etiquette of Introduction and Saluta¬ 
tion, of Visiting and Calling — Cards, and When, 
Where, and How to Use Them — Etiquette of the 
Table and the Ball, at Home and Abroad. 

XXXI. 

Familiar Poems, and Those Who Wrote Them . . 611 
Gems of English Poetry, Illustrated with Portraits of 
the Poets. 

XXXII. 

Dictionary of Prose and Poetical Quotations. . 639 
Arranged both Topically and Alphabetically. 

XXXIII. 

Heroes and Heroines of Prose and Poetry . . 657 

A Compendium of the Celebrated Characters in the 
Literature of the World. 

XXXIV. 

A Dictionary of Noms De Plume.662 

A Comprehensive List of Assumed Names in English 
and American Literature. 

XXXV. 

A Dictionary of Familiar Allusions.667 

Words and Phrases, Persons, Places, Pictures, Build¬ 
ings, Streets and Monuments Frequently Alluded to 
in Literature and in Conversation. 

XXXVI. 

A Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms . . .675 

Containing over Twenty Thousand Words of both 
Similar and Contrary Meaning. 


XXXVII. 

A Lexicon of Foreign Phrases .693 

Sentences and Quotations from both Living and Dead 
Languages. 

XXXVIII. 

A Dictionary of Abbreviations .698 

A Comprehensive Glossary of Logogriphs in Good 
English Usage. 













































Abbreviations, Dictionary of. 698 

Abbreviations in Letter-Writing. 57 

Abbreviations used in Book-keeping. 128 

Abstract of Title. 416 

Abyssinia, History of. 316 

Abyssinia, Map of. 299 

Accommodation Paper. 370 

Acknowledgment of Deeds, Special Laws relating to. See respective 
States and Territories. 

Administrators. 426 

Administrators’ Duties in Settling Estates. 428 

Advice, Letters Soliciting. 66 

Affection, Letters of. 64 

Affidavits. 406 

Afghanistan, History of.311 

Africa, History of. 314 

Africa, Map of. 298 

Agency and Attorney. 404 

Agreements and Contracts. 401 

Alabama, Special Laws of. 438 

Altered Checks. 381 

Andorra, History of. 306 

Apprentices. 407 

Arabia, History of. 312 

Arbitration. 4°8 

Architecture for Modern Times—Plans and Estimates. 551 

Practical Architecture. 551 

The Choice of a Site. 552 

Building a Home. 55 2 

How the Money is Applied. 553 

Water. 553 

Cellar. 553 

Ice-house. 553 

A $3,000 Prize Cottage. 554 

A $2,500 House. 556 

Dwelling-House—Design 1. 558 

Rural Gothic Farm-house—Design 2. 559 

Rural Gothic Cottage—Design 3. 560 

Rural Cottage—Design 4. 561 

Southern Cottage—Design 5. 562 

Ornamental Cottage—Design 6. 563 

Cottage—Design 7. 564 

Cheap Farm Cottage—-Design 8. 565 

Suburban Cottage—Design 9. 566 

Horse and Carriage House—Design 10. 567 

Substantial Farm Barn—Design 11. 568 

Grain and Stock Barn—Design 12. 569 

Convenient Barn—Design 13. 570 

Sheep Barn and Sheds—Design 14. 570 

Noteworthy Suggestions. 570 

Arizona, Special Laws of.. 43 ® 

Arkansas, Special Laws of. 439 

Assignments. 4°9 


Assignments, Special Laws relating to. See respective States and 
Territories. 


Asia, History of. 308 

Attachments, Special Laws relating to. See respective States and 


Territories. 

Australia, History of. 320 

Austria-Hungary, History of. 281 

Austria-Hungary, Map of. 291 

Auxiliary Books (Book-keeping). 127 

Balance Sheets. 127 

Balance Sheets, Form of.. 152 

Ball and Party, Etiquette of the. 586 

Banks and Banking. 378 

How the Business is Carried on.378 

Banks of Deposit. 378 

Banks of Circulation. . 379 

Banks of Exchange. 379 

Bank Discount. 379 

Bank Officers and Employes. 379 

How to do Business with a Bank. 380 

Deposits. 380 

How to Keep the Stub of Check-Book. 380 

Balancing a Bank-Book. 380 

How to Draw and Endorse a Check. 380 

Certified Checks...".. 381 

Banking Frauds. 381 

Raised Checks. 381 

Altered Checks. 381 

Drafts and Bills of Exchange. 381 

How Drafts are Drawn. 381 

Non-Acceptance. 382 

Protest. 382 

Foreign Bills of Exchange. 382 

Letters of Credit. 382 

Bill of Lading as Security. 383 

The Clearing-house System. 383 

Barbary States, History of the. 317 

Beer Production (Diagram). 471 

Belgium, History of. 284 

Beloochistan, History of. . 311 

Bills of Exchange. 381 

Bills of Exchange, Foreign. 382 

Bill of Lading as Security. 383 

Bills of Sale. 410 

Biographical Dictionary. 185 

Blackboard Writing and Drawing. 178 

Boards of Trade and Stock Exchanges. 373 

Dealing in Futures. 374 

Option Trading. 375 

Corners. 375 

The Results of Corners. 376 

The Bucket-shops. 376 

Board—Table of Expense per Day. 388 

Bonds. 411 

Book-keeping—Single and Double Entry. 114 

Books Used in Single Entry. 114 

Books Used in Double Entry. 115 





■& \\ 
































































































































































■s, 











\ 






/ 



viii 

INDEX. 






Book-keeping— Continued. 


1 

Chili, History of. 






How Entries are Made. 

ns 

China, History of.. 






How to Detect Errors. 

ns 

Church Etiquette. 






How Errors are Made. 

116 

Christians, Distribution of. (Diagram). 






Subsidiary Books. 

116 

Cities, Population of. 






Book-keeping by Single Entry. 

117 

Clearing-house System, The. 






Single Entry Cash-Book. 

118 

Climates of the United States. 






Single Entry Day-Book. 

120 

Clocks of the World. (Diagram). 






Single Entry Ledger. 

122 

Coal, Annual Production of. (Diagram). 


. 47 ° 




Deductions from Set of Single Entry. 

124 

Colombia, History of the United States of. 






Book-keeping by Double Entry. 

I2S 

Colorado, Special Laws of. 






The Key to Journalizing. 

125 

Commercial Law and Forms. 






The Principles of Double Entry. 

126 

Negotiable Paper. 






How to Close the Ledger. 

126 

Promissory Notes. 






Balance Sheets. 

127 

Endorsements. 






Auxiliary Books. 

12 7 

Form of Negotiable Note with Endorsements. 






Abbreviations Used in Book-keeping. 

128 

The Endorser’s Responsibility. 


. 367 




Capital Letters. 

128 

Necessary Legal Points. 






Set I.—Day-Book. 

I29 

Forms of Notes . 


.367 




Set I.—Journal. 

130 

Legal Forms of Notes for Several States. 


. 368 




Set I. — Ledger . 

131 

A Swindling Note . 






Set I.— Trial Balance. . . 

133 

Due Bills. 






Day-Book and Journal Combined. 

134 

Orders. 






Set II.—Journal-Day-Book. 

13s 

Receipts. 














Set II.—Trial Balances. 

151 

Composition—How to Write the English Language Correctly_ 

.... 40 




Set II. — Inventory and Balance Sheet .. .. 

152 

Style — Purity, Propriety, Precision, Perspicuity, 

Unity 

and 




Brazil, History of .,. 

267 

Strength .. 






British India, History of . 

3 IQ 

Composition of Letters . 






Bucket-shops . 

376 

Compound Interest Tables . 






Bulgaria, History of . 

3°6 

Condolence, Letters of . 






Business and Social Correspondence. See Correspondence . 

56 

Connecticut, Special Laws of . 


.... 440 




Business Law, Points of . 

370 

Consumptives, Healthiest Regions for . 






Business Letters . 

62 

Contracts . 






Calculations. See Lightning Calculator . 

3 § 4 

Conversation, The Art of . 






Calendar for the Century. 

394 

Conversation, the Simplest Form of Speech . 






California, Special Laws of. . 

439 

Cooking: How to Select Meats . 






Calling, Etiquette of. 

578 

The Art of Carving . 






Canada, History of . 

260 

Corners and their Results. 






Canada, Map of. 

270 

Corporations. 






Cape Colony, History of. 

316 

Correspondence, Business and Social: Letter-writing 

in all 

Its 




Capital Letters, The Use of. 

32 

Forms. See also Letter-writing . 






Capital Letters used in Book-keeping. 

128 

Letters of Business. 






Capitals in Letter-writing. 

57 

Letters of Recommendation . 


.... 63 




Cards: When, Where and How to Use Them . 

580 

Letters of Courtesy, Friendship and Affection . 






Cattle, Diseases of . \ . 

544 

Letters of Friendly Counsel and Remonstrance . 






Census, Curiosities of the. (Diagram) . 

472 

Letters Soliciting Advice or Friendly Favors . 


.... 66 




Central America, History of. . 

265 

Letters of Sympathy and Condolence . 






Central America, Map of. . 

294 

Letters Between Parents and Children . 


.... 68 




Ceremony and Familiar Invitation, Notes of . 

69 

Notes of Ceremony and Familiar Invitation . 






Certified Checks . 

381 

Miscellaneous Letters . 






Character — Its Study in Relation to Business Success . 

347 

Cotton and Tobacco, The World’s Yearly Production of. 

(Diagram). <67 




The Origin of Phrenology . 

347 

Courtesy, Letters of . 






Measurement of the Head. 

347 

Credit, Letters of. 






The Two Paths of Life. 

349 

Cuba, History of. 






Physiognomy, or Face-Reading. 

350 

Curiosities of the Census. (Diagram). 






The Temperaments. 

35 ° 

Dakota, Special Laws of. 






Combination of Temperaments. 








How to Read Character. 

352 

Deeds. 






Symbolical Illustration of the Phrenological Organs. 

352 

Deeds, Special Laws relating to. See respective States 

and 

Ter- 




Chattel Mortgages . 

424 

ritories. 






Chattel Mortgages, Special Laws relating to. See respective States 


Delaware, Special Laws of . 






and Te 7 M ritories. 


Departments at Washington . 






Check-Book, Stub of . 

380 

Diagrams of Statistical Information . 






Checks, Altered . 

381 

The Religions of the World . 






Checks, Certified . 

381 

Distribution of Christians throughout the World . 






Checks, How to Endorse . 

380 

Comparative Showing of Religions in the United States.... 

.... 463 




Checks, How to Draw . 

380 

Educational Statistics of the United States and other Countries. 464 




Checks, Raised . 

381 

Public Debts of Various Countries . 





/ 

— 



_ 

■ 







& 

7T 


© 


(*f 




























































































































































INDEX. 


K 


ix 


7 


Diagrams of Statistical Information— Continued. 

The Yearly Wheat Crop in Principal Countries. 466 

The World’s Yearly Production of Cotton and Tobacco. 467 

The World’s Yearly Production of the Precious Metals.468 

Pig-iron Production in the United States. 469 

Annual Production of Coal in the United States. 470 

Beer Production in Various Countries. 471 

Curiosities of the Census. 472 

The Railroads of the World. 473 

Dialogue Reading. 53 

Dictionary of Abbreviations. 698 

Dictionary of Biography. 185 

Dictionary of Familiar Allusions. 667 

Dictionary of Foreign Phrases. 693 

Dictionary of Noms de Plume. 662 

Dictionary of Prose and Poetical Quotations. 639 

Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms. 675 

Discount. 379 

Diseases of Domestic Animals. 534 

The Horse. 534 

Horned Cattle. 544 

Sheep. 547 

Swine. 549 

General Suggestions of Great Value. 550 

Distances Around the World. 393 

Distances from New York City. 392 

District of Columbia, Special Laws of. 442 

Divorce, Special Laws relating to. See respective States and Ter¬ 
ritories . 

Domestic Animals, Diseases of. 534 

Dominion of Canada, History of the. 260 

Dominion of Canada, Map of the. 270 

Double Entry Book-keeping. 125 

Drafts and Bills of Exchange. 381 

Drafts—How Drawn. 381 

Drafts, Non-acceptance of. 382 

Drafts, Protest of. 3 ®* 

Dress—The Toilet, etc. 59 ® 

Driving, Etiquette of. 59 1 

Due Bills, Forms of. 369 

Duration and Expectation of Life (Dr. Farr’s Table).460 

Duration of Animal Life. 393 

Educational Department. *7 

Educational Statistics. (Diagram). 464 

Egypt and Abyssinia, Map of. 299 

Egypt, History of. 3*5 

Election Laws of the different States. 2 5® 

Elocution and Vocal Culture. 4 ® 

Articulation and Pronunciation. 48 

Expression or Modulation. 49 

Gesture. 53 

The Three Forms of Speech. 54 

Dramatic Action. 55 

Emphasis in Elocution. 5 2 

Endorsement of Notes. 3^6 

Engagements and Marriage, Etiquette of. 600 

England and Wales, Map of. 283 

England, History of. 2 73 

English Composition. 4 ° 

English Grammar. 24 

English Language, The —Its Origin, Growth, Development and 

Present Form. 21 

Constituents of the Language. 21 

Anglo-Saxon, A.D. 700-1100. 22 

Semi-Saxon, A.D. 1150-1250. 22 

Old English, A.D. 1300. 23 

Middle English, A.D. 1350-1500. 23 

Modern English, A.D. 1550-1850. 23 

Entertainment in the Home Circle, Hints concerning.... 342 


,1 


Envelopes—How Addressed. 60 

Errors in Book-keeping—How Detected. 115 

Errors in Book-keeping—How Made. 116 

Etiquette: The Laws of Etiquette—The Rules and Habits of Polite 

Society. 571 

The Art of Conversation. 572 

Presentation at the White House and at Foreign Courts. 573 

Introductions. 574 

Salutation. 575 

Suggestions to Shoppers. 576 

Visiting. 577 

Calling. 578 

Cards. 580 

Etiquette of the Table. 582 

Etiquette of Places of Public Amusement. 585 

The Ball and Party. 586 

The German, Receptions, and Parties in General. 588 

Etiquette of Riding and Driving. 591 

Etiquette of the Street. 593 

Etiquette of Travelling. 594 

Ladies Travelling without Escort. 595 

Etiquette of Funerals. 596 

Church Etiquette. 596 

Home Etiquette—The Toilet. 597 

Dress. 598 

Engagements and Marriage. 600 

Etiquette of the Marriage Relation. 603 

General Hints on Etiquette. 605 

Etiquette of the House—Management of Servants. 607 

How to Select Meats—The Art of Cooking. 609 

The Art of Carving. 610 

Etymology. 36 

The Parts of Speech. 36 

Rules of Grammar. 36 

Plural of Nouns. 37 

Errors in Speech. 37 

Figures of Etymology. 39 

Europe, History of. 272 

Europe, Map of. 282 

Exchange, Bills of. 381 

Exchanges. 373 

Executors and Administrators. 426 

Exemptions, Special Laws relating to. See respective States and 
Territories. 

Expectation and Duration of Life (Dr. Farr’s Table). 460 

Expectation of Life—Table Used in Settling Estates.421 

Facts and Figures. 392 

Familiar Allusions, Dictionary of.. 667 

Familiar Poems and Those Who Wrote Them. See Poems . 611 

Fast Time Records. 47 ® 

Feed, Value of Various Kinds. 391 

Figures in Grammar. 39 

Figures of Orthography. 39 

Figures of Etymology. 39 

Figures of Syntax. 39 

Figures of Rhetoric. 42 

Florida, Special Laws of. 442 

Flourishing, Exercises for. 173 

Foods for Sheep. 39 1 

Foreign Bills of Exchange. 382 

Foreign Phrases, Lexicon of. 693 

Foreign Weights and Measures. 397 

France, History of. 289 

France, Map of. 290 

Frauds, Statute of. 4° 2 

French Without a Master. 90 

Alphabet and Pronunciation. 90 

Accents and Other Marks. 9 1 

Number and Gender. 91 





























































































































































J 


X 

INDEX. 


/ 

French Without a Master— Continued. 


History— Continued. 



Parts of Speech. 

91 

Europe. 













The Noun. 

94 

Scotland. 



The Adjective. 

94 

Germany. 



Numeral Adjectives. 

94 

Austria-Hungary. 








Vocabulary of Adjectives. 

95 

Holland (The Netherlands). 



The Pronoun. 

95 

Norway and Sweden. 

.. 288 


The Verb. 

96 

France. 



Auxiliary Verbs. 

96 

Russia. 



Regular Verbs. 

98 

Italy. 



The Four Conjugations. 

98 

Spain. 



Vocabulary of Verbs. 

IOO 

Portugal. 



Vocabulary of Adverbs. 

IOI 

Switzerland. 



Vocabulary of Prepositions. 

102 

Turkey. 



Vocabulary of Conjunctions. 

102 

Roumania. 



Conversation in French. 

102 

Bulgaria. 



Friendly Counsel and Remonstrance, Letters of. 

65 

Servia. 



Friendly Favors, Letters Soliciting. 

66 

Andorra. 



Friendship, Letters of. 

64 

San Marino. 



Funerals, Etiquette of. 

59 6 

Monaco. 








Gems, Language of. 

697 

Asia. 



Georgia, Special Laws of.. 

443 

China. 



German: A Self-Instructor in the German Language. 

72 

Japan. 



The German Alphabet. 

72 

British India. 



Combination of Article and Noun. 

73 

Afghanistan and Beloochistan. 



Exercises in the Article and Noun. 

73 

Persia. 



The Adjective. 

77 

Arabia. 



Vocabulary of Adjectives. 

77 

Palestine. 



Cardinal, Ordinal and Collective Numbers. 

78 

Siam. 



Pronouns. 

79 

Africa. 



The Verb. 

79 

Egypt. 



Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs. 

79 

Nubia. 



Conjugation of Regular Verbs. 

81 

Abyssinia. 



Vocabulary of Verbs. 

82 

Cape Colony. 



Adverbs. 

82 

Madagascar. 



Prepositions. 

83 

The Barbary States. 



Conjunctions. 

83 

Republics in South Africa. 

. 318 


Conversation in German. 

83 

Oceanica. 



German, Etiquette of the. 

588 

Australia... 



Germany and Austria-Hungary, Map of. 

291 

Holland (The Netherlands), History of. 



Germany, History of. 

279 

Home Circle, How to Develop Talent in the. 

• 342 


Gesture. 

53 

The Home is the True Educator. 

• 342 


Grammar, English. 

24 

The Home is a Commonwealth. 

• 342 


Great Britain, History of.. 

273 

How to Develop Talent in the Home. 



Great Cities of the World having 100,000 Inhabitants. 

476 

An Evening with the Lamplight Club. 

• 343 


Greece, History of. 

307 

An Important Question Answered. 



Growth of the United States. 

474 

Peale’s Popular Educator as an Aid to Home Culture. 

• 346 


Guaranty. 





Healthiest Regions for Consumptives. 

392 

Home Etiquette. 



Heroes and Heroines of Prose and Poetry. 

657 

Horse, Diseases of the. 



Historical Chart : The World’s History from the Flood to the Year 


Housekeeping—Management of Servants. 



1883. 

321 

How to Select Meats—-The Art of Cooking. 



History: A Panorama of History—A Graphic Account of Every 


The Art of Carving. 



Nation on the Globe. 

2 30 

How Business is Done on Boards of Trade and Stock Exchanges.. 

• 373 


The United States. 

230 

How to Develop Talent in the Home Circle. 

• 342 


The Dominion of Canada. 

260 

Idaho, Special Laws of.. 








Central America. 

265 

Impersonation. 

• 53 


Cuba. 

266 

India, History of.. 



South America. 

266 

Indiana, Form of Note for.. 




zf 




Chili. 



• 386 



268 




The United States of Colombia and other Countries of South 

Compound Interest Tables. 




269 


. ^87 


/ 



-X 


Of 


<s 






























































































































































INDEX. 


XI 


V 


Interest Laws of the United States and Canada. 371 

Introductions, Etiquette of. 574 

Iowa, Special Laws of. 446 

Ireland, History of. 275 

Ireland, Map of. 286 

Italy, History of. 296 

Japan, History of. 309 

Journalizing, The Key to. 125 

Kansas, Special Laws of. 446 

Kentucky, Special Laws of.. 447 

Lamplight Club, An Evening with the. 343 

Landlord and Tenant. 419 

Language . 17 

Origin of Language. 17 

Gesture Language. 18 

Natural Language. 18 

Articulate Language. 19 

Classification of Languages. 19 

The English Language. 21 

Language of Gems. 697 

Law. See Legal Business Department and Special Laws 0/ the 
States and Territories ; also, Commercial Law and Forms. 

Laws of the United States and Canada relating to Interest. 371 

Laws of the United States and Canada relating to Limitation of 

Actions..’. 372 

Ledger, How to Close the. 126 

Legal Bushel, The. 395 

Legal Business Department: How to Avoid Litigation—Legal Busi¬ 
ness Forms and their Proper Execution. 399 

Agreements and Contracts. 401 

Statute of Frauds. 402 

Agency and Attorney. 404 

Affidavits. 406 

Apprentices. 407 

Arbitration. 408 

Assignments.409 

Bills of Sale. 410 

Bonds. 411 

Corporations. 413 

Deeds. 415 

Abstract of Title. 416 

Guaranty. 418 

Landlord and Tenant. 419 

Rights of Married Women. 421 

Real Estate Mortgages. 422 

Chattel Mortgages. 424 

Mechanics’ Liens.425 

Wills. 425 

Executors and Administrators. 426 

Duties of Administrators in Settling Estates. 428 

Partnership. 429 

How to Secure a Patent. 431 

Pension Laws. 435 

The Legal Fence. 437 

Legal Bushel in all the States. 395 

Legal Fence, The. 437 

Letters, Forms of. 32 

Letters of Credit. 382 

Letters of the Alphabet. 24 

Peculiarities in Sounds of Consonants. 25 

Combination of Vowels. 26 

Syllables, Accent, Words. 26 

Word-building—Prefixes and Suffixes. 27 

Letter-writing. See also Correspondence . 56 

Style. 56 

Arrangement of Ideas. 56 

Ornamentation. 56 

Long Sentences. 57 

Composition of Letters. 57 


Letter-writing— Continued. 

Tautology. 

Postscripts. 

Quotations. 

Underlinings. 

Grammatical Correctness. 

Contractions and Abbreviations. 

Figures of Arithmetic. 

Capitals. 

Punctuation. 

Repetition. 

Form of a Letter. 

Position of the Parts of a Letter. 

Model Headings. 

Materials. 

Titles... 

The Envelope. 

General Hints. 

Lexicon of Foreign Phrases. 

Liens, Mechanics’. See Mechanics' Liens . 

Lightning Calculator—For the Useof the Farmer, Mechanic and Busi¬ 
ness Man. 

Ready Reckoner for Computing the Price of any Commodity sold 

by the Hundred. 

An Instantaneous Method of Computing Interest. 

Compound Interest Tables. 

Time in Which Money Doubles. 

Daily Savings at Compound Interest. 

Short Interest Rule. 

How Interest Accumulates. 

Short Insurance Rates. 

A Quick Method of Computing Wages. 

Expense of Board per Day. 

Lumber Measure. 

Practical Calculations. 

To Measure Wells or Cisterns. 

Circular Cisterns, One Foot in Depth, Computed. 

The Amount of Rainfall on a Building. 

The Diameter of a Circular Cistern that Will Contain the Rainfall 


57 

57 

57 

57 

57 

57 

57 

57 

58 
58 
58 

58 

59 
59 

59 

60 

61 
6 93 
425 

384 

384 

386 

387 
387 
387 
387 
387 

387 

388 
388 

388 

389 
389 
389 
389 


on a Building. 389 

The Per Cent of Profit or Loss.389 

Weights of Hay by Measurement. 389 

Weights of Cattle by Measurement.389 

The Number of Shingles Required for a Roof.. 389 

The Number of Square Yards in a Floor or Wall. 389 

The Number of Bricks Required fora Building. 389 

The Number of Perches of Stone Required for a Well or Cellar.. 389 
The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Lot of Boards, Planks, 

Flooring, Scantling, Joists, Sills or Beams. 389 

The Cubic Feet in Squared Timber or Beams. 389 

The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uniform Diameter 390 
Estimate of the Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a Stand¬ 
ing Tree. 390 

The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Log of Unequal 

Diameters. 390 

The Area of a Circle. 390 

Capacity or Contents of a Granary, Crib, Bin or Wagon. 390 

To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor. 390 

To Measure Casks or Barrels. 390 

The Number of Cords in a Pile of Wood. 390 

Contents of Fields and Lots. 390 

Boxes of Different Measure. 390 

A Key to the Metric System. 390 

Comparison of Thermometric Scales. 390 

Valuable Facts for Farmers, Stock-Raisers and Others. 391 

Quantity of Various Seeds to an Acre. 391 

Value of Various Kinds of Feed. 391 

Number of Plants or Trees to an Acre. .. 391 

Cost of Producing Pork. 391 


\ 










































































































































































INDEX. 


xii 


Lightning Calculator— Continued. 

Value of Foods for Sheep. 391 

Facts about Sheep. 391 

Valuable Miscellaneous Facts and Figures. 392 

Distances from New York City, Hours by Rail, Passenger Fares 
and Differences in Time of Principal Places in the United 

States. 392 

The Climates of the United States. 392 

Average Annual Rainfall. 392 

Healthiest Regions for Consumptives. 392 

Weight of a Cubic Foot of Various Substances. 393 

Differences in Weight of Wood, Green and Dry. 393 

Specific Gravities of Liquids. 393 

Duration of Animal Life. 393 

Temperature at which Substances Melt and Freeze. 393 

Distances around the World..393 

Woods for Fuel. 393 

Value of Metals. 393 

A Calendar for the Century. 394 

Legal Weight of a Bushel in all the States. 395 

Sta ndard Weights and Measures. 396 

Foreign Weights and Measures. 397 

The Metric System. 398 

Limitation of Actions, Laws relating to. 372 

Louisiana, Special Laws of. 448 

Lumber Measure. 388 

Lyceums and Debating Clubs. 340 

Constitution and By-laws. 340 

Questions for Debate. 341 

Madagascar, History of. 317 

Maine, Special Laws of.448 

Marriage Relation, Etiquette of the. 603 

Married Women, Rights of. 421 

Married Women, Special Laws relating to. See respective States 
and Territories. 

Maryland, Special Laws of. 449 

Massachusetts, Special Laws of. 449 

Mechanics’ Liens. 423 

Mechanics’ Liens, Special Laws relating to. See respective States 
and Territories. 

Medical. See Physiology and Medicine . 479 

Memorials and Petitions. 338 

Metals, Value of. 393 

Meter in Versification. 44 

Metric System, The. 398 

A Key to the Metric System. 390 

Mexico, History of. 263 

Michigan, Special Laws of. 450 

Minnesota, Special Laws of. 450 

Miscellaneous Facts and Figures. 393 

Mississippi, Special Laws of. 451 

Missouri, Form of Note for. 368 

Missouri, Special Laws of. 451 

Modern Architecture. See Architecture . 551 

Monaco, History of. 306 

Montana, Special Laws of. 452 

Mortgages, Chattel. 424 

Mortgages, Real Estate. 422 

Movement Exercises in Penmanship. 161 

Nebraska, Special Laws of. 452 

Negotiable Paper. 365 

Netherlands, History of the. 284 


Nevada, Special Laws of. 

New Hampshire, Special Laws of. 
New Mexico, Special Laws of. 


New Jersey, Form of Note for. 368 

New Jersey, Special Laws of. 453 

New Standard Time. 229 

New York, Special Laws of. 434 


Noms de Plume, Dictionary of. 662 

North Carolina, Special Laws of. 454 

Norway and Sweden, History of. 288 

Notes, Forms of. 3^7 

Notes, Promissory. 3^5 

Nubia, History of. 3*5 

Oceanica, History of. 3*9 

Oceanica, Map of. 295 

Ohio, Special Laws of. 454 

Option Trading. 375 

Orders, Forms of. 3®9 

Oregon, Special Laws of. 455 

Ornamental Penmanship. 172 

Orthography. 24 

Orthography, Figures of. 39 

Palestine, History of. 312 

Panorama of History. 251 

Parents and Children, Letters Between. 68 

Parliamentary Law and Rules. 333 

Calling a Meeting. 333 

Organizing a Meeting. 334 

Getting to Work.334 

How to Manage a Convention. 335 

Temporary Organization. 335 

The Committees. 335 

The Committees at Work. 335 

The Convention at Work. 336 

Things to be Remembered. 336 

Three Hundred Points of Order Decided. 337 

Form in Which Questions May be Put. 337 

Parties, Etiquette of.. 588 

Partnership. 4 2 9 

Patents: Howto Secure a Patent—Rules and Regulations Governing 

the United States Patent Office. 431 

Penmanship—Practical and Ornamental. 153 

Positions. 154 

Scale of Slant. 155, 163 

Movement Exercise. 155 

Care in Practice. 155 

Writing Not a Special Gift. 156 

Unity and Simplicity of Form. 156 

Economy of Form. 156 

Correct Proportion. 157 

Correct and Incorrect Spacing. 157 

Slant of Writing. 157 

How to Learn and Teach Writing. 158 

Conspicuous Faults. 158 

Movement Exercises. 161 

Principles. 161, 165 

Copies. 161 

Scale of Proportion of Letters. 165 

Standard Alphabets. 166 

Abbreviated Capitals for Business. 166 

Extended Letters for Ladies’ Epistolary Writing. 166 

Whole-Arm Capitals, Plain and Flourished. 168 

Round Writing for Headings. 169 

Business Correspondence. 170 

Ornamental Penmanship. 172 

Exercises for Flourishing. 173 

Specimens of Artistic Penmanship. 176 

Specimens of Blackboard Writing and Drawing. 178 

Old English, German Text and Church Text. 181 

Designs for Flourished Cards and Albums. 182 

Ornamental Initial Letters. 183 

Pennsylvania, Special Laws of. 455 

Pension Laws. 433 

Persia, History of. 311 

Peru, History of. 268 

Petitions. 338 




































































































































































INDEX. 




Phonography. 106 

Phrenology and Physiognomy. See Character . 347 

Physiology and Medicine. 479 

The Mechanism of the Human Body. 479 

Combustion and Heat. 479 

Oxidation of Animal Heat. 480 

Power and Life Due to Heat. 481 

The Digestive Organs. 481 

The Mouth. 481 

The Teeth. 482 

The Stomach. 482 

The Intestines. 483 

The Liver. 483 

The Pancreas. 484 

The Process of Digestion. 484 

Diseases of the Digestive Organs. 484 

Mumps. 485 

Acute Tonsilitis—Quinsy. 485 

Acute Pharyngitis—Sore Throat—Cold. 485 

Chronic Granular Pharyngitis—Clergyman’s Sore Throat. 485 

Dyspepsia. 485 

Polyphagia—Excessive Appetite—Gluttony. 487 

Polydipsia—Excessive Thirst. 487 

Dipsomania. 487 

Inanition—Starvation. 487 

Gastritis—Inflammation of the Stomach. 487 

Ulcer of the Stomach. 488 

Cancer of the Stomach.1. 489 

Diarrhoea. 489 

Summer Complaint. 489 

Enteritis—Inflammation of the Small Intestine. 489 

Dysentery—Inflammation of the Large Intestine. 400 

Constipation—Costiveness. 490 

Colic. 49 1 

Cholera Morbus. 49 1 

Cholera Infantum. 49 2 

Epidemic Cholera. 49 2 

Prevention of Cholera.493 

The Circulatory Organs and the Blood. 493 

Absorption .. 493 

The Heart and Blood Vessels.494 

Diseases of the Heart. 49 ® 

The Blood. 497 

Diseases of the Blood. 49 ^ 

The Respiratory Organs. 499 

The Lungs. 499 

The Mechanism of Respiration. 5 °° 

Movements of Respiration. 5 01 

Diseases of the Respiratory Organs. joi 

Cold—Catarrh—Bronchitis. 301 

Catarrh. 5 ° 2 

Acute Laryngitis. 5 ° 2 

Disease of Vocal Cords. 5 ° 2 

Bronchitis. 5°3 

Pertussis—Whooping Cough. 3°3 

Asthma. 5°3 

Pleurisy. 5°3 

Pneumonia. 5°4 

The Excretory Organs. 5°4 

The Kidneys. 5°4 

Diseases of the Kidneys. 5 °S 

The Skin. 5°6 

Diseases of the Skin. 5°6 

Phthiriasis—Lousiness. 5°6 

Scabies—The Itch. 5°7 

Tinea Trichophytina—Ringworm. S °7 

Acne. 5°7 

Eczema—Salt Rheum. 5°7 

Erysipelas. 5°7 


k: 


/ 

xiii 


Physiology and Medicine— Continued. 

The Muscular System. 508 

The Bones. 509 

Diseases of the Bones. 509 

Rickets. 509 

Deformity from Clothing. 510 

Deformed Feet. 510 

The Nervous System. 510 

Diseases of the Nervous System. 513 

Neuralgia. 513 

Convulsions. 513 

Epilepsy. 514 

Paralysis. 514 

Insomnia. 515 

Insanity. 513 

The Eye. 515 

Anatomy of the Eye. 515 

Physiology of the Eye. 518 

Errors of Refraction and Accommodation. 519 

Diseases of the Eye and their Treatment. 520 

The Ear. 521 

Anatomy of the Ear. 521 

Physiology of the Ear. 523 

Diseases of the Ear and their Treatment. 523 

Fevers. 524 

Typhoid Fever. 524 

Typhus Fever. 325 

Malarial Fever—Intermittent Fever—Ague. 525 

Remittent Fever. 526 

Yellow Fever. 526 

Rubeola—Measles. 526 

Variola—Small-pox. 527 

Varioloid. 527 

Vaccination—Cow-pox. 527 

Vericella—Chicken-pox. 328 

Scarlatina—Scarlet Fever. 328 

Diphtheria. 528 

Rheumatism. 528 

Emergencies..'. 530 

Hemorrhage. 530 

Accidents. 530 

Bites and Stings. 531 

Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bites. 531 

Suffocation—Drowning. 331 

Poisoning. 532 

Fainting. 332 

Sunstroke. 332 

Posological Table—Doses of Medicines. 533 

Pig-Iron Produced in the United States and Other Countries. (Dia¬ 
gram). 469 

Poems: Familiar Poems and Those who Wrote Them. 611 

Thanatopsis. William Cullen Bryant . 613 

Hiawatha’s Wooing. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow .614 

The Barefoot Boy. John Greenleaf Whittier . 615 

The Bells. Edgar Allan Poe . 616 

Those Evening Bells. Thomas Moore . 617 

Blow, Blow, Thou Winter Wind. Shakspere . 618 

Bugle Song. Alfred Tennyson . 618 

The Sea. Barry Cornwall . 618 

The Village Preacher. Oliver Goldsmith . 619 

The Ivy Green. Charles Dickens . 619 

Battle of the Angels. John Milton . 620 

Farewell to His Wife. Lord Byron . 620 

From Home to Home. Anonymous . 621 

The Hour of Death. Mrs. Felicia Hemans . 622 

A Woman’s Question. Elizabeth Barrett Browning. . 622 

The Horseback Ride. Sara Jane Lippincott (Grace Green¬ 
wood). 623 

Angel Watchers. Rosa Vertner Jeffrey . 623 







































































































































































XIV 


INDEX. 


Poems— Continued. 

Pictures of Memory. Alice Cary . 624 

Go to thy Rest. Lydia Huntley Sigourney . 624 

God our Refuge. Clara Lauer Baldwin . 624 

A Farewell. Charles Kingsley . 625 

What the Birds Say. Samuel Taylor Coleridge . 625 

A Georgia Volunteer. Mary A. Townsend. . 626 

A Picket Guard. Ethel Lynn Beers . 626 

The Soldier’s Dream. Thomas Campbell . 627 

Bill and Joe. Oliver Wendell Holmes . 627 

Extract from Lucile. Owen Meredith . 627 

The Song of the Camp. Bayard Taylor . 628 

Our Own. Margaret E. Sangster . 628 

There is No Death. J. L. McCreery . 628 

We Parted in Silence. Mrs. Julia Crawford. . 629 

Makin’ an Editor outen o’ Him. Will M. Carleton . 630 

The Lightning-Rod Dispenser. Will M. Carleton . 630 

Hannah Jane. Petroleum V. Nasby . 631 

John Anderson, My Jo. Robert Burns . 632 

Home, Sweet Home. John Howard Payne . 632 

Canadian Boat Song. Thomas Moore . 633 

The Bivouac of the Dead. Theodore 0 ’ Hara . 634 

The Stars and the Flowers. Oliver Wendell Holmes . 634 

Winged Words. Jessie McGregor . 63s 

Jim. F. Bret Harte . 636 

Married. Anonymous . 636 

The Death of the Flowers. William Cullen Bryant . 637 

The Closing Scene. T. Buchanan Read . 638 

Poems, Various Kinds of.. 46 

Poetical Peculiarities or I.icense. 46 

Poetical Quotations. 639 

Poetry and Prose, Heroes and Heroines of.. 657 

Poetry, Definition of. 43 

Varieties of Poetry. 46 

Population of Cities of the United States. 477 

Population of Great Cities of the World. 476 

Population of the United States.475 

Population, Statistics of. See also Diagrams . 474 

Pork, Cost of Producing. 391 

Portugal, History of.301 

Post Office Department and Postal Regulations . 246 

Practical Calculations. See also Lightning Calculator . 389 

Precious Metals, The World’s Yearly Production of. (Diagram). 468 

Prefixes applied to English Words. 27 

Prose and Poetical Quotations, Dictionary of. 639 

Prose and Poetry, Heroes and Heroines of.. 657 

Prosody.'.. 43 

Protest of Draft. 382 

Public Business, Department of. See Parliamentary Law . 333 

Public Debts of Various Countries. (Diagram). 465 

Public Lands. 55 

Punctuation. 33 

Punctuation Points. 33 

Rules for Punctuation. 33 

Pauses Designated by Punctuation Points. 35 

Miscellaneous Marks. 35 

Accent Marks. 36 

Emphasis. 36 

Quotations, Prose and Poetical. 639 

Railroad Distances from New York. 392 

Railroads: Number of Miles in the United States and Other Coun¬ 
tries. 473 

Railroad Time.392, 478 

Rainfall, Average Annual. 392 

Raised Checks. 381 

Rank of States according to Population.474, 475 

Reading. 55 

Real Estate Mortgages. 422 

Receipts, Forms of.369 


Receptions, Etiquette of. 

Recommendation, Letters of. 

Religions in the United States, Comparative Diagram of. 

Religions of the World. (Diagram).•. 

Remonstrance, Form of. 

Republics in South Africa, History of. 

Rhetoric, Figures of. 

Rhode Island, Special Laws of. 

Riding and Driving, Etiquette of. 

Rights of Married Women. 

Rights of Married Women, Special Laws relating to. See respective 
States and Territories. 

Roumania, History of. 

Running Records. 

Russia, History of. 

Salutation, Etiquette of. 

San Marino, History of. 

Scotland, History of. 

Scotland, Map of. 

Self-Instructor in the German Language. 

Seeds—Quantity Required per Acre. 

Servia, History of. 

Sheep, Diseases of. 

Facts About Sheep. 

Shopping: Suggestions to Shoppers. 

Short-hand and Type-writing. 

Origin and History of Short-hand Writing. 

Short-hand or Phonographic Alphabet. 

Type-writing. 

Short-hand Systems. 

Practical Short-hand. 

Short-hand Amanuenses. 

Siam, History of. 

Single Entry Book-keeping. 

South America, History of. 

South Carolina, Special Laws of. 

Spain, History of. 

Special Laws of the States and Territories. 

Specific Gravities of Liquids. 

Spelling. 

Rules for Spelling. 

Reformed Spelling. 

Standard Weights and Measures. 

Statistics. See Diagrams. 

Statistics of Population. 

Statute of Frauds. 

Steamboat and Steamship Time... 

Stenography. 

Stock Exchanges. 

Style as applied to Composition. 

Style in Letter-writing. 

Subsidiary Books (Book-keeping). 

Success and Failure, Causes of. 

How to Avoid Failure.). 

Choosing an Occupation. 

A Sound Body. 

Self-Reliance. 

Attention to Detail. 

Perseverance. 

Decision of Character. 

Other Causes of Success and Failure. 

Suffixes applied to English Words. 

Swindling Note. 

Swine, Diseases of. 

Switzerland, History of. 

Sympathy, Letters of. 

Synonyms and Antonyms, Dictionary of. 

Syntax, Figures of. 

Table, Etiquette of the. 


588 

63 

463 

461 

339 

318 

42 

456 

59 1 

421 


306 
478 
2 93 

57 5 
306 
278 
287 

72 

39 i 

306 

547 

391 

576 
106 

106 

107 

108 
no 
112 
ir 3 

3 J 4 

117 

266 

456 

3 °° 

438 

393 

3 ° 

3i 

3 1 

396 

474 

402 

478 

106 

373 

40 

56 

116 

358 

358 

359 

360 

361 

361 

362 

3 6 3 
363 

28 

369 

549 

3 °t 

67 

675 

39 

582 


4 





























































































































































^— 

/ 

INDEX. 

XV 


Temperature at which Substances Melt and Freeze. 393 

Tenant and Landlord. 419 

Tennessee, Special Laws of. 456 

Texas, Special Laws of.. 457 

Time: Comparative Diagram of the Clocks of the World. 228 

Difference in Time of the Principal Places in the United States.. 392 

The New Standard of Time (Diagram) . 229 

Title, Abstract of.. 416 

Titles Used in Addressing Letters. 59 

Tobacco, The World’s Yearly Production of. (Diagram). 467 

Travelling, Etiquette of. 594 

Ladies Travelling without Escort. 595 

Trial Balance, Forms of.. 133, 131 

Trotting Records. 478 

Turkey, History of. 304 

Type-writing. 108 

United States, Growth of the. 474 

United States, Historical Chart of the. 329 

United States, History of the. 230 

United States, Map of the. 258 

United States, Population of the. 475 

United States of Colombia, History of the. 269 

Utah, Special Laws of. 457 

Valuable Facts for Farmers, Stock Raisers and Others. 391 

Valuable Miscellaneous Facts and Figures. 392 

Value of Metals. 393 

Vermont, Special Laws of. 458 

Verse, Anapestic. 45 

Verse, Dactylic. 45 


Verse, Iambic. 44 

Verse, Trochaic. 45 

Versification. 43 

Quantity of Syllables.... 43 

Poetic Feet. 43 

Virginia, Special Laws of. 45® 

Visiting, Etiquette of. 577 

Vocal Culture. 48 

Wages, A Quick Method of Computing. 388 

Washington Territory, Special Laws of. 459 

Weddings, Etiquette of. 600 

Weight of a Bushel in all the States. 395 

Weight of a Cubic Foot of Various Substances.393 

Weight of Wood, Green and Dry. 393 

Weights and Measures, Standard. 396 

Foreign. 397 

The Metric System. 398 

The Legal Bushel. 395 

West Indies and Central America, Map of. 294 

West Virginia, Special Laws of. 458 

Wheat Crop in Principal Countries. (Diagram). 466 

Wills. 425 

Wills, Special Laws relating to. See respective States and Territories. 

Wisconsin, Special Laws of. 459 

Woods for Fuel. 392 

Word-Building. 27 

Word Individuality. 52 

World, Map of the. 303 

Wyoming, Special Laws of. 459 













































































































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EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 



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The Points Which Co to Make a Finished Education. 



GUAGE is a collection 
f certain articulate 
sounds used as the signs 
of our ideas, or of certain 
written characters which 
represent those sounds. 
Language owes its ori¬ 
gin to the imitation and modifica¬ 
tion, aided by signs and gestures, of 
various natural sounds, the voices 
of other animals and man’s own 
instinctive cries. Language con¬ 
sists in the oral utterances of 
sounds which usage has made the 
representatives of ideas. When 
two or more persons customarily 


conveying ideas; as the language of the deaf 
and dumb. 

Speech is the language of articulate sounds 
and contemplates language as broken or cut 
into words of different kinds ; as the parts of 
speech, the gift of speech. 

Tongue is the Anglo-Saxon term for the lan¬ 
guage of a particular people; as the English 
tongue. 

Idiom denotes the form of the construction 
peculiar to a language. 

Dialects are varieties of expression which 
spring up in different parts of a country, or in 
different professions, etc. 

Origin of Language. 


annex the same sounds to the same ideas the 
expression of these sounds by one person com¬ 
municates his ideas to another. This is the 
primary sense of language, the use of which is 
to communicate the thoughts of one person to 
another through the organ of hearing. Articu¬ 
late sounds are represented by letters, marks or 
characters, which form words. 

Language is sometimes denoted by other 
terms; as speech, tongue, idiom, dialect. 

Language is generic, denoting any mode of 

/ 


There are various ways by which men can 
communicate with one another. They can make 
gestures, utter cries, speak words, draw pictures, 
write characters or letters. Articulate language 
is peculiar to man ; but he uses, in common with 
the lower animals, inarticulate cries to express 
his meaning, aided by gestures and the move¬ 
ments of the muscles of his face. This especially 
holds good with the more simple and vivid feel¬ 
ings which are but little connected with our 
higher intelligence. Our cries of pain, fear, sur¬ 
prise, anger, together with their appropriate 


(5 











































































































































EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 


18 


actions, and the murmur of a mother to her be¬ 
loved child, are more expressive than any words. 
It is not the mere power of articulation that 
distinguishes man from other animals, for, as 
every one knows, parrots can talk; but it is his 
large power of connecting definite sounds with 
definite ideas; and this obviously depends on 
the development of his mental faculties. 

Gesture Language. 

When for any reason people cannot talk to¬ 
gether by word of mouth, they take to convers¬ 
ing by gestures , in what is called dumb show or 
pantomime. Imagine a simple case. A boy opens 
a parlor door; his brother sitting there beckons 
to him to be quiet, for his father is asleep; the 
boy now intimates by signs that he has come 
for the key of the box, to which his brother an¬ 
swers by signs that it is in the pocket of his coat 
hanging in the hall, concluding with a signifi¬ 
cant gesture to be off and shut the door quietly 
after him. This is the gesture language. Ges¬ 
ture language has little power of expressing 
abstract ideas. 

The next step in the origin of language is to 
show the workings of another sort of signs, 
namely, the sounds of the human voice. Sounds 
of voice may be spoken to express our feelings 
and thoughts on much the same principle that 
gestures are made, except that they are heard 
instead of seen. One kind of sounds used by 
men as signs consists of emotional cries or tones. 
Men show pain by uttering groans as well as by 
distortion of the face ; joy is expressed by shouts 
as well as by jumping; when we laugh aloud, 
the voice and features go perfectly together. 
Such sounds are gestures made with the voice 
—sound-gestures. 

The next class of sounds used as expressive 
signs are imitative. As a deaf and dumb child 
expresses the idea of a cat by imitating the 
creature’s act of washing its face, so a speaking 
child will indicate it by imitating its miaou. 

/ 


Natural Language. 

Now, joining gesture-actions and gesture- 
sounds, they will form together what may be 
called a Natural Language. This natural lan¬ 
guage really exists, and in wild regions really 
has some practical value, as when a European 
traveller makes shift to converse in it with a 
party of Australians around their camp-fire or 
with a Mongol family in their felt tent. What 
he has to do is to act his most expressive mimic 
gestures, with a running accompaniment of ex¬ 
clamations and imitative noises. Here there is 
found a natural means of intercourse, much fuller , 
than mere pantomime of gestures only. It^is a 
common language of all mankind* springing,^ 
directly from the human mind that it nfustTnive * 
belonged to our race from the most remote ages 
and most primitive conditions in which man 
existed. Language is one branch of the great 
art of sign-making or sign-c-h^oSihg/aod its j^usi- s 
ness is to hit upon some sound as a suitable sign 
or symbol for each thought. It is maintained by 
the best philologists that emotional and imita¬ 
tive sounds are the very source of all language, •- 
and that, although most words now show no 
trace of such origin, this is because they have 
quite lost it in the long change of pronunciation 
and meaning they have gone through, so that 
they have now become mere symbols. Besides 
the emotional and imitative ways, there were 
several other devices by which man chooses 
sounds to express thoughts. That there was 
always some kind of fitness or connection which 
led to each particular sound being taken to ex¬ 
press a particular thought is more than likely, 
and in this seems to lie the most reasonable 
opinion to be held as to the famous problem of 
the origin of language. So far as language can 
be traced to its actual source, that source does 
not lie in some lost gifts or powers of man, but 
in a state of mind still acting, and not above the 
level of children and savages. The origin of 
language was not an event which took place 
long ago, once for all, and then ceased entirely. 


















EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 


19 


On the contrary, man still possesses, and uses 
when he wants it, the faculty of making new, 
original words by choosing fit and proper terms. 
But he now seldom puts this faculty to serious 
use, for this good reason, that whatever language 
he speaks has its stock of words ready to furnish 
an expression for almost every fresh thought 
that crosses his mind. 

Articulate Language. 

A sentence being made up of its connected 
sounds as a limb is made up of its joints, we 
call language articulate , or jointed, to distinguish 
it from the inarticulate , or “unjointed,” sounds 
uttered by the lower animals. Conversation by 
gestures and exclamations, as was shown above 
to be a natural language common to mankind, is 
half-way between the communications of animals 
and full human speech. Every people, even the 
smallest and most savage tribe, has an articulate 
language carried on by a whole system of 
sounds and meanings which serves the speaker 
as a sort of catalogue of the contents of the world 
he lives in, taking in every subject he thinks 
about, and enabling him to say what he thinks 
about it. As in the course of ages man’s 
knowledge became wider and his civilization 
more complex, his language had to keep up 
with them. Comparatively few and plain ex¬ 
pressions had sufficed for his early rude con¬ 
dition, but now more and more terms had to be 
added for the new notions, implements, arts, 
offices and relations of more highly organized 
society. New words were made by adding and 
combining old ones, carrying on old words from 
the old state of things to do duty to the new, 
shifting their meanings and finding in any new 
thought some resemblance to an old one that 
would serve to give it a name. As terms in¬ 
crease in every nation and the vast field of 
language is filled up, words, by a thousand fan¬ 
ciful and irregular methods of derivation and 
composition, deviate widely from the primitive 
character of their roots and lose old resem¬ 
blance in sound of the things signified. Words 


as we now use them, taken in general, may be 
considered as symbols, not imitations; as arbi¬ 
trary or instituted, not natural, signs of ideas. 

Classification of Languages. 

The classification of the different languages 
of the earth into a few great families is due to 
the science of comparative philology and is of 
recent origin. Till the latter end of the last cen¬ 
tury the preference as to the antiquity of lan¬ 
guage was usually given to the Hebrew, but 1 
a striking improvement of linguistic study is 
dated from the discovery of the Sanskrit, the 
ancient language of the northern parts of Hin¬ 
dustan, in the latter part of the last century. A 
belief in an affinity between languages and a 
separation of them into certain great groups or 
families then arose. 

The languages of the world are divided into 
four great branches, viz., the Aryan, or Indo- 
European, the most important; next the Sem¬ 
itic, the Turanian and the Dra vidian. 

The Turanian family, called also the Tataric, 
or Altaic, includes the numerous and widely dif¬ 
ferent languages of the Manchoos, the Mongols, 
the Turks (in Asia and Europe), the Magyars 
(in Hungary), the Finns (in Russia), and a multi¬ 
tude of other tribes. 

The Dravidian includes the Tamil and the 
dialects in Ceylon and the islands off Asia, 
etc. 

The Semitic includes the Hebrew, Syriac, 
Arctic and Ethiopic, Basque (in the Pyrenees), 
etc. 

The Indo-European, to which extensive 
family the English language belongs, is divided 
into six principal branches. 

I. The Indian branch, represented by the 
Sanskrit, which has now ceased to be spoken, 
but is the mother of the Hindustani, Bengali, 
Mahratti and the other numerous dialects of 
modern India. 

II. The Medo-Persic branch, at the head of 
which is the Zend, in which the Zend-Avesta 
is composed and the cuneiform inscriptions of 
































-*■ 


Cyrus, Darius and Xerxes. Next follow the 
Pehlevi, of the Sarsanian dynasty; the Parsee, in 
which the national poem of Ferdusi is written 
(A. D. 1000), and lastly the modern Persian. 

III. The Celtic branch, divided into two dia¬ 
lects, the Gaelic and the Cymric; the former 
comprising the Irish or Erse, the Scottish Gaelic 
or Highland-Scotch, and the Manx of the Isle 
of Man ; and the latter Welsh, the Cornish (now 
extinct) and the Armorican of Britanny. 

IV. The Grceco-Latin branch, comprising the 
two ancient classical languages, and the so- 
called Romanic languages, derived from the 
Latin, which are six in number, namely; the 
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Walla- 
chian, and the Roumanish or Romanese spoken 
in the Grisons in Switzerland. 

V. The Teutonic branch, which comprises all 
the different German and Scandinavian dialects. 

VI. The Slavonic branch, divided into three 
principal classes: I. The Lettic, comprising 
the Lithuanian, the Old Prussian (now extinct) 
and the Lettish, the language of Kurland and 
Livonia. 2. The Western Slavonic, comprising 
the Polish ; the Bohemian or Tchechian, spoken 
in Bohemia; the Slovakian, spoken by the Slov¬ 
aks in Hungary, and the Wendian, spoken in 
Lusatia. 3. The Eastern Slavonic, comprising 
the Old Slavonic, preserved in the translations 
of the Bible made by Cyrillus in the ninth cent¬ 
ury, and its derivate dialect, the Bulgarian; the 
Russian, Servian, Croatian and Slovinian. 

The Teutonic branch of the Indo-European 
family of languages is divided into two great 
branches, the German and Scandinavian. 

The German is divisible into three principal 
dialects, the Moeso-Gothic, the Low German 
and the High German, the two latter being so 
called because the Low German is spoken by 
the inhabitants of the low or flat country near 
the shores of the German Ocean, while the High 
German belongs to the higher country in the 
interior. 

1. The Moeso-Gothic, the most easterly of 
all the German dialects, has long ceased to be 


spoken, but is preserved in the translation of 
the gospels by Ulfilas. 

2. The Low German comprised the follow¬ 
ing dialects: (1) Anglo-Saxon , which was culti¬ 
vated with great success in England, and in 
which the second most ancient specimens of the 
Germanic language are preserved. (2) The Old 
Saxon, so called to distinguish it from the An¬ 
glo-Saxon in England, formerly spoken in 
Westphalia. (3) The Frisian, now confined to 
a small district in Holland. (4) The Dutch, 
the present language of Holland. (5) The 
Flemish, spoken in many parts of Belgium. 

3. The High German comprises the Old 
High German, from the seventh to the eleventh 
century; the Middle High German, from the 
twelfth century to the Reformation, and the New 
High German, which since Luther’s time has 
been the literary language of Germany. 

The Scandinavian branch, of which the 
most ancient language is the Old Norse, the lan¬ 
guage of Norway, is represented by the Icelandic, 
which was carried into Iceland by the Norse 
colonists in the ninth century and which con¬ 
tinues to be spoken on that island with little 
alteration. On the Continent the Old Norse is 
represented by the Swedish, Danish and Nor¬ 
wegian, of which the last has now become a 
mere patois. 

The following table exhibits the relationship 
of the different Teutonic languages : 

1, Mceso-Gothic. 

2. Low German. 

(i.) Anglo-Saxon. 

English. 

(ii.) Old Saxon, 
fiii.) Frisian, 
liv.) Dutch. 

(v.) Flemish. 

High German. 

Teutonic -! ^‘8* pe™ an - 

(ii.) Middle High German, 
(iii.) New High German. 

1. Old Scandinavian. 

(i.) Icelandic. 

(ii.) Ferroic. 

II. Scandinavian ■ 2. Modern Scandinavian. 

r i.) Danish, 
ii.) Swedish. 

[iii.) Norwegian. 


I. German 


La 


T 









































THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 





Its Origin, Growth, Development and Present Form. 



HE English Language is 
the descendant and repre¬ 
sentative of the Anglo- 
Saxon. It has lost very 
much of the inflection and 
very many of the words 
which belong to the parent lan¬ 
guage ; and on the other hand 
it has borrowed words largely, 
to the extent even of half its 
vocabulary, from other lan¬ 
guages, especially the French 
and the Latin. Yet all the in¬ 
flections that remain in it, and 
most of its formative endings, 
the pronouns and particles, and in general the 
words which are in most frequent and familiar 
use, have come to it from the Anglo-Saxon. All 
the constituents of the English Language as it 
now exists are presented in a condensed form as 
follows: 


1st. Saxon and Danish words, of Teutonic and Gothic origin. 
2nd. British or Welsh, Cornish and Armoric, of Celtic origin. 
3rd. Norman, a mixture of French and Gothic. 

4th. Latin. 

5th. The French, chiefly Latin corrupted. 

6th. Greek. 

7th. A few words directly from the Italian, Spanish, German, 
and other Continental languages of Europe. 

8th. A few foreign words introduced by commerce or by 
political and literary intercourse. 


"Suppose,” says Dr. Trench (.English Past 
and Present), "the English language to be di¬ 
vided into a hundred parts; of these, to make a 
rough distribution, sixty would be Saxon, thirty 
would be Latin (including of course the Latin 
which has come to us through the French), five 
would be Greek; we should then have assigned 
ninety-five parts, leaving the other five, perhaps 
too large a residue, to be divided among all the 
other languages from which we have adopted 
isolated words.” 

The English Language from the time of its 
first formation has been subject to continual 
changes. Old words have been from time to 
time falling away, and new ones have been 
formed and brought into use. 

The oldest Saxon manuscript dates about 
A.D. 700, and the Lord’s Prayer then ran thus: 

“Uren fader thic artb in heofnas, sic gehalgud thin noma, to 
cymeth thin ric, sic thin willa sue is in heofnas, and in eortho,” 
etc. 

The Modern Period of English commenced 
with the middle of the sixteenth century, and 
its present form was then assumed. 

Though it is impossible to assign any exact 
date to the change of Anglo-Saxon into English, 
the chief alterations in the language may be 
arranged approximately under the following 
epochs: 

































































22 


THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 


I. Anglo-Saxon, from A.D. 450 to 1150. 

II. Semi-Saxon, from A.D. 1150 to 1250, so called because it par¬ 
takes strongly of the characteristics of both Anglo-Saxon and Old 
English. 

III. Old English , from A.D. 1250 to 1350. 

IV. Middle English, from A.D. 1350 to about 1550. 

V. Modern English, from A.D. 1550 to the present day. 

ANGLO-SAXON. 

A.D. 700. 

From the Anglo-Saxon Version of Matthew, Eighth Chapter. 

Sodlice tha se Htelend of tham munte nydher astah, tha fylig- 
don him mycle manio. Tha geneakehte an hreofla to him and hine 
to him ge-eadhmedde, and thus ewadh: Drihten, gyf thu wylt‘ 
thu miht me geckensian. Tha Ustrehte se Hcelend hys hand 
and hrepode hyme and thus ewadh: Ic wylle, beo gecltensod 
And hys hreofla was hradlice gecloensod. Tha ewadh se Hrelend 
to him : Warna the thal thu hyt ncenegum men ne seege; ac 
gang, ateow tlie tham sacerde, and bring hym tha lac the Moy- 
ses behead, on hyra gecydhnesse. 

Translation. — [Words wanting in the original are introduced in 
italics; explanations or kindred words are inserted in brackets.] 
Shortly when the Savior from the mountain came-doxvn, there fol¬ 
lowed him a great multitude [mickle, many]. Then came-near a leper 
to him, and him [self] to him humbled and thus said [quoth]: Lord, 
if thou wilt, thou mayest me cleanse. Then stretched-out the Savior 
his hand and touched him and thus said: I will, be cleansed. And his 
leprosy was quickly cleansed. Then said the Savior to him : Beware 
[warn thee] that thou it to no man say; but go, show thee to-the 
priest [Latin, sacerdos] and bring them the gift that Moses bade, for 
their information. 

A.D. 700. 

From Beowulf. 

Tha. com of more under mist-hleodum 
Grendel gongan, godes yrre bar. 

Mynte se manscadha manna cynnes 
sumne besyrwan in sele tham hean, 
w6d under wolenum to thas the he winreced 
goldsele gumend gearwost wisse 
fcettum fahne: ne was that forma sidh 
that he Hrodhgares ham gesohte. 

Translation. —Then came from the moor under mist-hills Grendel 
to-go, God’s ire he bare, lie meant, the wicked destroyer [scather], 
of men’s kin some one to-ensnare in the high hall, raging under wel¬ 
kin, seeing fhat the friend-mansion, the gold-hall of men, he most- 
readily knew, with jewels bedecked ; nor was that the first [foremost] 
time that Hrothgar’s home he visited [sought]. 

A.D. 800. 

From King Alfred's Translation of Boethius. 

On thare tide the Gotan of Scidhdhiu-msegdhe widh Romana- 
rice gewin upahofon, and mid heora cyningum, Raedgota and 
Eallerica wajron hatne, Romana-bwih abrsecon and call Italia- 
rice, that is betwux tham muntuin and Sicilia tham ealonde, in 
anwald gerehton; and tha after tham foresprecenan cyningum 
Theodric feng to tham ilcan rice. 

Translation. —In the time that the Goths from Scythia-country 
against the Roman-empire commenced war [war upheaved], and with 
their kings, who Rhadagastand Alaric were called [hight], the Roman- 
city sacked [broke] and all Italy-realm, that is betwixt the mountains 
and Sicily the island, into their dominion reduced; and when after the 
aforesaid [fore-spoken] kings Theodoric obtained [took to] the 
same kingdom. 


A.D. IIOO. 

From the Latter Part of the Saxon Chronicle. 

Thissum thus gedone, se cyng Willem cearde ongean to Nor- 
mandige. Reowlic thing he dyde and redwlicor him gelamp. 
Ilu reowlicor? Him geyfelade, odh that him stranglice eglade. 
Hwat mag ic teollan? Se scearpa deadh, the ne forloet ne rice 
menn ne heane, se hine genam. He swealt on Normandige on 
thone nehstan diig after nativitas See Marie; and man be- 
byrgede hine on Cathum at See Stephanes mynstre; aurer 
he hit arserde, and sidhdhan manifaldlice gegodade. 

Translation. —This being thus done, the king M illiam returned 
again to Normandy. A rueful thing he did and a ruefuller befel him. 
How ruefuller? He [literally, to him] grew-ill, till that it strongly 
ailed him. What may I tell? The sharp death, that iloes not let-pass 
neither rich men nor poor, thus took him. He died in Normandy on 
the next day after the nativity of St. Mary; and men [man] buried 
him in Caen at St. Stephen’s minster; earlier he up-reared it and af¬ 
terward [sithence] manifoldly enriched [conferred-goods-on] it. 

SEMI-SAXON. 

A. D. 1150. 

From Layamon's Brut.—Earlier Text. 

An preost wes on leoden, 

Layamon wes ihoten: 
he wes Leouenadhes sone ; 
lidhe hein beo drihten ; 
he wonede at Ernleye, 
at oedhelen are chirechen, 
uppen Scuarne stathe. 

Translation.—There was a priest on earth [or in the land] who was 
named Layamon; he was son of Leovenath—may the Lord be 
gracious to him !—he dwelt at Ernley at a noble church upon Severn’s 
bank. 

A.D. 1250. 

From Layamon's Brut.—Later Text. 

A priest was in londe 
Laweman was [i] hote: 
he was Leucais sone; 
lef him beo drihte: 
he wonede at Ernleie 
wid than gode cnithe, 
uppen Scuarne. 

Translation.—There was a priest in the land who was named Laya¬ 
mon ; he was a son of Leuca—may the Lord be gracious to him 1 he 
dwelt at Ernley with the good knight upon the Severn. 

A.D. 1250. 

From the Ormulum. 

Nu, brotherr Wallterr, brotherr min 
affterr the pkeshess kinde ; 
annd brotherr min i Crisstenndom 

thurrh fulluhht annd thurrh trowwthe ; 
annd brotherr min i Godess hus, 
yet o the thride wise, 
thurrh thatt witt hafenn takenn ba 
an reyhellboc to follyhenn, 
unnderr kanunnkess had annd lif, 
swa summ Sannt Awwstin sette. 

Translation. —Now, brother Walter, brother mine after the flesh’s 
kindred; and brother mine in Christendom through baptism and 







































THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 


2 3 


through truth; and brother mine in God’s house, yet on the third 
wise, seeing [through] that we-two have taken both one rule-book to 
follow, under a canonic’s hood and life, so as St. Austin set. 

OLD ENGLISH. 

A.D. 1300. 

From the Chronicle of Robert of Gloucester. 

Thus com lo ! Engelond into Normannes honde, 

and the Normans ne couthe speke tho bote her owe speche, 

and speke French as dude atom, and here chyldren dude al so 

so that heymen of thys lond, that of her blod come, [teche: 

holdeth all theilke speche that hii of hem nome. 

vor bote a man couthe French, me tolth of hym wel lute. 

Translation. —Thus came, lo! England into the Normans’ hand, 
and the Normans knew not how to speak then but their own speech, 
and spoke French as they did at home, and their children did all so 
teach, so that the high-men of this land, that of their blood came, 
hold all the-same [the ilk] speech that they of them took: for unless 
[but] a man should-know French, men reckon [tell] of him very 
[well] little. 

MIDDLE ENGLISH. 


A.D. 1350. 


From the Travels of Sir John RIandeville. 

After for to speke of Jerusalem the holy cytee, yee schull un- 
derstonde that it stont* full faire betwene hilles, and there be 
no ryveres ne welles, but water cometh by condyte from Ebron. 
And yee schulle understonde that Jerusalem of old tyme, unto 
the tyme of Melchisedech, was clepedf Jebus ; and after it was 
clept Salem, unto the tyme of Kyng David, that put these two 
names to gider, and cleped it Jerosolomye. And after that 
men cleped it Jerusalem, and so it is clept yit. 

A.D. 1350. 

From the Vision of Pier's Ploughman. 

In a somer seson when softe was the sonne, 

I shoop me into shroudes J as I a sheep \ weere. 
in habit as a heremite unholy of werkes, 
wente wide in this world wondres to here. 


A.D.1375. 

From the Prologue to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. 
When that Aprille with his schowres swoote || 
the drought of Marche hath perced to the roote, 
and bathud evrry veyne in swich licour, 
of which vertue engendred in the flour. 


A.D. 1380. 


From Wycliffe's Translation of the Bible. 


Forsothe when Jhesus hadde comen doun fro the hill, many 
cumpanyes folewiden hym. And loo! a leprouse man cum- 
mynge worshipide hym, sayinge: Lord yif thou wolt, thou 
maist make me clene. And Jhesus holdynge forthe the hond, 
touchide hym, saying: I wole, be thou maad clene. And 


* Stonl, standeth. 
f Cleped, clept , called. 
§ Sheep, shepherd. 


| Shoop me into shroudes, put me 
into clothes. 

|| Swoote, sweet. 


anoon the lepre of hym was clensid. And Jhesus saith to hym : 
See, say thou to no man: but go sliewe thee to prestis, and offre 
that yifte that Moyses comaundide, into witnessing to hem. 

A.D. 1400. 

From Purvey's Recension of Wycliffe's Translation. 

But whanne Jhesus was come doun fre the hil, mych puple 
suede hym. And loo! a leprouse man cam and worschipide 
hym and seile: Lord if thou wolt thou maist make me clene. 
And Jhesus helde forth the hoond and touchide hym and seide : 
Y wole: be thou maad cleene. And anoon the lepre of hym 
was clensid. 


A.D. 1450. 

From Caxton's Prologue to Malory's Morte if Arthur. 

For it is notoyrly knowen thorugh the unyversal world that 
there been IX worthy and the best that ever were, that is to 
wete, thre paynyms, thre jewes, and thre crysten men. As for 
the paynyms, they were tofore the incarnacyon of Cryst, whiche 
were named, the fyrst Hector of Troye, of whome thystorye is 
comen bothe in balade and prose ; the second Alysaunder the 
grete; and the thyrd Julyus Cezar, emperour of Rome, of 
whome thystoryes ben wel kno and had. 

A.D. 1500. 

From Tyndale's New Testament. 

When he was come downefrom the mountayne, moch pecple 
folowed him. And lo ! ther came a lepre and worsheped him, 
sayinge: Master if thou wylt thou canst make me clene. . And 
Jesus put forthe hys hond and touched hym; saying: I wyll, be 
thou clene, and immediately his leprosie was clensed. And 
Jesus sayde vnto him : Se thou tell no man, but go and shewe 
hy selfe to the preste and offer the gyfte that Moses com- 
maunded, in witness to them. 

MODERN ENGLISH. 

A.D.1550. 

From a Letter of the Duke of Northumberland. 

Hon ble Lord, and in this distress my especiall refuge, most 
wofull was the newes Ireceyvedthisevenyngeby M r Lieutenant 
that I must prepare my selfe against tomorrowe to receyve my 
deadly stroke. Alas, my good lord, is my cryme so heynous as 
noe redemcion but my blood can washe awaye the spottes 
thereof? An old proverb ther is, and that most true, that a 
lyving dogge is better than a dead lyon. 

A.D.1650. 

From a Letter of Queen Henrietta Maria. 

This day I received yours of the 21, to which, being streight- 
ened in tyme, I shall answer in English that it may be soonest 
put into cypher. In the first place you conclude right, that noth¬ 
ing but the abundance of my love could make me take upon 
me the harsher part of pressing things which are inacceptible 
to you. 
































24 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




A.D. 1750. 

From a Letter of John Wesley. 

Always take advice or reproof as a favour: it is the surest 
mark of love. I advised you once and you took it as an affront: 
nevertheless I will do it once more. Scream no more at the 
peril of your soul. God now warns you by me, whom He has 
set over you. 


A.D. 1850. 

Front a Letter of Wm. M. Thackeray. 

My dear Reed —Though I am rather slow in paying the 
tailor, I always pay him: and as with tailors so with men; I 
pay my debts to my friends, only at rather a long day. Thank 
you for writing to me so kindly, you have so much to do. I 
have only begun work ten days since, and now, in consequence, 
have little leisure. 



English Grammar is the art of speaking, 
reading and writing the English language cor¬ 
rectly. 

It is divided into four parts : Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words 
and spelling. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech with 
their classes and modifications. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government and 
arrangement of words in sentences. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures and versi¬ 
fication. 

LETTERS. 

A Letter is an alphabetic mark or character commonly rep¬ 
resenting some elementary sound of a word. 

An elementary sound of a word is a simple or pri¬ 
mary sound of the human voice used in speaking. 

The sound of a letter is commonly called its power : 
when any letter of a word is not sounded it is said to be silent 
or mute. 

The letters in the English language are twenty-six; the sim¬ 
ple or primary sounds in the language are forty-one. 

The letters are : A a; B b; C c; D d ; E e; F f; G g; 
Hh; Ii; Jj; Kk; LI; Mm; N n; O o ; P p; Q q; R r; 
S s ; T t; U u; V v; W w ; X x; Y y; Z z. 

The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels 
and consonants. 


A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when ut¬ 
tered alone ; as, a, e, o. 

A Consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly uttered 
till joined to a vowel; as, b, c, d. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes tv andjj'. 

W or y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel heard 
in the same syllable; as in wine, twine, ye, yet. In all other 
cases these letters are vowels; as, newly, dewy, eye-brow. 

Consonants are divided into semi-VOwels and mntes. 

A semi-vowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly 
sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its 
sound may be protracted; as, l, n, z, in al, an, az. 

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all 
without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly 
stops the breath; as, k, p, t, in ak, ap, at. 

The semi-vowels are f, h,j, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, 
z, and c and,g soft; but w or y at the end of a syllable is a 
vowel. 

The mutes are eight: b, d, k, p, q, t, and c and g hard; 
three of these— k, q, and c hard—sound exactly alike. 

The four semi-vowels, l, m, n and r, are also called 
liquids, because they readily unite with other consonants, 
flowing, as it were, into their sounds. 

The following consonants are styled dentals, viz.: d, j, s, 
t, z, and g soft, being pronounced chiefly by the aid of the 
teeth. 

D, g,j, k, l, n and q are called palatals, from the use 
made of the palate in pronouncing them. 

B, p, f, v and m are called labials, being pronounced 
chiefly by the lips. 







































ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


'A 



25 



M, n and the digraph ng are called ita.sa.ls, being sounded 
through the nose. 

K, q and c and,g hard are called gutturals, being sound¬ 
ed by the throat. 

Peculiarities in Sounds of Consonants. 

11 preceded by m in the same syllable is generally silent ; as, 
lamb, limb, comb; but succumb is an exception. It is silent 
before t in the same syllable; as in debt, doubt, etc. 

The letter c is hard and sounds like k before a, o and u; it is 
soft and sounds like j before e, i andy; except in sceptic, scir- 
rhus, and their derivatives, in which it is hard, like k. In the 
words indict, indictable, indictment, czar and victuals, c is 
silent. Where c comes after the accent and is followed by ea, 
ia, io or eons, it takes, like s or / under the same circumstances, 
the sound of sh; as, ocean, social, tenacious, cetaceous. In the 
words discern, sacrifice and suffice, c has the sound ofz. 

The regular sound of the digraph ell is the same as that of 
tch or tsh; as in chair, child, rich. In words from the French 
it has the sound of sh; as in chagrin, chaise. In words derived 
from the ancient languages eh is generally hard, like k; as, 
chemistry, choler, echo, chorus, stomach. Exceptions, cherub, 
charity, chart, charter. Ch is hard in all words where it is fol¬ 
lowed by l or r; as, Christian, chlorosis. When arch, signify¬ 
ing chief, begins a word from the Greek language, followed by 
a vowel, it is pronounced ark; as, archangel, architect; but 
when arch is prefixed to an English word it is pronounced so as 
to rhyme with inarch; as, archbishop, archduke. In drachm, 
schism and yacht, ch is silent. 

D is silent in Wednesday and handkerchief. 

G, like c, has two sounds, one hard and the other soft. It is 
hard before a, o and u. The only exception is gaol, which is 
commonly written as well as pronounced jail. G followed by n 
at the beginning of a word is silent; as, gnarl, gnash, gnat. It 
is also silent when followed by n at the end of a word; as, ar¬ 
raign, design, impugn. G before e, i and y is sometimes hard 
and sometimes soft. It is generally soft before words derived 
from the Greek, Latin and French, and hard before words from 
the Saxon. 

«h. At the beginning of a word the h is silent; as ghost, 
ghastly. At the end of words both letters are commonly silent; 
as, sigh, nigh, weigh. In some words it has the sound of f; 
as, rough, laugh; and in some the sound of k; as, hough, 
lough. 

The combination of letters ougll at the end of words has no 
less than seven different sounds, which are exhibited in the 
following lines: 

’Tis not an easy task to show 
How o-u g-h sounds; since, though 
An Irish lough and English slough 
And cough and hiccough, all allow, 

Differ as much as tough and through. 

There seems no reason why they do. 

Gilt. In this termination the letters gh are always silent; 
as, fight, right; except in draught, which is pronounced, and 
in some of its senses usually written, draft. 

The letter li is a note of aspiration, and it is silent at the be¬ 
ginning of a number of words ; as, heir, heiress, honor, honesty, 

V 


honorable, honor, hour, hostler, etc. In hospital, humble, 
humor, herb, etc., according to some authorities, it is silent; 
according to others it is sounded. It is always silent after r ; 
as, rheum, rhetoric, rhapsody. 

J has the same sound as soft^. 

14. has the same sound as c hard. It is always silent before 
n; as, knee, know. It is also silent after c; as, barrack, back. 

I. is silent in many words; as, calf, half, talk, balm, calm, 
would, should, etc. 

M always preserves its sound except in accompt, accomptant, 
comptroller, pronounced and more commonly written account, 
accountant, controller. AI is silent when it precedes n ; as, 
mnemonics. 

IV is mule when it ends a syllable and is preceded by l or m ; 
as in kiln, hymn, limn, solemn, column. 

P is silent before n, s and t at the beginning of words ; as, 
psalm, psalter, ptisan, pneumonia. 

Pll has generally the sound of f; as, physic, philosophy. In 
nephew and in Stephen it has the sound of v ; and in diph¬ 
thong, triphthong, naphtha, the h is silent. 

is always followed by it, and qu has commonly the sound 
of kw; as, queen, quart; but in many words, mostly from the 
French, it has the sound of k; as coquette, etiquette, liquor, 
mosque. 

S final has the sound of z when it immediately follows any 
consonant except the mutes k,p, t, the semi-vowel /'and th aspi¬ 
rated, as in ribs, heads, hens; also when it forms an additional 
syllable with z before it, in the plural of nouns and the third 
person singular of verbs, as churches, boxes, teaches ; likewise in 
some verbs ending in se to distinguish them from nouns and 
adjectives of the same form, as abuse, use, close, diffuse, as dis¬ 
tinguished from the nouns abuse, use, and the adjectives close 
and diffuse. 

S takes the sound of sh in words ending in sion preceded 
by a consonant; as diversion,passion, mission; also in censure, 
sure, sugar, prisoner, fissure, etc. 

S has the sound of zh in the termination sion preceded by a 
vowel; as evasion, decision, explosion; also in a number of words 
in which ^ is preceded by an accented vowel and followed by 
the termination ure, as in measure, pleasure, treasure, leisure; 
also in several words ending in sier, as crosier, osier, hosier; also 
in ambrosia, ambrosial, elysium, elysian •; also in the words 
abscission, scission, and rescission. S is silent in the words 
aisle, isle, island, demesne, puisne, viscount, and generally at 
the end of French words adopted into English, as chamois, 
corps, vis-a-vis, etc. 

T, when it comes immediately after the accent and is followed 
by the vowels ia, ie or io, takes the sound in these cases of sh; 
as, partial, patient, nation, militia. 

Tit. The h is silent in the words Thomas, thyme, 
phthisic, Thames. The th is silent in asthma and isthmus. 

W is always silent before r; as, write, wren, wrist. It is 
also silent in answer, sword, toward and two. 

X at the beginning of words has the sound of s; as, Xenophon, 
xylography. 

’fi is silent in rendezvous. 

' \ 


<3 


C) 





























ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


^7 


26 



Combinations of Vowels. 

The power of a letter is its sound in a given word. Some 
letters stand for more than one sound ; as a in ale, are,-awl. 
Some sounds have more than one letter to stand for them; thus 
in he>', sir, fur, the same sound is represented by e, i and u. 
Our twenty-six letters represent forty-one sounds. 

A Diphthong is two vowels formed in one syllable; as 
ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both the vowels 
are sounded ; as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong is one in which only one 
of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 

A Triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, 
eau in beau, iew in view. 

A proper triphthong is one in which all the vowels 
are sounded; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper diphthong is one in which only one 
or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in beauty, iou in 
anxious. 

SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
sound and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a, an, ant. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there are dis¬ 
tinct sounds; as, gram-ma-ri-an. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, 
home. A word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; as, he-ro. 
A word of three syllables, a trisyllable ; as, he-ro-ic. And 
a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable ; as, 
im-per-a-tive, dis-con-nect-ed-ly, sex-a-ge-na-ri-an. 

In dividing words into syllables we are to be directed chiefly 
by the ear; it may, however, be proper to observe, as far as 
practicable, the following rules: 

Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diph¬ 
thongs which they modify in utterance; as, ap-os-tol-ic-al. 

Two vowels coming together, if they do not make a diphthong, 
must be parted in dividing the syllables; as, a-e-ri-al. 

Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be 
separated from the radical words to which they are added ; as, 
harm-less, great-ly, con-nect-cd. 

Prefixes in general form separate syllables; as, mis-place, out¬ 
ride, up-lift; but if their own primitive meaning be disregard¬ 
ed, the case may be otherwise ; thus, re-create and rec-reate are 
words of different import. 

Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple 
words which compose them ; as, no-where. 

At the end of a line a word may be divided if necessary; but 
a syllable must never be broken. 

ACCENT. 



Accent is stress of voice laid on a certain syllable when a 
word is uttered. The syllable that receives the stress is said to 
be accented. It may be denoted by a mark called the acute ac¬ 
cent ('), placed above it to the right; as, lemon, engrave . 

Accent is of two kinds: primary, as in in-tend’, where 
the full force of the voice is on the last syllable; and second¬ 


ary, as in su’per-in-tend, where the first syllable is distin¬ 
guished by a stress greater than that laid on the second and 
third syllables, though less than that laid on the last. In some 
words there are two secondary or subordinate accents; as, in- 
com’pre-hen’si-bil’ i-ty. 

There are about eighty dissyllables in which the same word 
is used for a verb on the one hand and a noun or adjective on 
the other. To distinguish them we accent the nouns and the 
adjectives on the first syllable, and the verbs on the last; as, a 
convert, to convert’; a contract, to contract’; an object, to 
object’; an o’verflow, to overflow; a perfume, to perfume, 
etc. 

There are a few dissyllables which are at once nouns and ad¬ 
jectives. These are distinguished by accenting the nouns on 
the first syllable and the adjectives on the last. 


NOUNS. 

Au'gust, the month. 
Com’pact, an engagement. 
Ex'ile, banishment. 
In'stinct, an impulse. 
Min'ute, of time. 

Su'pine, in grammar. 


ADJECTIVES. 

August', noble. 
Compact', close. 
Exile', small, slender. 
Instinct', animated. 
Minute', very small. 
Supine', indolent. 


The word gallant departs from the above rule. When it de¬ 
notes a suitor or “attentive to ladies,” it is accented gallant’, 
and is changed into gal’lant when it means high-spirited or 
daring. 

Simple words of two syllables have only one syllable accent¬ 
ed, except the word amen, which Walker says “is the only word 
in the language which has necessarily two consecutive accents.” 


WORDS. 

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written as the 
sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. 

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, 
and as simple or compound. The former division is 
called their species $ the latter, their figure. 

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any 
simpler word in the language; as, harm, great. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some sim¬ 
pler word in the language; as, harmless, greatly, disconnect, 
unconnected. 

A simple word is one that is not compounded, not com¬ 
posed of other words; as, watch, man, never, the, less. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two or 
more simple words; as, watchman, nevertheless. 

Permanent compounds are consolidated; as, bookseller, 
schoolmaster. Others, which may be called temporary com¬ 
pounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass-house, negro-mer¬ 
chant. 

Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known 
as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken 
apart. 

When the simple words would only form a regular phrase of 
the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought to 
be avoided. 

Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood must be joined 
together or written separately as the sense and construction 
may happen to require. 





























ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


\\ lien two or more compounds are connected in one sentence 
none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. 

When the parts of a compound do not coalesce, as, to-mor- 
>ow, to-night, to-day, or when each retains its original accent, 
so that the compound has more than one, or one that is mova¬ 
ble, as, first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, the hyphen 
should be inserted between them. 

W hen a compound has but one accented syllable in pronun¬ 
ciation, as, watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts 
are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should 
be inserted between them. 


WORD-BUILDING. 


1 he primitive words of the English language are few com¬ 
pared with the derivatives. This is because many derivatives 
sometimes come from a single primitive. Thus from the prim¬ 
itive part are formed counter part, depart, im part, party, part- 
isan, particle, imparted, copartner, etc. 

A I*1*6fix is a letter or letters placed before a primitive or 
compound to modify its meaning; as, de in depart, un in un- 
gentlemanly. 

A Suffix is a letter or letters placed after a primitive or 
compound to modify its meaning; as, is an in partisan, ly in 
ungentlemanly. 

Some derivatives come from roots not separately used as 
words. Thus avert, revert, convertible, etc., come from the 
root vert, meaning to turn. 

These roots are mostly from Latin words, and some of them 
enter into a great number of derivatives. The most important 
of these inseparable roots are: 


cede, ceed, cess, to go. 
ceive, cept, to take, 
elude, clus, to shut, 
cur, curs, to run. 
diet, to say or speak, 
duce, duct, to lead, 
feet, fici, to do, make, 
fer, to bear, to carry, 
fuse, to pour, 
jeet, to cast, 
late, bear, carry, 
lect, to choose, gather. 


lude, lus, to play, 
mit, miss, to send, 
pel, puls, to drive, 
pend, pens, to hang, 
pone, pose, to place, 
port, to carry, 
scribe, script, to write, 
sist, to stand, 
tain, tent, to hold, 
tend, tens, to shield, 
tract, to draw, 
vene, vent, to come. 


A derivative may be formed by uniting two or more prefixes 
or suffixes with a primitive or inseparable root; as, re-ex- port, 
to carry -out-again ; just -ify-ing, continuing-to-make-yxs \.; re- 
col-lect-ions, more-ihan-one-act-of-gnthering-together-again. 

A derivative may be formed by uniting a prefix or suffix with 
a compound; as, good-humorW. 

Compounds may be formed by uniting two primitives ; as, 
moon-beam; a primitive and derivative, as, bright-eyed; two de¬ 
rivatives, as, brightest-eyed; an inseparable root and a primi¬ 
tive, as, multiform ; two inseparable roots, ns,, geography. 

The Prefixes. 


In the formation of words, the particles which are employed 
as prefixes generally have some peculiar import, which may be 
separately explained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon ori¬ 
gin, and the greater part of these are still employed as separ¬ 
ate words in our language. The rest are Latin, Greek and 


7 

27 


French prepositions. The roots to which they are affixed are 
not always proper English words. Those which are such are 
called separable radicals, and those which are not such, 

inseparable radicals. 

English or Anglo-Saxon Prefixes. 

A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at or to; as in 
a-broad, a-shore, a-slecp, a-far, a-field. The French a {to) is 
probably the same particle ; as in a-dieu. This prefix is some¬ 
times redundant; as in a-wake, a-rise. 

Be signifies upon, to, by or for; as in be-spatter, be-tinies, 
bc-tide, be-speak. It is sometimes redundant; as in be-gird, 
be-deck, be-loved. 

Counter means against or opposite; as in counter-poise, 
counter-evidence, counter-natural. 

For, in composition, seems to signify from. It is found in 
the irregular verbs for-bear, for-bid, for-get, for-give, for-sake, 
for-swear; and in for-do, for-pass, for-pine, for-say, for-think, 
for-waste, which last are now seldom used. 

Fore, prefixed to verbs, signifies before; as, fore-know, 
fore-tell; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies an¬ 
terior ; as, fore-side, fore-part. 

Half, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in 
composition, and often merely to denote imperfection; as, half- 
sighted, seeing imperfectly. 

Mis signifies wrong; as, mis-do, mis-place. 

Out, prefixed to verbs, generally denotes excess; ns, out-do, 
out-leap; prefixed to nouns it is an adjective and signifies ex¬ 
terior; as, outside, out-parish. 

Over usually denotes superiority or excess ; as, over-power, 
overstrain, over-large, over-dose. 

Self signifies one's own person or belonging to one's own 
person. It is much used in composition; as, self-love, self- 
willed, self-accusing. Sometimes self means very; as, self¬ 
same. 

III denotes negation or contrariety; as, un-kind, un¬ 
load. 

Under denotes inferiority; as, under-value, under-clerk. 

Up denotes motion upwards; as, up-lift; sometimes sub¬ 
version ; as, up-set. 

Witll, as a prefix (unlike the common preposition with), 
signifies against, from or back; as, withstand, with-hold, 
with-draw. 

Latin Prefixes. 

Not many of the primitives to which these are prefixed are 
employed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix 
ad, con, ex, in, ob or sub is often changed before certain con¬ 
sonants. 

A, ab, abs, means from or away; as, a-vert, to turn 
from; ab-duce, to lead from; abs-tract, to draw away. 

Ad, ac, af, al, an, ap, as, at, mean to or at; as, 
ad-vert, to turn to; ac-cede, to yield to; af-flux, a flowing-to; 
al-ly, to bind to; an-nex, to link to ; ap-ply, to put to ; assume, 
to take to; at-test, to witness to. 

Ante, before; as, ante-cedent, going before; ante-mun¬ 
dane, before the world; ante-date, to date before. 


































28 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


Circum, around or about; as, circum-volve, to roll 
around. 

Con, Com, CO, COl, cor, together; as, con-tract, to 
draw together; com-pel, to drive together; co-erce, to force to¬ 
gether ; col-lect, to gather together; cor-rade, to scrape together; 
con-junction, a joining-together. 

Contra, against; as, contra-dict, to speak against. 

De, of, from or down ; as, de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract, 
to draw from; de-pend, to hang down; de-press, to press down. 

Dis, «li, away or apart; as, dis-pel, to drive away; dis¬ 
sect, to cut apart; di-vert, to turn away. Dis, before English 
words, generally reverses their meaning; as, please, dis-please. 

E or ex, ec, ef, out ; as, e-ject, to cast out; ex-tract, to 
draw out; ec-stacy, a raising-out; efface, to blot out. 

Extra, beyond; as, extra-vagant, wandering beyond. 

In, il, im, ir, in, into, against or uJ>on; as, in-spire, 
to breathe in ; il-lude, to draw in by deceit; im-mure, to wall 
in; ir-ruption, a breaking-in; in-cur, to run into; in-dict, to 
declare against; im-pute, to charge upon. These syllables pre¬ 
fixed to nouns or adjectives generally reverse their meaning; 
as, ir-religion, ir-rational, in-secure, in-sane. 

Inter, between; as, intersperse, to scatter between; inter¬ 
jection, something thrown in between. 

Illtro, within ; as, intro-vert, to turn within 

Ob, OC, of, Op, against; as, ob-trude, to thrust against; 
oc-cur, to run against; offer, to bring against; op-pose, to place 
against; ob-ject, to cast against. 

Per, through or by; as, per-vade, to go through; per¬ 
chance, by chance; per-cent, by the hundred. 

Post, after; as, post-pone, to place after. 

Prae or pre, before; as, presume, to take before; pre¬ 
position, a placing-before or something placed before. 

Pro, for, forth or forwards; as, pro-vide, to take care for; 
pro-duce, to bring forth ; pro-trude, to thrust forward. 

Prefer, past or beyond; as, preter-it, gone by; preter¬ 
natural, beyond what is natural. 

Re, again or back; as, re-view, to view again; re-pel to 
drive back. 

Retro, backwards; as, retro-cession, a going backwards. 

Se, aside or apart; as, se-duce, to lead aside ; se-cede, to go 
apart. 

Sent i, half; as, semi-colon, half a colon ; semi-circle, half 
a circle; semi-vowel, half a vowel. 

Snb, Slip, sill', under, beneath ; as, snb-terranean, be- 
neath the earth; subscribe, to write under; sup-ply, to put 
under; sur-reption, a creeping-under; subject, cast under. 

Sllbter, beneath; as, subter-fuous, flowing beneath. 

Super, over or above; as, superfluous, flowing over; 
super-lative, carried over. 

Trails, beyond, over, to another state or place; as, trans¬ 
gress, to pass beyond or over; trans-mit, to send to another 
place; transform, to change to another shape. 

Greek Prefixes. 

A, ail, denote privation ; as, a-nomalous, wanting rule; 
an-onymous, wanting name; an-archy, want of government. 

Amplii, both or two; as, amphi-bious, living in two ele¬ 
ments. 


Allti, against; as, anti-acid, against acidity; antifebrile, 
against fever; anti-thesis, a placing-against. 

Apo, apll, from; as, apostrophe, a turning-from ; apli¬ 
ce resis, a taking-from. 

I>ia, through; as, dia-gonal, through the corners; dia¬ 
meter, the measure through. 

Epi, epll, upon; as, epi-demic, upon the people; eph¬ 
emera, upon a day. 

Heilli, half; as, hemisphere, half a sphere. 

Hyper, over; as, hyper-critical, over-critical. 

Hypo, under; as, hypo-stasis, substance or that which 
stands under; hypo-thesis, supposition or a placing-under. 

Meta, beyond, over, to another state or place; as, meta¬ 
morphose, to change to another shape ; meta-physics, beyond 
physics. 

Para, against; para-dox, something contrary to common 
opinion. 

Peri, around; as, peri-phery, the circumference or meas¬ 
ure around. 

Syn, syill, Syl, together; as, syn-tax, a placing-together; 
sym-pathy, a suffering-together; syl-lable, what is taken to¬ 
gether. 

French Prefixes. 

A is a preposition of very frequent use in French and gener¬ 
ally means to. We have suggested that it is probably the same 
as the Anglo-Saxon prefix a. It is found in a few English com¬ 
pounds that are of French and not of Saxon origin ; as, a-dieu, 
to God; a-bout, to the end or turn. 

De, of or from; as in de-mure, of manners; de-liver, to 
ease from or of. 

Demi, half; as, demi-man, half-man; demi-god, half-god. 

Ell, eill, in, into or upon; as, en-chain, to hold in 
chains; em-brace, to clasp in the arms; en-tomb, to put into a 
tomb; em-boss, to stud upon. Many words have wavered be¬ 
tween the French and the Latin orthography of this prefix; as, 
embody or imbody, ensurance or insurance, ensnare or insnare , 
enquire or inquire. 

Sur, upon, over or after; as, stir-name, a name upon a 
name; sur-vey, to look over; sur-vive, to live after, to over¬ 
live. 

Suffixes. 

Able, ible, ble, denote that may or can be, worthy to be, 
worthy of; as, attain able, that may be attained; blan aable, that 
may be blamed, worthy of blame ; laud able, worthy of praise. 

Ac denotes of, pertaining to ; as, cardiac, pertaining to the 
heart; elegiac, pertaining to elegy. 

AceoilS denotes resembling or having the nature of, 
consisting of; as, arenaceous, consisting of sand; foliaceous, 
resembling leaves, consisting of leaves, leafy. 

AcioilS denotes very ox greatly, accustomed to ox greatly 
addicted to, strongly ; as, audacious, daring much, very daring; 
cap acious, taking or containing much; tenacious, holding 
strongly or firmly. 

Acy denotes — ness, state of being, quality or attribute of 
office ; as, accuracy, the quality of being accurate, accurateness; 
cur acy, the office of a curate ; celibacy, the state of being un¬ 
married. 

























ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


29 


Age denotes act of, — ing, state or condition of being, allow¬ 
ancefor; as, marri age, the act of marrying, the state of being 
married ; bond age, the state of being in bonds ; foli age, a col¬ 
lection of leaves; p eexage, the condition or rank of a peer, the 
peers taken collectively; wharfage,allowance for use of the wharf. 

A1 denotes of, pertaining to, befitting, done or made by ; as, 
celestia/, of or pertaining to heaven; manual/, of the hand, 
done by hand ; materna/, of a mother, befitting a mother. 

All, eail, ian, in nouns, denote one who, one who belongs 
to, native, inhabitant of; as, artisazz, one who practices some 
art; Christz'azz, one who belongs to Christ; Europ^azz, a native 
or inhabitant of Europe. 

Alice, ancy, ency, denote the act of, ■ — ing, state of be¬ 
ing, quality or attribute of; as, acceptance, the act of taking to 
or of receiving; assistazzr^, a standing by, aid; const ancy, a 
standing together, the state or quality of being constant; inno- 
cence, the state or quality of being harmless. 

Ant, eilt, in adjectives, denote —ing ; as, militazz/, fight¬ 
ing ; pendent, hanging. 

Ar denotes in the form of, like, of, pertaining to, having; 
as, angulaz-, having angles, in the form of an angle; annul ar, in 
the form of a ring. 

Ar denotes also one who ; as, liaz-, one who lies. 

Ard denotes one who has an habitual fault; as, drunkaz'a’, 
one who gets drunk habitually ; sluggazv/, one who is habitually 
sluggish. 

ArioiIS denotes pertaining to; as, gregarious, pertaining to 
flocks. 

Ary in nouns denotes one who, the thing that or that which; 
as, advers ary, one who is against or opposed to; boundaz'j, 
that which bounds ; vag ary, a thing or thought that wanders, a 
whim. 

Ary in adjectives denotes of or pertaining to, by; as, 
epistolaz'_y, pertaining to letters, by letters. 

Ate denotes office; as, consuls, the office of consul; also, 
one who ; as, leg ate, one who is sent as ambassador. 

Ate in adjectives denotes having, —ed or — d ; as, for- 
tun ate, having fortune; illiterate, unlettered. 

Ate in verbs denotes to make, to give, to put, to take; as, 
antiquate, to make ancient; depopulate, to take the people 
from ; incarcerate, to put into prison. 

Atic denotes one who; as, lun atic, one who is afflicted with 
lunacy. 

Cle, cule, llle, denote little, minute; as, animakzzte,a 
minute animal; globzzte, a little globe. 

Do III denotes the place in which dominion or jurisdiction 
is ekercised, rank, quality or state; as dukeabzzz, the place or 
territory in which a duke exercises jurisdiction, the rank or 
quality of a duke; wisdom, the quality or attitude of being wise. 

Ee denotes one to whom something is done or given, one 
who; as, absents, one who is absent; trusted, one to whom a 
trust is given. 

Eer, ier, denotes one who manages or has charge of, one 
who engages in or passes his time in; as, chariotezy one who 
manages or drives a chariot; mountaineer, one who passes his 
time or lives in the mountains; mutineez*, one who engages in 
mutiny. 

K — 


E11, 11, in adjectives derived from nouns, denote made of, 
like; as, brazezz, made of brass, like brass. 

E11 in verbs mostly derived from adjectives denotes to make ; 
as, darkezz, to make dark. 

Eous denotes consisting of, like, pertaining to, —y ; as, 
igneous, pertaining to fire, consisting of fire, like fire, fiery. 

El’ denotes one who; as, builder, one who builds. 

Escence denotes state of growing or becoming, period 
of growing or becoming; as, convalescence, the state or period 
of growing entirely strong. 

Esceilt denotes growing or becoming, somewhat; as, rub- 
escent, growing red, somewhat red. 

Etic denotes having ; as, path etic, having feeling. 

Ey denotes consisting of; as, clayey, consisting of clay. 

Fic denotes making or causing; as, horri fic, causing hor¬ 
ror. 

Fill denotes full of; as, hopeful, full of hope. 

Fy denotes to make; as, forti fy, to make strong. 

Hood, Head, denote state of being, the nature or distin¬ 
guishing attitudes of being; as, child hood, state of being a 
child ; God head, the attitude or nature of God, divinity. 

lac denotes one who; as, manzar, one who is mad. 

Ic denotes thing, art, science; as, fabrzV, the thing made; 
logzV, the science of words. 

Ic denotes also one who; as, critzV, one who judges. 

Ic, ical, denote of, pertaining to, like; as, angelzV, or an- 
gel ical, of or pertaining to an angel, like an angel; herozV, or 
hero ical, like a hero. 

Ice denotes quality or attitude of being; as, avarice, the 
quality of being avaricious ; justzV^, the quality of being just. 

Iciail denotes one versed or skilled in; as, arithmetzrzazz, 
one versed in arithmetic; muszVz’azz, one versed or skilled in 
music. 

I Cle denotes little; as, partzVte, a little part. 

ICS denotes the science or art of; as, tactzVr, the science or 
art of military arrangement; economzVr, the science of house¬ 
hold affairs. 

Id denotes — ing; as, iexvid, burning, glowing. 

lie denotes of , pertaining to, like, that may or can be easily; 
as, docz'/z’, that may be easily taught; juven/te, of or pertaining 
.to youth. 

Ilie denotes one who; as, marine, one who serves at sea; 
also, of ox pertaining to, like; as, canine, pertaining to dogs, 
like dogs; crystall/zzf, of crystal, like crystal; divzzz^, pertaining 
to God, like a god. 

Ioil denotes the act of, state of being; as, probatzazz, a try¬ 
ing or proving ; salvatz’azz, the act of saving, the state of being 
safe or saved. 

Is denotes act of, state of; as, synthes is, act of putting to¬ 
gether; criszk, state or point of judging. 

Isli in adjectives denotes somewhat, of or belonging to, 
like; as black ish, somewhat black; Spanzk/z, of or belonging to 
Spain; childzV^, like a child. 

Isli in verbs denotes to make; as, finish, to make an end of. 

Ism denotes slate or quality of being, an idiom, doctrine 
or doctrines of; as, barbar ism, the state of being barbarous; 
Galliczkzzz, a French idiom ; Calvin zkzzz, the doctrines of Calvin. 

1st denotes one who, generally one who is engaged in some 
pursuit or study; as, artist, one who practices an art. 






















ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




G\ 


K" 


/ 


3 ° 




Ite denotes a descendant of, a folloiver of, a sectarian or 
party leader; as, AmalekzA?, a descendant of Amalek; Husszto, 
a follower of John Huss. 

Ite also denotes having; as, defin ite, having bounds; op¬ 
pose, having opposition. 

*y> denote state or quality of being; as, amity, 
the state of being friends, friendliness, friendship; antiquz'/y, 
ancientness, ancient times. 

Ive in nouns denotes one who, that which ; as, captive, one 
who is taken; mot ive, that which moves or actuates. 

Ive in adjectives denotes having the power, disposed or 
having the disposition ; as, adheszVf, having the power of stick¬ 
ing to, having a tendency to adhere. 

Ize, or ise, denotes to make, to give, to act or do like; as, 
fertik'rr, to make fertile; authorA<f, to give authority; criticw, 
to act the judge or critic. 

Kill denotes little; as, lamb/u'«, a little lamb. 

Less denotes free from, without; as, care/m, free from 
care, without care. 

Let, et, denote little, young ; as, cygn et, a young swan; 
eyelet (literally, a little eye), the hole or eye of a needle; mal let, 
a little mall. 

Like denotes rese?nbling ; as, child like, resembling a child; 
God like, like or resembling God. 

Ling denotes little, young; as, found ling, a little child 
found without parent or owner; gos ling, a little or very young 
goose. 

Ly in adjectives denotes like; as, beast ly, like a beast. 

Ly in adverbs denotes in a manner or way; as, joyful/y, in 
a joyful manner. 

Ment denotes the act of, state of being, that which; as, 
accomplish»z«z/, the act of accomplishing, the state of being 
accomplished; payment, the act of paying, that which is paid. 

MoiUJ’ denotes state of being, quality of being, that 
which ; as, acrimony, the quality of being sharp or acrid; mat- 
ximony, the state of being a mother or wife, marriage; patri- 
rnony, that which is inherited from a father. 

©id, or oidal, denotes having the form or appearance of', 
resembling; as, ovoid, or ovoidal, having the form of an egg; 
vario \oid, a disease resembling small-pox. 

JVeSS denotes state of being, quality or attribute of being; 
as, baldwm, the state of being bald; boldwz’.w, the quality or 
attribute of being bold. 

Ol’ denotes one who ; also, the act of, sensation or emotion, 
that which causes or brings sensation; as, auditor, one who 
hears, a hearer; col<?r, a peculiar sensation in the eye, that 
which causes the sensation of color; fav<?r, the act of favoring, 
that which causes or brings favor ; splendor, brightness. 

Or y in nouns denotes the place or thing where ; as, armory, 
the place where arms are kept. 

Or y in adjectives denotes giving, making or causing, per¬ 
taining to; as, adulatory, giving flattery, flattering; amatory, 
pertaining to love or lovers, causing love. 

Ose denotes full of; as, joc^, full of jokes. 

Ous denotes full of, consisting of; as, cartilaginzwj, con¬ 
sisting of cartilage, like cartilage ; timorowj, fearful, fearing. 

Ry denotes state or quality of being, the art or practice of, 
the place where, things of a certain kind or class taken collect¬ 


ively; as, gallantry, the quality or attribute of being gallant, 
gallantness, nobleness, bravery; slavery, the state of a slave; 
brewery, the place where beer is brewed; cutlery, knives 
and other cutting instruments taken collectively ; also, the art or 
business of a cutler. 

Sliip denotes office of, state or relation of; as, clerk ship, 
the office of clerk; friend ship, the state or relation of a friend. 

Some denotes full of, making or causing; as, blithesome, 
full of gayety, causing gayety or blitheness ; weari some, making 
weary. 

Ster denotes one that; as, songster, one that sings songs. 

T denotes a thing done; as, gif/, a thing given; draf t, a 
drawing; join/, a joining. 

Tk denotes the act of, state of being, that which; as, 
bread th, broadness; grow th, growing or the act of growing, 
that which is growing, increase ; wealth, the state of being well 
off or rich, that which makes rich. 

Tude, or Ude, denotes — ness; as, altitude, highness, 
height; solicit ude, anxiousness, anxiety. 

Lleilt, oleilt or lent denotes full of; as, fraud ulent, 
full of fraud, deceitful, dishonest; pesti lent, full of plague or 
pestilence, corrupt, troublesome; violent, full of force or vio¬ 
lence. 

Lie denotes the act of, state of being, that which ; as, creat- 
ure, that which is created ; curvat ure, a bending; rapt tire, the 
state of being carried away (with joy); seizure, the act of seiz¬ 
ing. 

Ward denotes towards; as, hom eward, towards home. 

Y in nouns denotes the state or quality of being ; as, anarchy, 
the state of being without government; lithography, engraving 
on stone. 

Y in adjectives formed by adding this suffix to nouns denotes 
full of, consisting of, like ; as, rocky, full of rocks, like a rock ; 
sand_y, full of sand, consisting of sand, like sand. 



SPELLING. 



Cjjt) 


Spelling- is the art of expressing words by 
their proper letters. 

Before the invention of the art of printing lit¬ 
tle attention was paid to the mode of spelling 
words either in Anglo-Saxon or the English 
language, and, the orthography of most of the 
words being wholly unsettled, every writer, hav¬ 
ing no guide but his own ear, was at liberty to 
follow his own fancy or judgment. In the writ¬ 
ings of the Anglo-Saxons and the early English 
authors almost all the words are spelled in more 
than one way, and for a long time subsequent to 
the invention of the art of printing the spelling 
of the English language remained in a very un- 





v 


(0 





































ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


3 1 


settled state. As an illustration of this unset¬ 
tled state, nearly a century after this invention, 
it may be mentioned that in the translation of 
the New Testament by Tindale, who was dis¬ 
tinguished for talents and learning, the pronoun 
it is spelled in no less than eight different ways, 
as follows: it, tit, yt, ytt, hit, hilt, hyt, hytt; and in 
some cases four or five different modes are to 
be found in the same chapter. 

The spelling of the language has been under¬ 
going continual changes from the time of its 
first formation to the present day, although for 
a century or upwards it may be regarded as 
having assumed a comparatively settled form. 

The dictionary of Samuel Johnson, first pub¬ 
lished in 1/55, h as contributed more than any 
work written before or since to introduce some¬ 
thing like consistency into English orthography, 
and succeeding lexicographers have followed in 
his footsteps. 

Rules for Spelling. 

Monosyllables ending in f, l or s, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant; as, staff, mitt, pass; except three 
* n fi v * z - • c t e J\ if of; four in l: bid, nul, sal, sol; and eleven 
in s : as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus. 

Words ending in any other consonant than f, l ox s do not 
double the final letter; except abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, 
burr, purr, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. 

Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, when 
they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or 
by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an ad¬ 
ditional syllable that begins with a vowel; as, rob, robber; per¬ 
mit, permitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting. X, being equiv¬ 
alent to ks, is never doubled. 

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, 
or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain 
single before an additional syllable; as, toil, toiling; visit, 
visited; general, generalize. 

Words ending with any double letter preserve it double be¬ 
fore any additional termination not beginning with the same 
letter; as in the following derivatives: seeing, blissful, oddly, 
hilly, stiffness, agreeable. The irregular words fled, sold, told, 
dwelt, spelt, spilt, shall, wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from 
the word pontiff, are exceptions to this rule. 

The final e mute of a primitive word is generally omitted be¬ 
fore an additional termination beginning with a vowel; as, rate, 
ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying. Words end¬ 
ing in ce or ge retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the 
soft sound of c and g; as, peace, peaceable; change, changeable ; 
outrage, outrageous. 


The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before 
an additional termination beginning with a consonant; as, pale, 
paleness. When the e is preceded by a vowel it is sometimes 
omitted ; as, true, truly; awe, awful; and sometimes retained ; 
as, rue, rueful; shoe, shoeless. 

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso¬ 
nant, is changed into i before an additional termination; as, 
merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment; pity, pitied, 
pities, pitiful. Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doub¬ 
ling of i; as, pity, pitying. Words ending in ie drop the e and 
change the i into y for the same reason ; as, die, dying. When 
a vowel precedes, y should not be changed; as, day, days, 
money, moneys. 

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple 
words which compose them; as, hereof, horseman, uphill. In 
permanent compounds the words full and all drop one l; as, 
handful, careful, always, withal; in others they retain both; 
as , full-eyed, all-wise. 

I before e, except after c, is a rule worth remembering in such 
words as believe, conceive, deceive. 

In derivatives formed from words ending in c by adding a 
termination beginning with c, i or y, the letter k is inserted after 
the c; as, zinc, zincky; colic, colicky; traffic, trafficky. 

Verbs of one syllable ending with a single consonant preceded 
by a single vowel (as, plan), and verbs of two or more syllables 
ending in the same manner and having the accent on the last 
syllable (as, regret), double the final consonant of the verb on 
assuming an additional syllable; as, plan, planned; regret, re¬ 
gretted. But if a diphthong precedes the last consonant (as in 
suffer), the consonant is not doubled; as, join, joined; suffer, 
suffered. 

REFORMED SPELLING. 

Many efforts have been made to secure a re¬ 
form in the mode of spelling, and many philo¬ 
logical associations have earnestly advocated a 
system of phonetic orthography, or spelling by 
sound. The English language contains over 
100,000 words, although in ordinary conversation 
only from 3,000 to 5,000 are used. Few writers 
or speakers use more than 15,000. Shakspere 
is said to have only used 24,000, Milton 17,000, 
and in the Bible, exclusive of the proper names, 
there are said to be only 7,000 words. The 
mixed origin of the English language, with its 
constant modifications, will in some degree ac¬ 
count for the striking anomalies which appear 
in our spelling. Signs representing sounds 
were multiplied especially by the introduction 
of the printer’s art, and thus letters or combina¬ 
tions of letters for a single sound occur fre¬ 
quently. Many plans have been devised at dif- 


/ 



































«> 


** 


Q 




si 


r\ 


3 * 1 2 3 4 5 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


ferent times, especially in late years, for reduc¬ 
ing the spelling of words to absolute uniformity 
and the greatest simplicity by a complete re¬ 
form in the method of representing the sounds 
of words by written characters, that is, by em¬ 
ploying a new alphabet in which each sign 
stands for one, and only one, definite sound, and 
each sound is represented by one and only one 
character. The American Philological Associa¬ 
tion took up the matter in 1875, and in the suc¬ 
ceeding year an international convention was 
held and a Spelling Reform Association organiz¬ 
ed. Meetings were held by several educational 
societies both in England and this country, urg¬ 
ing on the work of reform, but after all there 
has really been very little practical result. The 
Spelling Reform Association adopted a phonetic 
alphabet on the principles enumerated above. 
The association advocated the dropping of silent 
letters on the score of economy, etc., and form¬ 
ulated the following five rules: 

1. Use e for ea when equivalent to short e. 

2. Omit silent e after a diphthong or a short vowel, unless 
preceded by o or g. 

3. Use/ - for ph. 

4. Omit one letter of a double consonant, unless both are 
pronounced. 

5. Use t instead of ed when it represents the sound. 

Some of the newspapers then began advocat¬ 
ing reform in spelling, and in 1879 the Chicago 
Tribune appeared in improved orthography, and 
was followed by the Home Journal of New York 
and other papers. The rules adopted by these 
journals for their amended spelling were as fol¬ 
lows : 

1. Drop ue at the end of words like dialogue, catalogue, etc., 
where the preceding vowel is short. Thus spell demagog, ped- 
a g°g, epilog, etc. Change tongue for tung. When the preced¬ 
ing vowel is long, as in prorogue, vogue, rogue, retain final let¬ 
ters as at present. 

2. Drop final e in such words as definite, indefinite, favorite, 
where the preceding vowel is short. Thus spell opposit, hypo - 
crit, preterit. W T hen the preceding vowel is long, as in polite, 
finite, unite, write, etc., retain present form unchanged. 

3. Drop final te in words like quartette, coquette, cigarette. 
Thus spell roset, epaulet, gazet, vedet. 

4. Drop the final me in words like programme. Thus spell 
program, oriflam, gram, etc. 

5. Change ph for f in works like phantom, telegraph, phase, 
Thus spell alfabet, paragraf, filosofy,fonetic, fotograf, etc. 

P.S. No change in proper names. 


The newspapers, however, have not continued 
to follow these rules, and in most cases have 
lapsed into the accustomed form of spelling, and 
the present outlook is not very flattering for the 
universal introduction of phonetic or reformed 
spelling. 


FORMS OF LETTERS. 


F 


Different sorts of types or styles of letters are employed in the 
English language. Generally the Roman characters are used; 
sometimes the Italic, and occasionally the Old English. In 
writing we use the Script. 


Roman. 


Italic. 


m Cngltsl). 


The letters have severally two forms, by which they are dis¬ 
tinguished, as capitals and small letters. 

Small letters constitute the body of every work; capitals 
are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. 

The improper use of capitals or their omission is a common 
fault in composition, and should be guarded against. Sometimes 
more capitals are used than are necessary. The great number 
of words begin nearly all with small letters. When capitals are 
to be used is explained in the following rules. 








& 


At 


C 5 




>: fT|e Upe of Capital Letters 


JLJL. 


e/AV» 

►O. *>- 






a) < 5 fe> 


Begin with a capital: 

1. Every sentence and every line of poetry. 

Examples .—Forget others’ faults. How bright the day! What is 
fame? Custom forms us all. 

“Time is the warp of life; oh! tell 
The young, the fair, to weave it well.” 

2. All proper nouns, and titles of office, honor and respect. 

Examples .—Henry the Fowler, Emperor of Germany; Robert Roe, 

Esquire; His Honor the Mayor; Elizabeth Barrett Browning; the 
Red River; Union Square; the Superior Court of the City of New 
York. 

3. All adjectives formed from proper names. 

Examples. —African, Italian, Welsh, Ciceronian. 

Also adjectives denoting a sect or religion. 

Examples. —Methodist, Puritan, Catholic. 

4. Common nouns, where personified in a direct and lively 
manner; not where sex is merely attributed to an inanimate 
object. 

Examples .—Then War waves his ensanguined sword, and fair 
Peace flees sighing to some happier land. But, the sun pursues his 
fiery course; the moon sheds her silvery beams. 

5. All appellations of the Deity. The personal pronouns 
Thou and He standing for His name are sometimes cap¬ 
italized. 

Examples .—The Almighty; the King of kings; the Eternal Es¬ 
sence; Jehovah; the Supreme Being; our Father. 


<5 


a 



































ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


33 


In the standard editions of the Bible, the pronouns, when 
referring to God, are never capitalized, not even in forms 
of direct address to the Deity. 

6. The first woVd of a complete quoted sentence not intro¬ 
duced by that, if or any other conjunction. 

Examples. —Thomson says, “Success makes villains honest.” Hut, 
Thomson says that success makes villains honest. 

7. Every noun, adjective and verb in the title of books and 
headings of chapters. 

Examples. —Butler’s “Treatise on the History of Ancient Philoso¬ 
phy ; ” Cousins’ “Lectures on the True, the Beautiful and the Good.” 

8. Words that denote the leading subjects of chapters, arti¬ 
cles or paragraphs. 

A word defined, for instance, may commence with a capital. 
Do not introduce capitals too freely under this rule. When in 
doubt use a small letter. 

9. The pronoun / and the interjection 0 . 

10. Words denoting great events, eras of history, noted 
written instruments, extraordinary physical phenomena and the 
like. 

Examples. —The Creation; the Confusion of Languages; the Res¬ 
toration; the Dark Ages; the Declaration of Independence; the 
Aurora Borealis. 

11. Letters standing for words are generally written as 
capitals. 

Example. —A.D. for Anno Domini, the year of our Lord. 

12. The months of the year, and the days of the week. The 
names of the seasons, however, should not generally be cap¬ 
italized, although it is customary with some authors. 

13. The words North, South, East and West, and their com¬ 
pounds, as Northwest, when they signify a section of country. 
Also adjectives derived therefrom. This class of words should 
not be capitalized, however, when merely denoting direction. 



Punctuation is the art of dividing compo¬ 
sition by points or stops for the purpose of 
showing more clearly the sense and relation of 
the words, and of noting the different pauses 
and inflections required in reading. 

Although a knowledge of Punctuation is necessary to the 
clear expression of thought in writing, there are comparatively 
few who have mastered it, even among educated people. That 
it is important may be illustrated by the following sentence: 

The company consisted of Mr. Jones a lawyer his brother a soldier 
Mr. Black a New Yorker his sister and a boy. 

Without punctuation it is impossible to say how many were 
in the company, or what their relationship was. If commas are 
inserted it will appear that the company comprised eight 
people : 

The company consisted of Mr. Jones, a lawyer, his brother, a sol¬ 
dier, Mr. Black, a New Yorker, his sister and a boy. 

By inserting semicolons in the place of some of the commas 
the number of the company is reduced to five, as follows : 


The company consisted of Mr. J ones, a lawyer; his brother, a soldier; 
Mr. Black, a New Yorker; his sister and a boy. 

By otherwise punctuating it various changes would be made. 
As an illustration of the ludicrous errors which might occur 
from incorrect punctuation the following will serve : 

Woman, without her man, would be a savage. 

The proper sense and punctuation is: 

Woman—without her, man would be a savage. 

Such instances could be multiplied indefinitely. 

Usage, which is really the foundation for all rules of punc¬ 
tuation as well as of grammar, authorizes the three following 
methods of punctuating the same sentence. In the present 
work the method indicated in the first sentence has been 
followed; 

Rank, fame and honor are often undeserved. 

Rank, fame, and honor are often undeserved. 

Rank, fame, and honor, are often undeserved. 

Punctuation Points. 


The Punctuation Points are 

Period 
Colon 
Semicolon 
Comma 

Interrogation Point 
Exclamation Point 
Dash 

Parentheses ( 

Brackets [ 

Hyphen 

Quotation Marks “ 

Apostrophe 

Ellipsis j . 

( * * * 

Caret / 

Index >8® 

Rules for 

The Period must be placed after every declarative and 
imperative sentence and every abbreviated word. 

Examples. —Obey your parents. Virtue is the only nobility. V e 
write J as. for James, N. Y. for New York, No. for number, George I. 
for George the First. 

A period after an abbreviation does not take the place of 
other points. Punctuate just as if the word were not abbrevi¬ 
ated. But at the end of a sentence closing with an abbreviation 
only one period must be used. 

Example. —“Go to the P. O., I tell you, and ask for a letter for II. 
Rob, Jr., M. D.” 

A nickname which is not really an abbreviation is not followed 
by a period. 

Examples— Dave Bidwcll; Sam Slick. 

The Interrogation Point must be placed after 
every interrogative sentence, member and .clause ; also after the 
interjections eh and hey implying a question. 

Example. —Has the air weight? Air has weight; do you not believe 
it? You thought it would rain, eh? 

The Exclamation Point should be placed after 
every exclamatory sentence, member, clause and expression. 

Examples.— How disgusting is vice! Life is short; how careful we 
should be to use it aright! For shame! 

An exclamation point must also be placed after every inter- 


as follows: 

. Paragraph If 

' Brace j 

Acute Accent 
? Grave Accent 
1 Circumflex Accent 
Tilde, or Circumflex 
) | The Long, or Macron 
j j The Short, or Breve 


Diaeresis 

1 1 Cedilla V 

> j Asterisk 

Dagger, or Obelisk 
* Double Dagger t 

\ Section § 

- I Parallel II 


Punctuation. 










































/ 


© 


34 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


jection except 0 , eh and hey, unless very closely connected 
with other words. 

Example. —Ah ! who could have foreseen it? Pshaw! you are trifling'. 

Tlie Colon must be placed between the great divisions 
of sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by 
semicolons. 

Example. Man has effected wonders; he is every day advancing in 
knowledge and power: yet, surpassed by nature in even her hum¬ 
blest efforts, he can not so much as make a blade of grass. 

A colon must also be placed before a formal enumeration of 
particulars, or a direct quotation, referred to by the words thus, 
following, as follows, this, these, etc. 

Example. There is much justice in this warning of Lavater: “Be¬ 
ware of him who hates the laugh of a child.” 

A formal enumeration is one in which the words fret, second¬ 
ly, etc., or similar terms, are introduced. These words are set 
off with the comma, the particulars are separated by the semi¬ 
colon, and before the whole enumeration a colon must be placed. 

Example. —There were fourgreat empires in ancient times: first, the 
Assyrian; second, the Persian; third, the Macedonian; fourth, the 
Roman. 

The Semicolon must be placed between the members 
of compound sentences, unless the connection is exceedingly 
close. 

Example. —The wheel of fortune is ever turning; who can say, “I 
shall be uppermost to-morrow”? 

If the members are very short and the connection is close, 
the comma may be used instead of the semicolon. 

Example. —Man proposes, but God disposes. 

A semicolon must be placed between the great divisions of 
sentences, when minor divisions occur that are separated by 
commas. 

Examples. —Plato called beauty a privilege of nature; Theocritus, a 
delightful prejudice. 

A semicolon should be placed before as when it introduces 
an example. 

Example. —An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun; as, a 
■white hat. 

The Comma. Adjuncts and clauses, not essential to 
the meaning of a sentence or modifying the whole proposition, 
are set off with a comma on each side when introduced between 
a subject and its verb, or other parts that are closely connected. 
At the commencement or end of a sentence, such adjuncts 
and clauses are set off with a comma after or before them, as the 
case may be. 

Examples. —The bones of birds, in a word, combine strength with 
lightness in a remarkable degree. Blankets, which derived their 
name from Thomas Blanquet, were introduced into England in 1340. 
By the way, gunpowder was first known to the Chinese. No man can 
be an atheist, if he will only examine his own structure. 

Subjects introduced by as well as, and not, etc., fall under this 
rule. 

Example. —Toledo, as well as Damascus, was noted for its sword 
blades. 

Single words relating to a whole proposition, and all vocative 
expressions, are also set off with the comma. 

Examples. —Galileo, accordingly, was imprisoned. Smile, O For¬ 
tune, smile on our attempt. 

No comma must be placed between restrictive adjuncts or 
clauses and that which they restrict. 

Examples.- All must pay the debt of nature. All that glitters is not 
gold. The man who plants the field should reap the harvest. 


A noun in apposition, modified by an adjunct or adjective, is 
generally, with its modifiers, set off by the comma. 

Example. —Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, was defeated by Octavius. 

A comma should be placed between short members of com¬ 
pound sentences, connected by and, but, or, tior, because, 
whereas and other conjunctions. 

Example. —Beauty dazzles, but amiability charms. 

A comma must also be placed before a conjunction connect¬ 
ing the parts of a compound predicate, unless they are very 
short and so closely connected that no point is admissible. 

Example. —The sun shines on all, even the wicked and ungrateful. 

A comma must be placed before or introducing an equiva¬ 
lent, or a clause defining the writer’s meaning. 

Example. —Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly from Germany. 

A comma is required by some authorities on the subject of 
Punctuation before and, or and nor preceding the last of a 
series of clauses, or words that are the same part of speech and 
in the same construction. 

Example. —Sunshine, cloud, and storm, all are sent for some wise 
purpose. 

When, to avoid repetition, and, or, nor, or a verb previously 
used, is omitted, a comma takes its place. 

Examples. —Tin is found in England, Bohemia, Saxony, Malacca 
and Banca. [Instead of saying England and Bohemia and Saxony 
and Malacca, to avoid repetition we omit and, and a comma takes its 
place.] Methusaleh was the oldest man; Samson, the strongest. 
[Was is omitted after Samson, and a comma takes its place.] 

Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair. 

Example. —Joy and sorrow, cloud and sunshine, are alike sent for 
our benefit. 

Words repeated for the sake of their emphasis must be set 
off with their adjuncts, if they have any, by the comma. 

Example. —Truth, truth, and nothing but the truth, will satisfy the 
candid enquirer. 

A good general rule for the use of commas, as, in fact of 
other marks for punctuation, is: Use them when the meaning is 
thereby made clearer. 

The Dash is used to denote: 

1. A break in the construction. 

Example. —Glory—what is it? 

2. A transition in the sentiment from grave to humorous. 

Example. —London is noted for its magnificent buildings, its exten¬ 
sive shipping, and—its dexterous pick-pockets. 

3. A sudden interruption. 

Example. —“ You know my feelings ; you know—” “ Hold ! ” inter¬ 
rupted my friend. 

4. Hesitation. 

Example. —Such a man is a—a—I know not what to call him. 

5. An abrupt or exclamatory repetition. 

Example. —Such was the testimony of Solomon—Solomon who had 
all the pleasures of the world at his command. 

A dash is sometimes used to denote the omission of letters, 
figures or words. 

Example. —In the year 18—, I stopped over night at the village of 
G-. 

A dash after other points makes them indicate a greater de¬ 
gree of separation than they generally denote. 

Parentheses. Marks of Parentheses are used to enclose 
words which explain, modify or add to the main proposition, 
when so introduced as to break the connection between de¬ 
pendent parts and interfere with the harmonious flow. 

Example. —The Saxons (for they descended from the ancient Sacae) 
retained for centuries the energy and morality of their ancestors. 


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ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


35 


If no point would be required between the parts of a sentence 
in case there were no parenthesis, then no points should be 
used at that place in addition to the marks of parenthesis. 

Example. —He (the aforesaid defendant) was ignorant of this matter. 

If a point would be required between the parts of a sentence, 
in case no parenthesis were there, then, when the parenthesis is 
inserted, said point should be also inserted, and should be 
placed after the second mark of parenthesis. 

Example. —Pride, in some disguise or other (often a secret to the 
proud man himself), is the most ordinary spring of action. 

When a complete sentence or complete sentences are enclos¬ 
ed in marks of parenthesis, they should be punctuated the same 
as if not thus enclosed, and the last point of punctuation should 
come before the last mark of parenthesis. 

Brackets. Brackets are used principally in quoted pas¬ 
sages, to enclose words improperly omitted or added by way 
of correction, observation or explanation. 

Example. —She is weary with [of] life. 

In regard to the use of points before and after the brackets, 
and the punctuation of any sentence or clause within the brack¬ 
ets, the same rules apply that have been given in regard to the 
marks of parenthesis. 

Tlie Apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or 
letters, and the possessive case of nouns. 

Examples. — 'T/s for it is; e'en for even; don't for do not; o'clock for 
on [the] clock. So in the possessive: hero's, Charles', men’s, heroes', 
children's. 

Pronouns never take the apostrophe in the possessive case. 

The Hyphen is used to connect the elements of a com¬ 
pound word, when each retains its own accent. 

Example. —Castle-builder, father-in-law. 

The hyphen is also used after a complete syllable at the end 
of a line, to connect the parts of a divided word; also to de¬ 
note that the final vowel of a prefix does not form a diphthong 
with the first vowel of a primitive; but in this latter case a mark 
of diaeresis is more appropriate. 

Example. —Pre-engagement, re-establish [preengagement, reestab¬ 
lish.] 

Quotation Points are used to enclose words quoted 
from an author or speaker, or represented in narrative as em¬ 
ployed in dialogue. 

Example. —“Remember now thy Creator in the days of thj r youth.” 

When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words, 
quotation points are unnecessary. 

Matter within quotation points is to be punctuated just as if 
it stood in any other position. 

When quotation points are needed at the end of a sentence, 
they come after whatever other point is required there if this 
point applies to the quotation alone, but before this point if it 
applies to the whole sentence and not exclusively to the quo¬ 
tation. 

Example. — Pilate asked, “What is truth?” Where now is the “man 
of destiny”? 

When a quotation encloses within it another quotation, the 
external quotation has the double marks, and the one included 
has only the single marks. 

Example. —It has been well said, “The command, ‘Thou shall not 
kill,’ forbids many crimes besides that of murder.” 

If the enclosed or secondary quotation ends a sentence, three 
apostrophes will there come together, of which the first will be¬ 
long to the enclosed quotation, and the other two to the orig¬ 


inal. When an enclosed quotation itself contains words or 
phrases that are quoted, those words or phrases have the double 
marks. 

Example. —“French says,‘What a lesson the word “diligence” con¬ 
tains !’ ” 

When the sentence becomes more involved than this, the ad¬ 
ditional marks of quotation would create confusion, and may 
therefore be omitted. 

In some publications the order of single and double quota¬ 
tions is inverted, single quotation marks being used where cus¬ 
tom demands double marks, and quotations within quotations 
being indicated by double marks. 

The Pauses. 

The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech have 
in reality no definite and invariable proportions. Children are 
often told to pause at a comma while they count one; at a semi¬ 
colon, one, two ; at a colon, one, two, three; at a period, one, 
two, three, four. This may be of some use, as teaching them 
to observe these stops that they may catch the sense; but the 
standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good 
sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is im¬ 
measurable. The following general directions are as good as 
any that can be given : 

The comma denotes the shortest pause; the semicolon, a 
pause double that of the comma; the colon, a pause double 
that of the semi-colon ; and the period, or full-stop, a pause 
double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other 
marks vary according to the structure of the sentence and 
their place in it 

Other Marks. 


The Ellipsis, or Suppression, denotes the omission 
of some letters or words. 

Examples. —K—g, for king; G* * * * m, for Graham; A .... s, for 
Adams; H—m—hr—y, for Humphrey. 

The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert 
words or letters that have been accidentally omitted, 
would 

Example. —J ames said he be home to-night. 


The Index, or Hand points out something re¬ 

markable, or what the reader should particularly observe. 

The Brace [—*—-,] serves to unite a triplet, or to connect 
several terms to something to which they are all related. 


Examples.— 

( Nominative. 
Case ] Possessive. 

( Objective. 


Committee 


W. Brown 
II. Jones. 
R. Smith. 
M. Mills. 


The Section [$] marks the smaller divisions of a book or 
chapter, and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge ref¬ 
erences. 


The Paragraph [ 1 [] denotes the commencement of a 
new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs 
are in general sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line 
and carrying the first word a little backwards. 

Eeaders [.] are used in contents and indexes of 

books and similar matter to lead the eye to the end of the line 
for the completion of the sense. 

Example. —Wharfage,.?S°- 














































ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


3 6 


The Asterisk, or Star [*], the Obelisk, or Dagger 
[f], the Diesis, or Double Dagger [J], and the Par¬ 
allels [||], refer to marginal notes or explanations at the bot¬ 
tom of the page. They are marks of reference. 

The Asterism, or Tliree Stars [***], a sign not very 
often used, is placed before a long or general note to mark it as 
a note without giving it a particular reference. 

Accent Marks. 

The accent marks are used to denote the proper pronunciation 
of words. They are: 

The Acute [ '], which marks the syllable which requires the 
principal stress in pronunciation ; or to denote a rising inflection 
of the voice, or a close or short vowel. 

The Grave [ v ] is used in opposition to the acute to distin¬ 
guish an open or long vowel, or to denote the falling inflection 
of the voice. 

The Circumflex [ A ] generally denotes a broad sound or 
a combination of the acute and grave. 

The Breve [”] is used to denote either a close vowel or a 
syllable of short quantity. 


The Macron [-] is used to denote either an open vowel 
or a syllable of long quantity. 

The Diaeresis ["] is placed over the latter of two vowels 
,to show they are to be pronounced in separate syllables; as, 
aerial. In German this character is called the Umlaut, and 
denotes a modification of the sound of a vowel over which it is 
placed, peculiar to the Germanic languages. 

The Cedilla [,] is placed under the letter c to give it the 
sound of s before a ox o\ as in the words fa(ade, Alatfon. 

The Tilde [*] is placed over the letter n in Spanish words 
to give it the sound of ny ; as, senor, minon. 

Emphasis. 

Emphasis, or prominence to certain words or sentences, should 
be designated by the writer by underscoring the words or 
phrases to be emphasized. One line indicates italics ; two lines, 
small capitals; three lines, large capitals; four lines, italic 
capitals. 

Example. —Strike! strike! strike! strike! strike! for freedom! 

This would appear in print thus: 

Strike! strike! strike! STRIKE! STRIKE! for freedom! 


As. "GB®o -••-Shi 3 

- A 



''tXS 


ETYMOLOGY. 


y 

C. 




K 


Etymology treats of the different parts of 
speech with their classes and modifications. 
To express our thoughts we use nine classes of 
words, called the Parts of Speech. These 
nine parts of speech are called Article, Noun, 
Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Conjunc¬ 
tion, Preposition and Interjection. 

The Parts of Speech. 

The Article is the word the, a or an, which points out, de¬ 
fines or limits & noun; as, the air, an island, a ship. 

A IVouu is the name of any person, place or thing that 
can be known or mentioned; as, George, York, man, apple, 
truth. 

An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun; as, a 
wise man, a new book. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, the 
boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them 
well. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act or to be acted 
upon ; as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou lovest, he 
loves. 

An Adverb is a word which modifies a verb, adverb or ad¬ 
jective; as, they are now here, studying very diligently. 


A Conjunction is a word which joins words and sen¬ 
tences together; as, Thou and he are happy, because you are 
good. 

A Preposition is a word used to express the relation of 
different things or thoughts to each other; as, The paper lies be¬ 
fore me on the desk. 

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to in- 
'dicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind; as, Oh! 
alas! avaunt! 

Some Rules of Grammar. 

Parsing is the revolving or explaining of a sentence or of 
some selected word or words, according to the definitions and 
rules of grammar. 

A Sentence is an assemblage of words making complete 
sense; as, Reward sweetens labor. 

A Definition of anything or class of things is such a de¬ 
scription of it as distinguishes that entire thing or class from 
everything else, by briefly telling what it is. 

A Rule of Grammar is some law, more or less gen¬ 
eral, by which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of 
language. 

A Praxis is a method of exercise showing the learner how 
to proceed. 

An Example is a particular instance or model serving to 
prove or illustrate some given proposition or truth. 




































ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


37 


K 


An Exercise is some technical performance required of 
the learner in order to test his knowledge or skill by use. 

The article an is used instead of a before words beginning 
with a vowel or a silent h . 

A Common JVoilii is a name that may be applied to 
all objects of the same kind; as, boy, nation, country. 

A Proper JVoim is the name of an individual object 
which cannot be applied to all others of the same kind; as, 
Richard, Peru. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a body of individual 
living objects; as, nation, mob, herd. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or property; 
as, obsti?iacy, benevolence. 

A Participial Noun is the name of an action or state, 

ending in ing ; as, Seeing is believing. 

A Diminutive lYoun is the name of something of its 
kind, derived from a primitive by the addition of a suffix. 
Diminutives are formed with the suffixes kin, let, ling, ock, tile, 
cule, cle, icle, et or aster, meaning a little. Streamlet, a little 
stream; gosling, a young goose; animalcule, a little animal, 
are diminutives. 

In the gender of some nouns the feminine is formed by ap¬ 
pending the suffix ess, ine, ina, ix or a to the masculine; as, 
abbot, abbess; hero, heroine; czar, czarina; testator, testatrix; 
sultan, sultana. 

Plural of Nouns. 

The Plural of most nouns is formed by adding j to the 
singular; as, hat, hats; number, numbers. 

Nouns ending in s, sh, x, z, and ch soft, form their plural by 
adding es; as, dish, dishes; gas, gases; waltz, waltzes; tax, 
taxes; church, churches. 

Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change the e 
into ies; as, fly, jlics; obloquy, obloquies. 

Nouns ending in i, o or u, preceded by a consonant, take es 
in the plural; as, alkali, alkalies; cargo, cargoes; gnu, gnues. 
Exceptions, canto, duodecimo, grotto, junto, lasso, major- 
domo, memento, octavo, portico, quarto, sorocco, solo and typo, 
which form the plural by adding s. 

The following nouns ending in f and fe form the plural by 
changing^ or fe into zw: Beef, leaf, sheaf, thief, loaf, calf, half, 
elf, self, shelf, wolf, life, knife, wife; thus, beeves, leaves, 
wives, etc. Wharf makes both wharfs and wharves. Staff, 
a cane, makes staffs and staves. 

Some nouns are irregular in the plural; as, child, children; 
tooth, teeth; mouse, mice. 

The following nouns have both a regular and an irregular 
plural, with different meanings: 

Brother, brothers (of a family); brethren (of a society). 

Die, dies (stamps for coining); dice (cubes for gaming). 

Genius, geniuses (men of genius); genii (spirits). 

Index, indexes (tables of contents); indices (algebraic exponents) 

Pea, peas (distinct grains); pease (taken in bulk). 

Penny, pennies (distinct coins) ; pence (an amount of money). 

Compound nouns, to form their plural, generally vary their 
principal element; as, step-son, step-sons; sister-in-law, sisters- 
in-law ; cousin-german, cousins-german; knight-errant, 
knights-errant. 


The following compounds vary both elements: 

Man-child, men-children ; man-servant, men-servants; man- 
singer, men-singers ; woman-servant, women-servants ; woman- 
singer, women-singers; knight-templar, knights-templars; 
knight-baronet, knights-baronets; knight-hospitaller, knights- 
hospitallers. 

Rules for the Plural of Foreign Nouns. 

In forming foreign plurals the following rules apply: The ter¬ 
mination 

A becomes iE, sometimes Ata.: larva, larvw; miasma, 
miasmata. 

Is becomes Es, sometimes Ides: as is, axes; apsis, ap¬ 
sides. 

Es becomes I : magus, magi; but, genus, genera. 

Uni and On become A: datum , data; phenomenon , 
phenomena. 

Ex and Ix become Ices : vortex, vortices; helix, helices. 

O becomes I: virtuoso, virtuosi. 

Errors in Speech. 

It is not the purpose of this work to go into all the minutiae 
and details of grammatical rules, but the following rules and 
examples will show the reader how to avoid the common and 
most glaring errors in the use of language. These rules 
come under four divisions : the improper arrangement of words ; 
improper words or expressions; too few words, and too many 
words. A careful scrutiny of the examples quoted below will be 
of great benefit to the reader. 

These rules belong mainly to that division of Grammar term¬ 
ed Syntax, which means putting together, and which is that 
part of Grammar which treats of the relations and arrangements 
of words put together. The rules that bear on these relations 
are called the Rules of Syntax. Violations of these 
rules are called False Syntax. 

AVOID THESE ERRORS: 

1. Do not say, “They said they could run faster than me; *’ but, 
“ They said they could run faster than I.” Me must be changed to I, 
because it is the subject of the verb could run understood. 

2. Do not say, “ Oh, blissful hour, and thrice blessed us that see 
it;” but, “Oh, blissful hour, and thrice blessed we that see it.” Us 
must be changed to we, the nominative case, because it is used inde¬ 
pendently. 

3. When there are several modifying substantives, they are all in the 
possessive case. If they separately modify different nouns, each has 
the sign of the possessive. If they jointly modify the same noun, the 
possessive sign is annexed only to the last. If John, George and 
Henry have different fathers, Isay: “John’s, George’s and Henry’s 
fathers have arrived;” that is, John’s father, George’s father and 
Henry’s father. If they are brothers, I say: “John, George and 
Henry’s father has arrived.” John and George are in the possessive 
case; but as all these substantives jointly modify the same noun, 
father expressed, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only. 

4. A succession of possessives is inelegant. Do not say, “Our 
minister’s son’s partner’s brother-in-law’s store;” but, “The store 
belonging to the brother-in-law of the partner of our minister’s son.” 

5. The possessive case and of with the objective are not always 
equivalent. Thus, “ The Lord's day is Sunday; but the day of the Lord 
is the day of judgment." We may speak of the flower of the field, but 
not of the field's flower. 

































38 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


6. Ee careful not to use too many words. Do not say, “Consider 
of iny offer; ” but, “ Consider my offer.” Also, not “ lie will soon re¬ 
pent him of his crime ; ” but, “ He will soon repent of his crime.” 

7. Do not use too few words. Do not say: “ Beware the tempter; ” 
but, “ Beware of the tempter.” 

8. Avoid making the same word the object of a verb and preposi¬ 
tion, or of two prepositions, separated by intervening words. “ They 
not only themselves vigorously prosecuted , but called on their allies 
to aid them in, the war." Correct thus: “ They not only themselves 
prosecuted the war, but called on their allies for aid.” 

9. Some verbs are frequently followed by two objectives. “We 
promised the best speaker a prize.” “ Will you buy me a telescope.” 
If the objects are transposed a preposition is inserted. “ Will you buy 
a telescope for me.” “ We promised a prize to the best speaker.” 

10. When such constructions are thrown into the passive form, the 
object of the verb, and not that of the Dreposition, must be made the 
subject; as, “A prize was promised to the best speaker.” Not, “ The 
best speaker was promised a prize.” 

11. To is omitted before home, north, south, etc., when not modified 
by other words, but expressed when they are modified; as, “ He went 
home, north, south.” But, “ He went to his home, to the north, to 
the south.” 

12. Be careful in the use of who and whom. Do not say, “ Who 
should I trust?” but, “ Whom should I trust?” 

13. Do not say, “It was me;” but, “ It was I.” After the verb to 
be the pronoun must be in the nominative. Thus again: “Did you 
suppose it was I ? ” not, “Did you suppose it was me.” “ It is he; ” 
not, “ It is him.” 

14. Be careful to use the correct number and person of the pronoun. 
Do not say, “One cannot collect their thoughts;” but, “One can¬ 
not collect his thoughts.” Say: “ I have lost the scissors; have you 
seen them?” Not, “ have you seen it ?” 

J S- After a superlative use that instead of who; as, “ Hannibal was 
the deadliest enemy that Rome ever had.” 

16. Never use which to apply to persons except as an interrogative. 
Thus, “ The man whom I met; ” not, “ The man which I met.” 

17. Do not use the pronoun them for the adjective those. “You 
might have saved those trees;” not, “You might have saved them 
trees.” 

18. Say , this sort of men; not , these sort, because sort is singular. 
These tidings; not, this tidings. 

19. This here and these 'ere, that there and those 'ere are gross errors. 
Correct by omitting the adverbs. This boy; not, this here boy. 

20. Say, “By this means;” not, “ By these means.” Means is 
singular. 

21. Adjectives whose meaning precludes the idea of comparison 
must not be compared. Do not say, the chiefest beauty, a truer state¬ 
ment, so faultless a character, the fartherest house, a more nearer 
view, the least surest course. Correct thus: the chief beauty, a more 
correct statement, a character so nearly faultless, the farthest house, 
a nearer view, the least wise course. 

22. After the comparative degree, use other with the latter of the 
terms compared if it includes the former, and only then. “ The Ama¬ 
zon is longer than any river.” Correct: “ The Amazon is longer than 
any other river.” Otherwise we assert, the Amazon being a river, that 
it is longer than itself. 

23. An adjective in the comparative or superlative must precede an 
adjective modified by more or most relating to the same noun. Do not 
say: “A more interesting and larger volume;” but, “A larger and 
more interesting volume.” 

24. Be sure that the verb agrees with the right word. When it is sep¬ 
arated from its subject by an intervening substantive, there is a ten¬ 
dency to make it agree with the latter. “A succession of excite¬ 
ments are sure to distract the mind from study.” Wrong, because 
succession is the subject, and not excitements, which is the object of 
the preposition of. “A succession of excitements is,” etc., is correct. 
So, “Your vessel, together with twelve others, have arrived.” It 
should be, “ Your vessel, together with twelve others, has," etc. So, 
“This confusionof ideas in educated minds is [notate] to be deplored.” 


25. Do not use, “Says I;” but, “Say I.” 

26. Do not say has went for has gone; having wrote for having writ¬ 
ten; I seen for I saw; I done for I did. 

27. Avoid corrupt forms. Among the most common of these are had 
have for had; hadn't ought for ought not; I'm a mind for I have a 
mind; arn't for are not; moughtn't for might not, etc. 

28. The preposition for must not be used immediately before an in¬ 
finitive. Do not say: “ He is trying hard for to enter college ; ” but, 
“ He is trying hard to enter college.” 

29. The preposition of should not be introduced between a partici¬ 
ple and its object. Do not say, “by erecting of statues;” but, “by 
erecting statues.” Not, “ for controlling of elections;” but, control¬ 
ling elections.” It is sometimes proper, however, to use of when the 
participle is preceded by the. 

30. Do not use how, as hoju, or how that, for the conjunction that. 
“ She said as how she would come.” “ Have a care how you listen to 
the tempter.” Correct thus: “She said that she would come.” 
“ Have a care that you do not listen to the tempter.” 

31. Do not use two negatives. Do not say: “ I did not do nothing; ” 
but, “ I did not do anything; ” or, “ I did nothing.” Not, “ It makes 
no difference to you nor me; ” but, “ It makes no difference to you or 
me.” 

32. Care must be taken to place only and not only next to the word 
or words they are intended to modify. Otherwise they give a wrong 
impression of the meaning. If I say, “ He only hires the store,” only 
modifies hire, and the impression conveyed is that another verb will 
follow. He only hires the store, he does not own it. If I say: “He 
hires only the store,” only modifies store, and the meaning is, he hires 
the store, but nothing else—not the rest of the house. 

33. Do not use an adjective for an adverb. Do not say: “ He writes 
elegant; ” but, “ He writes elegantly.” 

34. After certain verbs by is used before a word denoting an agent 
or living object, with before a word denoting an instrument or inani¬ 
mate object. We say, accompanied by his friends, accompanied with 
illustrations; attended by a servant, attended with evil consequences; 
illustrated by an artist, illustrated with engravings; killed by an as¬ 
sassin, killed ivilh a dagger. Followed takes by only. 

35. Do not use if for whether —or but, but that or lest for that —after 
the verbs doubt, fear, deny, or their equivalents. “ Do you know if 
[correct to whether\ a train will start this evening.” “ Pope was ap¬ 
prehensive lest [say that] his meaning might be mistaken.” “ Nobody 
can deny but that [say that] experience is the best teacher.” 

36. Be careful to use nor, not or, as the correlative of neither. 
“ Neither youth nor [not or] innocence availed as a protection.” 

37. Be careful to use so....as, not as....as, after a negative denying 
equality of degree. “ Few cities were so [not ox] magnificent as Bab¬ 
ylon.” 

38. Do not add a pronoun to its antecedent when the antecedent 
alone would express its meaning. Do not say, “ J ames he said ; ” but, 
“ J ames said.” 

39. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. “The most hap¬ 
piest day of my life.” Correct: “ The happiest day.” 

40. Avoid tautology or the recurrence of the same word or expres¬ 
sion. “ The man that I met that was lame.” Say: “ The man that I 
met who was lame. 

41. Avoid the use of improper words. Do not say: “He is laving 
down;” but, “ He is lying down.” Not: “We set up;” but, “We 
sat up.” Not: “ Learn me;” but, “ Teach me.” Not: “I knowed 
it;” but, “I knew it.” Not: "The coat sets well;” but, “The coat 
sits well.” Not: “ Them that expect nothing; ” but, “ They that expect 
nothing.” 

42. Do not say, “ The Volga is the longest of any river in Europe.” 
Omit of any and correct: “The Volga is the longest river in 
Europe.” 

43. Apply who to persons, which to things, and that to both. 

44. Do not say: “Which did you say was the largest lake in the 
world?” Say is. Present facts and unchangeable truths must be ex¬ 
pressed in the present tense. 




























ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 


39 


45- Avoid all improper modes of expressing comparison or the 
plural of nouns. Do not say: beautifullest; but, most beautiful. Not 
“ I saw three deers; ” but, “ I saw three deer." 

46. Avoid clumsy use of participles. "My being sick was the cause 
of my being absent .” Correct thus: “My sickness was the cause of 
my absence.” 

47. Do not needlessly use the passive form in verbs. “ He is come; ” 
say, “ lie has come.” 

48. Do not use needless compound participles. “The theatres are 
now being open on Sundays; ” say, “ The theatres are now open Sun¬ 
days.” 

49. An adverb should not be used where a preposition and a relative 
pronoun would better express the relation of the terms. “A cause 
where [say in which ] justice is so much concerned.” 

50. W hen verbs are connected by a conjunction they must either 
agree in mood, tense and form, or have separate nominatives expressed. 
“ They would neither go in themselves, nor suffered [say, would suf¬ 
fer ] others to enter.” “If lie understands his business, and attend 

[say attends^ to it, wherein is he deficient?” 

FIGURES. 

A Figure in Grammar is an intentional deviation from the 
ordinary spelling, formation, construction or application of 
words. 

There are, accordingly, figures of Orthography, figures of 
Etymology, figures of Syntax and figures of Rhetoric. 

When figures are judiciously employed, they both strengthen 
and adorn expression. They occur more frequently in poetry 
than in prose, and several of them are merely poetic licenses. 

Figures of Orthography. 

A Figure of Orthography is an intentional devia¬ 
tion from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. 

The principal figures of Orthography are two, namely : 

Mimesis, or Mimicry, a ludicrous imitation of some 
mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is 
mimicked by a false spelling or the taking of one word for an¬ 
other. 

Example. —“Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, Captain Gower.”— 
Shakspere. 

"Mat'ster, says he, have you any wery good weal in your vallet ?"— 
Columbian Orator. 

This figure includes all imitations of brogues and dialects. 

Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to 
ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography. 

Examples. —“ Unpleasing sight, I ween." 

“ Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue.” 

Figures of Etymology. 

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures 
of Etymology are eight. 

Aphacresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of 
a word; as, ’ gainst, ’gan, 'neath, for against, began, beneath. 


Prothesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a 
word; as, adown, a/paid, ^strown, evanished, yclad, for down, 
paid, strown, vanished, clad. 

Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of a 
word; as, medicine for medicine; e'en for even ; o'er for over ; 
conq'ring for conquering; se' anight for sevennight. 

Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of a 
word; as, tho' for though; th' for the; t'other for the other. 

ParagOge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a 
word; as, withouten for without; deary for dear; Johnny 
for John. 

Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might form 
a diphthong; as, cooperate, not cooperate; aeronaut, not cero- 
naut; orthoepy, not orthoepy. 

Synaeresis is the sinking of two syllables into one; as, 
seest for seest; tacked for tack-ed; drowned for drown-ed. 

Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a 
compound; as, “On which side soever;" “Thus ward“To 
God ward." 

Figures of Syntax. 

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of 
Syntax are seven. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are 
necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to 
convey the meaning. Such words are said to be understood, 
because they are received as belonging to the sentence though 
they are not uttered ; as, “A man and [a] woman ; ” “ The com¬ 
mon [law] and the statute law;” “I love [hti/i] and [/] fear 
him ; ” “ The active commonly do more than they are bound to 
do; the indolent [commonly do] less [than they are bound 
to do]. 

Aposcopesis is the leaving of something unsaid; as, 
“ Whom I— but first ’tis best the billows to restrain.” 

Zeugma is the referring of a word to two different ones 
which in strict syntax can agree with only one of them ; as, “ In 
him who is, or him who finds a friend." 

Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words ; as, 
"He that hath ears to hear, let him hear; ” “I know thee who 
thou art;" “All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on 
the earth." 

Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative 
sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken 
of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term; 
it is therefore, in general, connected with some figure of Rhet¬ 
oric ; as, “The Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and 
we beheld his glory.” “ Then Philip went down to the city of 
Samaria and preached Christ unto them." 

Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modi¬ 
fication, for another ; as, “ You know that you are Brutus that 
speak this;” “Destruction’s gates at once unlock." 

Hyperbatoil is the transposition of words; as, “He 
wanders earth around." 



























s> 




J- 


\ 


40 


COMPOSITION. 


0 




OMPOSITION. * 





3 ^ 


ow to Write tl^e Gncjlislj) tlancjuacje GorrectI 


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^VERY educated person desires to write 
well, and with some elegance of diction. 
Accuracy in the arrangement of words 
and the ready and correct expression of 
them in written language is not only a 
desirable but a needful attainment. 

This is taught by Composition. 

Style is the particular manner in which a 
person expresses his conceptions by means of 
language. It is different from mere words, and 
is not to be regulated altogether by rules of 
construction. It always has some relation to 
the author’s peculiar manner of thinking, and, 
being that sort of expression which his thoughts 
most readily assume, sometimes partakes not 
only of what is characteristic of the man, but 
even of national peculiarity. The words which 
an author employs may be proper and so con¬ 
structed as to violate no rule of syntax, and 
yet his style may have great faults. 

To designate the general characters of style, 
such epithets as concise, diffuse—neat, negli¬ 
gent—nervous, feeble—simple, affected—easy, 
stiff—perspicuous, obscure—elegant, florid— 
are employed. A considerable diversity of 
style may be found in compositions all equally 
excellent in their kind. And, indeed, different 
subjects, as well as the different endowments by 
which genius is distinguished, require this divers¬ 
ity. But in forming his style the learner should 
remember that a negligent, feeble, affected, 
stiff or obscure style is always faulty, and that 
perspicuity, ease, simplicity, strength and neat¬ 
ness are qualities always to be aimed at. 


In order to acquire a good style, the frequent 
practice of composing and writing something 
is indispensably necessary. Without exercise 
and diligent attention, rules or precepts for the 
attainment of this object will be of no avail. 
When the learner has acquired such a knowl¬ 
edge of grammar as to be in some degree qual¬ 
ified for the undertaking, he should devote a 
stated portion of his time to composition. This 
exercise will bring the powers of his mind into 
requisition in a way that is well calculated to 
strengthen them. And if he has opportunity 
for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the 
best authors, acquire both language and taste, 
as well as sentiment; and these three are the 
essential qualifications of a good writer. 

In regard to the qualities which constitute a 
good style, we can here offer no more than a 
few brief hints. With respect to words and 
phrases, particular attention should be paid to 
purity, propriety and precision; and with 
respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity 
and strength. Under each of these heads we 
shall arrange, in the form of short precepts, a 
few of the most important directions for the 
forming of style. 

Of Purity. 

Purity of style consists in the use of only such words and 
phrases as belong to the language which we write or speak. 

1. Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms ; 
as, fraicheur, hauteur, dclicatesse, politesse ; he repented him¬ 
self ; it serves to an excellent purpose. 

2. Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated ‘ 
words ; as, whilom, erewhile , albeit, aforetime, methinks. 

3. Avoid strange or unauthorized words ; as, Jlutteration, 
unspectator, judgematical, electerized. 


•P 
























































COMPOSITION. 


ST 


4. Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is 
ridiculous, however serious the subject; as, “Personifications, 
however rich the depictions, and unconstrained their latitude ; 
analysis, however imposing the objects of parallel and the 
media of comparison: can never expose the consequences of 
sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration.” 

Of Propriety. 

Propriety oflanguage consists in the selection and right con¬ 
struction of such words as the best usage has appropriated to 
those ideas which we intend to express. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; such as, “says 
/,” “thinks I to myself,” “to get into a scrape,” “Stay here 
while I return.” 

2. In writing prose, avoid words or phrases that are nearly 
poetical; such as morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, stcepy. 

3. Avoid technical terms, except where they are necessary 
in treating of a particular art or science. In technology they 
are proper. 

4. Avoid the recurrence of words in the different senses, or 
such repetition of words as denotes paucity oflanguage ; as, “ His 
own reason might have suggested better reasons .” “ Gregory 
favored the undertaking for no other reason than this: the 
manager, in countenance, favored his friend.” “ I want to go 
and see what he wants.” 

5. Supply words that are wanting. Thus, instead of saying, 
“This action increased his former success,” say, “This action 
increased the merit of his former success.” 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, “ His mem¬ 
ory shall be lost on the earth.” “ I long since learned to like 
nothing but what you do” 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, “I 
have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house 
politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion.” 
“ These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the 
author’s meaning.” 

8. Observe the natural order of things and events and do 
not put the cart before the horse ; as, “ The scribes taught and 
studied the law of Moses.” “ They can neither return to nor 
leave their houses.” “He tumbled, head over heels, into the 
water.” 

Of Precision. 

Precision consists of avoiding all superfluous words and adapt¬ 
ing the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither 
more nor less than is intended by the author. 

1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or senti¬ 
ment; as, “return again; return back again; converse 
together; rise up ; fall down ; enter in ; a mutual likeness to each 
other; the latter end ; liquid streams ; grateful thanks ; the last 
of all; throughout the whole book.” “Wherever I go, he al¬ 
ways meets me there.” “ Where is he at? ” “ In there.” “Noth¬ 
ing else but that.” “It is odious and hateful.” “His faith¬ 
fulness andfidelity should be rewarded.” 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonym¬ 
ous, and employ those which are the most suitable ; as, “A 
diligent scholar may acquire knowledge, gain celebrity, obtain 
rewards, win prizes and get high honor, though he earn no 


7 

41 


money.” These six verbs have nearly the same meaning, and 
yet they cannot well be changed. 

Of Perspicuity. 

Perspicuity consists- in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. 
It is a quality so essential in every kind of writing that for the 
want of it no merit can atone. “Without it,” says Blair, “the 
richest ornaments of style only glimmer through the dark, and 
puzzle instead of pleasing the reader.” Perspicuity, being the 
most important property of language, and an exemption from 
the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree 
of positive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that 
frees us from all suspense in regard to the meaning; that 
“carries us through the subject without embarrassment or con¬ 
fusion, and that always flows like a limpid stream, through 
which we can see to the very bottom.” 

1. Place adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs 

and explanatory phrases as near as possible to the words to 
which they relate, and in such a situation as the sense requires. 
The following sentences are deficient in perspicuity: “ Rever¬ 

ence is the veneration paid to superior sanctity, inter¬ 
mixed with a degree of awe.” “The Romans understood 
liberty, at least, as well as we.” “Taste was never made to 
cater for vanity.” 

2. In prose avoid a poetic collocation of words. 

3. Avoid faulty ellipsis, and repeat all words- necessary to 
preserve the sense. The following sentences require the words 
inserted in brackets: “Restlessness of mind disqualifies us both 
for the enjoyment of peace and \_for~\ the performance of our 
duty.” “The Christian religion gives a more lovely character 
to God than any [ other~\ religion ever did.” 

Of Unity. 

Unity consists in avoiding useless breaks or pauses and keep¬ 
ing one object predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. 
Every sentence, whether its parts be few or many, requires 
strict unity. 

1. Avoid brokenness and hitching. The following para¬ 
graph lacks the very quality of which it speaks: “But most of 
all, in a single sentence, is required the strictest unity. It may 
consist of parts, indeed, but these parts recast, be so closely bound 
together as to make the impression upon the mind of one object, 
not of many.” 

2. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and dis¬ 
tinct sentiments in separate sentences. Error: “The two vol¬ 
umes are, indeed, intimately connected and constitute one uni¬ 
form system of English grammar.” 

3. In the process of a sentence, do not desert the principal 
subject in favor of adjuncts. Error: “To substantives belong 
gender, number and case; and they are all of the third person 
when spoken of, and of the second when spoken to.” 

4. Do not introduce parentheses except where a lively re¬ 
mark may be thrown in without diverting the mind too long 
from the principal subject. 

Of Strength. 

Strength consists in giving to the several words and members 
of a sentence such an arrangement as shall bring out the 
sense to the best advantage and present every idea in its due 




































Q1 


importance. A concise style is the most favorable to strength. 

1. Place the most important words in the situation in which 
they will make the strongest impression. 

2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and 
when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should 
be the concluding one. 

3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their re¬ 
semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking if some 
resemblance in the language and construction be preserved. 

4. It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an 
adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, 
which may either be omitted or introduced earlier. 

A Discourse and its Parts. 

A composition in which a proposition is laid down and an 
attempt made to persuade others that it is true is an argumen¬ 
tative discourse. If it is on religious subjects, it is a sermon; 
on other subjects, a speech or oration. 

Orations by the ancients were divided into six parts, to-wit: 
The Exordium, or introduction, in which the speaker strove 
to make his hearers attentive and disposed to receive his argu¬ 
ments. 

The Division, or plan the speaker intended to pursue in treat¬ 
ing the subject. 

The Statement, in which the subject and facts connected 
therewith were laid down. 

The Reasoning, in which the arguments were set forth. 

The Appeal to the feelings—a most important division of a 
discourse. 

The Peroration, in which the speaker summed up all he had 
said and concluded his discourse. 

Aii Essay. 

An Essay is a composition, generally on some abstract sub¬ 
ject, devoted rather to an investigation of causes, effects, etc., 
than to an examination of visible and material peculiarities. 
Brief descriptions and narrations may be introduced with ad¬ 


vantage. 


Figures of Rhetoric. 


A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary application of words. Some figures of this 
kind are commonly called Tropes, i.e., turns. 

The principal figures of Rhetoric are twenty-two, namely: 

A Simile is a simple and express comparison and is 
generally introduced by like, as or so. 

Example. —“At first, like thunder's distant tone, 

The rattling din came rolling on.’’— Hogg. 

“ Man, like the generous vine, supported lives. 

The strength he gains is from th’ embrace he gives.” 

— Pope. 

A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance 
of two objects by applying either the name or some attribute, 
adjunct or action of the one directly to the other. 

Example. —“ His eye was morning's brightest ray." — Hogg. 

“ Beside him sleeps the warrior’s bow.” 

— Longfellow. 

An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, 
designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus 
the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol 


of a vine: “Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt; thou 
hast cast out the heathen and planted it,” etc. 

Note.—T he allegory includes most of those similitudes which 
in the Scriptures are called parables; it includes also the better 
sort of fables. 

Metonymy is a change of names—calling one object 
by the name of another that sustains some relation to it. The 
principal relations on which this figure is founded are as fol¬ 
lows : 

1. Cause and effect; as, “Extravagance is the ruin of many” 
—that is, the cause of ruin. 

2. Ancestor and descendants; as, “ Then shall Judah 
triumph”—that is, the descendants of Judah. 

3. Attribute and that to which it belongs ; as, “ Pride shall 
be brought low ”—that is, the proud. 

4. Container and the thing contained; as, “ The kettle 
boils ”—that is, the water in the kettle. 

5. Emblem and thing represented ; as, “This was offensive 
to the crown ” —that is, the king. 

6. Material and thing made of it; as, '•‘Gold is all-power¬ 
ful ”—that is, money. 

Synecdoche is the meaning of the whole for a part, or 
of a part for the whole; as, “This roof [ i.e., house] protects 
you. ” “ Now the year [i.e., summer] is beautiful. ” 

Ilyherhole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the 
imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth. 

Example. —“The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, 

And trembling Tiber div'd be?ieath his bed." — Dryden. 

Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker 
represents the objects of his imagination as actually before his 
eyes and present to his senses. 

Example. —“I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! 

I see the Moray’s silver star 

Wave o’er the cloud of Saxon war 

That up the lake comes winding far! ”— Scott. 

Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the 
subject into an animated address. 

Example. —“ Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death! where is 
thy sting ? O grave ! where is thy victory? ”—/. Cor., ij: S4~SS' 

Prosopopoeia, or Personification, is a figure by 
which in imagination we ascribe intelligence and personality 
to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities. 

Examples. —“The Worm, aware of his intent, 

Harangued him thus, right eloquent.”— Cowper. 

“Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears! ”— Rogers. 

El’Otesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form 
of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, con¬ 
fidently to assert the reverse of what is asked. 

Example. —“ Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder 
with a voice like him? ”— fob, 4o:q. 

EcpliOliesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some 
violent emotion of the mind. 

Example. —“ O liberty ! —O sound once delightful to every Roman 
ear!—O sacred privilege of Roman citizenship !—once sacred—now 
trampled upon.”— Cicero. 

Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition to heighten 
their effect by contrast. 


/ 




(D 































COMPOSITION. 


43 



Example. —“Contrasted faults through all his manners reign : 

Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain ; 

Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue ; 

And e’en in penance, planning sins anew."-Goldsmith. 

Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to advance 
by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more important 
and interesting, or to descend to what is more and more min¬ 
ute and particular. 

Examples. —“Then Virtue became silent, heartsick, pined away and 
died." 

Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly utters the 
direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood; as, “Go 
on ; time is worth nothing" —meaning that it is very valuable. 

Apopliasis is the pretended suppression of what one is 
all the time actually mentioning; as, u I shall say nothing of the 
immorality prevalent in Paris—immorality which is all the more 
dangerous because arrayed in the most attractive garbs.” 

The Parallel is a figure used to show the resemblance 
between two characters or writings, to show their conformity in 
essential points; as, the parallel between the Old and New 
Testament. 

Paralipsis pretends to conceal or omit what is really 
suggested and enforced. 

Example.—"I will not call him a villain because it would be unpar¬ 
liamentary.” 


Allusion is a figure by which some word or phrase in a 
sentence calls to mind, as if accidentally, another similar or 
analogous subject. 

Example. —“I was surrounded with difficulties, and possessed no 
clue by which I could effect my escape.” 

Repetition seizes some emphatic word or phrase, and, to 
mark its importance, makes it occur frequently in the same 
sentence. 

Example. —“He sang Darius, great and good, 

By too severe a fate, 

Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen, 

Fallen from his high estate and weltering in his blood.” 

Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter at the be¬ 
ginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each 
other. 

Example. —“The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair.” 

Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what 
would be disagreeable or offensive if told in the plainest lan¬ 
guage. 

Example. —Cushi did not say to David, “Absalom is killed ; ” but, 
“May all the enemies of the king be as that young man." 

Onomatopoeia is the formation of words in such a man¬ 
ner that their sound will suggest the sense ; as, buzz, hiss, roar. 
Example. —“On the ear 
Drops the light drip of the suspended oar.” 



* .1 

L J J 


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P i \ 

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W 


PROSODY 




Dr. Blair says that the best definition of 
Poetry is this: “ Poetry is the language of pas¬ 
sion, or of enlivened imagination, formed most 
commonly into regular numbers.” Poetry is 
older than prose. Poems and songs are the 
first objects that make their appearance in all 
nations. During the infancy of Poetry all its 
different kinds were mingled in the same com¬ 
position; but in the progress of society poems 
assumed their different regular forms. 

Prosody is that part of Grammar which 
treats of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and 
the modes in which they are combined in verse. 

Versification. 

Versification is the art of arranging words into lines of 
corresponding length so as to produce harmony by the regular 
alternation of syllables differing in quantity. Verse is therefore 
language so arranged in lines that syllables of certain length 
may occur at certain intervals. 

Verse is the form in which poetry generally appears. Poetry 
is distinguished from prose not only by this form, but by its 


containing more figures, as well as peculiar words and ex¬ 
pressions. 

There are two kinds of verse, Rhyme and Blank Verse. 

Rliyine is that kind of verse in which there is a corre¬ 
spondence of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines ; as : 

“True wit is nature to advantage dress'd, 

What oft was thought, but ne’er so well express'd.” 

Illauk V erse is metrical language without rhyme ; as : 

“Shall we serve Heaven 
With less respect than we do minister 
To our gross selves? ” 

Quantity. 

By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the time required 
i for its utterance. According to this time, syllables are distin¬ 
guished as Long and Short. One long syllable is equivalent to 
two short ones. 

A long syllable may be denoted by a short horizontal line 
placed over its vowel; a short syllable, by a curve. 

In the case of monosyllables, nouns, adjectives, verbs, ad¬ 
verbs and interjections are for the most part long ; articles are 
always short; prepositious and conjunctions are generally 
short; pronouns are long when emphasized; when not, short. 

Poetic Feet. 

A Foot is two or more syllables constituting a portion of a 
line. 

A Fine of Poetry consists of successive combinations 
of feet. 






















































COMPOSITION. 




44 


The most important feet in English verse are as follows: 

The Iambus, a short syllable and a long . . ' “ severe. 

The Trochee, a long syllable and a short . . . “'trembling. 

The Spondee, two long syllables .... “ ' cold winds. 

The Pyrrhic, two short syllables . . . . wilderness. 

The Anapest, two short and a long . . . . ' ’ ' barricade. 

The Dactyl, a long and two short . . . . * * ’ tenderly. 

The Amphibrach, a short, a long and a short . ’ “ tremendous. 

The Amphimacer, a long, a short and a long - - - saddle-bags. 

In addition to these there are the Molosse, of three long sylla¬ 
bles ; the Tribrach, of three short; the Bacchy, a short syllable 
and two long ones; the Antibacchy, or Hypobacchy, two long 
syllables and a short one. 

The four principal kinds of verse or poetic measure are the 
Iambus, Trochee, Anapest and Dactyl. 

When a line is wholly composed of any of these four feet, it 
is called Pure. The remaining feet never form whole lines 
by themselves, but are sometimes interspersed with other feet. 
A line into which different feet enter is called Mixed. 

Metre. 

By Metres are .meant the different systems according to 
which verses or lines are formed. They are named from the 
feet employed and their number. 

Metres in which the iambus prevails are called Iambic; those 
in which the trochee prevails, Trochaic ; the anapest, Anapestic ; 
the dactyl, Dactylic. 

Distinguished by the number of feet in a line, the varieties of 
metre are as follows: Monometer, which consists of one foot; 
Dimeter, of two feet; Trimeter, of three; Tetrameter , of four; 
Pentameter , of five ; Hexameter, of six; Heptameter , of seven; 
Odometer, of eight. 

Some metres, besides a certain number of complete feet, con¬ 
tain a syllable over at the end of the line. Such metres are 
called Hypercatalectic, or Hypermeter. When a syllable is want¬ 
ing the verse is said to be catalectic ; when the measure is ex¬ 
act the line is acatalectic. 

Scanning, or Scansion, is the process of dividing a 
line into the feet of which it is composed. 

Stanza--Long, Short and Common Metre. 

A Stanza is the combination of several lines in poetry, 
forming a distinct division of the poem ; as : 

“The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 

And leaves the world to darkness and to me.” 

A Verse is but a single line of a stanza—a certain number 
of long and short syllables, metrically disposed. 

“The curfew tolls the knell of parting day.” 

Long 1 Metre. 

The long, short and common metres are known by the num¬ 
ber of feet or syllables found in them. Long metre stanzas 
contain in each line four iambic feet; as: 

“Through every age, eternal God, 

Thou art our rest, our safe abode: 

High was thy throne ere heaven was made, 

Or earth, thy humble footstool, laid.” 


A 


Short Metre. 

Short metre stanzas contain three lines of six syllables and 
one of eight syllables—the third line being the longest and con¬ 
taining four iambic feet; as: 

“Sweet is the time of Spring, 

When nature’s charms appear; 

The birds with ceaseless pleasure sing 
And hail the opening year.” 

Common Metre. 

Iambic verse of seven feet, divided into two lines, the first 
containing four and the latter three feet, makes what is known 
as common metre ; as : 

“When all thy mercies, O my God! 

My rising soul surveys, 

Transported with the view, I’m lost 
In wonder, love and praise.” 

Iambic Verse. 

In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, and 
the odd ones are short. It consists of the following measures : 
Measure 1st. Iambic of Eiglit Feet, or Octometer, 

“O all | yg peo|-plg, clap | your hands, 1 and with | trlum|phant 
voic| -gs sing; 

No force | thg mlght| -y pow’r | withstands | of God | thg 
u| -nlvers| - al King.” 

Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or 
exchanged for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter lines ; thus : 

“The hour | is come | —the cher| -ish’d hour, 

When, from | the bus|-y world | set free, 

I seek | at length | my lone| -ly bower, 

And muse | in si| -lent thought ) on thee.” 

Measure 2nd. Iambic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 

“Thg Lord | dgscend|-gd from | above 1 and bow’d]tha hgav|-gns high.” 

Modern poets have divided this kind of verse into alternate 
lines of four and of three feet; thus : 

“O blind | to each | Indul|-ggnt aim 
Of pow’r 1 supreme|-ly wise, 

Who fan|-cy haplpiness 1 in aught 
The hand | of Heav’n | denies! ” 

Measure 3rd. Iambic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 

“Thy realm | forev|-gr lasts, | thy own | Mgssl| -ah reigns.” 

This is the Alexandrine; it is seldom used except to com¬ 
plete a stanza in an ode, or to close a period in heroic rhyme. 

Measure 4th. Iambic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 

“For praise | too dear| -ly lov’d | or warm] -ly sought 
Enfeepblgs all | Inter|-nal strength | of thought.” 

This is the regular English heroic. It is perhaps the only 
measure suitable for blank verse. The Elegiac stanza consists 
of four heroics rhyming alternately; thus : 

“Enough 1 has Heav’n | indulg'd | of joy | below 
To tempt | our tarj-riance in | this lov’d | retreat; 

Enough | has Heav’n | ordain’d | of use|-ful woe, 

To make | us lanI -guish for | a hap |-pier seat.” 

Measure 5th. Iambic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 

“Thg joj's | above | are un]-dgrstood 
And rel| -Ish’d on| -ly by | thg good.” 

Measure 6th. Iambic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 

“Blue light) -nlngs singe | thg waves, 

And thun| -dgr rgnds | thg rock.” 

. .. . \ 



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COMPOSITION. 


45 


Measure 7th. Iambic o£ Two Feet, or Dimeter. 

“Th6ir love | and awe 
Supply | the law.” 

Measure 8tli. Iambic of One Feet, or Monometer. 

“How bright 
The light.” 

In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied by introducing 
a trochee; as: 

“Planets | and suns | run law|-16ss through | the sky.” 

By a synseresis of the two short syllables, or perhaps by mere 
substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iam¬ 
bus, or a dactyl for a trochee; as: 

“ O'er man\-y a froz |-en, man| -y a Ji\ -ery Alp." 

Trochaic Verse. 

In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and 
the even ones are short. Single-rhymed Trochaic omits the 
final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. This kind 
of verse is the same as iambic would be without the initial short 
syllable. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the same poem. 


Measure 7th. Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 

“Fancy | viewing, 

Joys en|-suing.” 

SINGLE RHYME. 

“Tumult | cease, 

Sink to | peace.” 

Measure 8th. Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer. 

“Changing, 

Ranging.” 


Anapestic Verse. 


In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syllable. 
The first foot of an anapestic line may be an iambus. 

Measure 1st. Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 
“At th6 close | of thg day, | wh6n thS ham| -let Is still, 

And mor -|tals the sweet | of forgell -fulness prove.” 

HYPERMETER WITH DOUBLE RHYME. 

“In a word, | so complete| -ly forestall’d | were the wish| -es, 

Even har|-mony struck, | from the noise | of the dish|-es.” 


Measure 1st. Trochaic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. 
“Once up |-on a | midnight | dreary, | while I | pondered, | weak and | 
weary, 

Over | many a | quaint and | curious | volume | of for|-gotten | lore. 
While I | nodded, j nearly | napping, | sudden|-ly there | came a | 
tapping, 

As of | some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | chamber [ 
door.” 

Measure 2nd. Trochaic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 
“Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | trouble; 
Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re|-ward their | mischief | 
double.” 

SINGLE RHYME. 

“Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Water|-loo: 

Cocks had | sung their | earliest | greeting; | faint and | low 
they | crew.” 

Measure 3rd. Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 

“On 3. | mountain | stretch’d bg|-neath a | hoary | willow, 

Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view’d the | rolling | billow.” 

SINGLE RHYME. 

“Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his | birth, 

Lived a | necro| -mancer, | wondrous | son of | earth.” 

Measure 4th. Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 

“Virtue’s | brlght’nlng | ray shall | beam for|ev6r.” 

SINGLE RHYME. 

“Idle | after | dinner, | In his | chair. 

Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat and | fair.” 

Measure 5tli. Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 
“Round a | holy | calm dif| -fusing. 

Love of | peace and | lonely | musing.” 

SINGLE RHYME. 

“Restless | mortals | toll for | naught, 

Bliss in j vain from | earth is | sought.” 

Measure 6th. Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 

“When our | hearts S.re | mourning.” 




SINGLE RHYME. 

“In the | days of | old 
Stories | plainly | told.” 


HYPERMETER WITH TRIPLE RHYME. 

“Lean Tom, | when I saw | him, last week, | on his horse | awry , 
Threaten’d loud| -ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor\-cery.” 

Measure 2nd. Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 
“I a.m mon|-5rch of all | I survey; 

My right | there is none | to dispute.” 

Measure 3rd. Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 

“ WhSn I look | on my boys, 

They renew | all my joys.” 

Measure 4th. Auapestic of One Foot, or Monometer. 

“On the land 
Let me stand.” 

Dactylic Verse. 


In the pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first sylla¬ 
ble of each successive three; that is, on the first, the fourth, 
the seventh, the tenth syllable, etc. Full dactylic generally 
forms triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is 
omitted the rhyme is double ; when both, single. Dactylic 
with single rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without 
its initial short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather uncom¬ 
mon, and, when employed, is seldom perfectly regular. 

Measure 1st. Dactylic of Eiglit Feet, or Octometer. 

“Nimrod the | hunter was | mighty In ] hunting, and | famed as the | 
ruler of | cities of | yore; 

Babel and | Erech, and | Accad, and | Calneh, from | Shinar’s 
fair | region his | name afar | bore.” 

Measure 2nd. Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 

“Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by | angels 
o’er | Satan vic|-torious, 

All that of | -fendeth, that | lieth, that | faileth to | honor his | 
name ever | glorious.” 


Measure 3rd. Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 

“Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, years 
and | ages; 

Restless as | waves of the | ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas | 
rages.” 



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EXAMPLE WITHOUT RHYME. 

“This is the | forest pri] -meval; but | where are the | hearts that 
be] -neath it 

Leap’d like the | roe, when he | hears in the | woodland the | 
voice of the | huntsman?” 

Measure 4th. Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 

“Now thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me | from the dark | sea, 

Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, | land of the | free.” 

Measure 5th. Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 

“Bovs will &n|-tlclpate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
All that your | busy pate | hoarded with | care; 

And, in their | foolishness, | passion and | mulishness, 
Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your | pray’r.” 

Measure 6th. Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 

“Ev6r sing | merrily, | merrily.” 

Measure 7th. Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 

“Free from sa| -tiety, 

Care and anx|-iety, 

Charms in va|-riety 
Fall to his | share.” 

Measure 8th. Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer. 

“Fearfully, 

Tearfully.” 

Caesural Pause. 

A slight pause should be made, in reading poetry, at the end 
of every line, though the sense may not require it. Often a 
pause is made in or near the middle of the line, especially when 
it is a long one. This brings out the meaning and improves 
the rhythm and effect. This pause is called the assured pause 
(i.e., cutting ). The final pause is that occurring at the end of 
a line, and should not be distinctly marked when the sense does 
not require it. 

Varieties of Poetry. 

Poetry is of various kinds, such as Epic, Dramatic, Lyric, 
Elegiac, Pastoral and Didactic. 

Epic Poetry is the most dignified. An epic poem is 
the recital of some illustrious enterprise in a poetical form. 
The action or subject of an epic poem must have three proper¬ 
ties: it must be one; it must be great; it must be interesting. 
One action or enterprise must constitute its subject. Homer’s 
Iliad, Virgil’s PEneid and Milton’s Paradise Lost are examples 
of epic poetry. 

Didactic Poetry is written with the express intention 
to convey instruction and knowledge. It may be executed in 
different ways. The poet may treat some instructive subject in 
a regular form, or he may inveigh against particular vices or 
make some moral observations on human life and character. 

Descriptive Poetry is indicated by its name. In 
general, description is introduced as an embellishment, not as 
the subject of a regular work. 


A (Tiailt is a song or words suited to musical tones with¬ 
out musical measure. 

A Hymn is a song of praise, generally of a religious char¬ 
acter. 

An Ode is similar to a song or hymn. There are four de¬ 
nominations of these. I. Odes addressed to God or composed 
on religious subjects. 2. Heroic odes, which concern the cele¬ 
bration of heroes and great actions. 3. Moral or philosophical 
odes, which refer chiefly to virtue, friendship and humanity. 4. 
Festive and amorous odes, which are calculated merely for 
amusement or pleasure. 

A Paeail is a loud and joyous song, a song of triumph or 
rejoicing. 

A Ballad is a popular song, narrative or sentimental, in 
simple, homely verses. 

An Epithalamillin is a nuptial song or poem in praise 
of the bride or bridegroom. The Song of Solomon in the Bible 
is a specimen. 

An Epigram is a short poem treating only of one thing 
and ending with some lively, ingenious and natural thought. 

A Sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, two stanzas of four 
verses each and two of three each, and so arranged that in the 
first part the first line is made to rhyme with the fourth, fifth 
and eighth, the second rhyming with the third, sixth and 
seventh, while in the second part the first, third and fifth, and 
the second, fourth and sixth, also rhyme with each other. 

A Cantata is a poem set to music, comprising choruses 
and solos and recitations, arranged in a somewhat dramatic 
manner. 

A Canzonet is a short song in one, two or three parts. 

A Charade may be in prose as well as poetry. It is based 
upon a word, the parts of which taken separately are significant 
of their meaning and that of the whole word. 

An Epitaph is a brief descriptive sentence, in prose or 
verse, which is used on a tombstone. 

A Satire is a composition, generally poetical, holding up 
vice or folly to reprobation ; a keen or severe exposure of what 
in public or private morals deserves rebuke; an invective 
poem. 

A Parody is a kind of poetical pleasantry in which what is 
written on a subject, generally serious, is altered and applied 
in a ludicrous vein. 

A Prologue is a poem introductory to a play or discourse, 
generally spoken before the play begins. 

An Epilogue is a short poem reviewing the main inci¬ 
dents of a play, spoken by the actor or actors at the termination 
of a performance. 

An Impromptu is a verse or poetical composition writ¬ 
ten off-hand without previous study. 

An Acrostic is a composition, usually in verse, in which 
the first or last letters of the lines, in their order, or of words, 
one in each line, form a name or sentence. 


Various Kinds of Poems. 


Poetical Peculiarities or License. 


There are many kinds of poems, of which the following are 
the chief designations: 

A Song is a short poem to be sung or uttered with musical 
modulations. 


The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in 
which poets indulge' and are indulged, and which are termed 
poetic license, which is a deviation from the strict rules of gram¬ 
mar. 


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COMPOSITION. 


47 


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1. They very often omit the articles; as: 

“ What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime 

Like ship-wreck'd mari/ier on desert waste! ” 

2 . They abbreviate many nouns; as, amaze for amazement; 
corse for corpse; fount for fountain. 

3. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose or 
are used but rarely; as, benison,fane, ken, welkin. 

4. They introduce the noun self after another noun in the 
possessive case; as : 

“Affliction’s self deplores thy youthful doom.” 

5. They often place adjectives after their nouns; a£ : 

“ Come, nymph demure , with mantle blue.” 

6 . They place before the verb nouns or other words that 
usually come after it; and after it, those that usually come be¬ 
fore it; as: 

“ No jealousy their dawn of love o’ercast, 

Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife.” 

7. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not liter¬ 
ally belong; as: 

“ Or drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.” 

8. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities (i.e., 
adjectives for nouns); as : 

“ Meanwhile, whate’er of beautiful or new. 

Sublime or dreadful, on earth, sea or sky.” 

9. They substitute quality for manner (i.e., adjectives for ad¬ 
verbs) ; as: 

“ Thither continual pilgrims crowded still.” 

10. They form new compound epithets ; as: 

“ In vJorld- rejoicing state, it moves sublime.” 

11. They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as : 

“ Near and more near the billows rise.” 

12. They form many adjectives in y which are not in common 
use; as, a gleamy ray ; towery height; vasty deep. 

13. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form; as, 
drear for dreary ; scant for scanty ; ebon for ebony. 

14. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, 
or are used but seldom ; as, azuie, darksome, rapt, sear. 

15. They employ personal pronouns and introduce their nouns 
afterwards; as: 

“It curled not Tweed alone, that breeze.” 

16. They sometimes omit the relative of the nominative case ; 
as: 

“ For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise?” 

17. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the rela¬ 
tive ; as: 

“ W ).10 never fasts, no banquet e’er enjoys.” 

18. They remove relative pronouns and other connections in¬ 
to the body of the clauses ; as: 

“ Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck.” 

19. They make intransitive verbs transitive; as: 

“-A while he stands, 

Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 

To meditate the blue profound below.” 


20. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third 
person; as: 

“ Turn we a moment fancy’s rapid flight.” 

“ Be man’s peculiar work his sole delight.” 

21. They employ can, could and would as principal verbs 
transitive; as: 

“ What for ourselves we can, is always ours.” 

22. They place the infinitive before the word on which it 
depends; as: 

“ When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed.” 

23. They place the auxiliary after its principal; as : 

“ No longer heed the sunbeam bright 
That plays on Carron’s breast he can.” 

24. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit 
prefixes; as, begird, bedim, for gird, dim; lure, wail, for al¬ 
lure, bewail. 

25. They abbreviate verbs ; as, list for listen ; ope for open. 

26. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose or 
are used but rarely ; as, astound, ween, trow. 

27. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the in¬ 
finitive ; as : 

“ For not to have been dipp’d in Lethe lake 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die.” 

. 28. They employ the participles more frequently than prose 
writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar; as: 

“ He came, and, standing in their midst, explained 

The peace rejected, but the truce obtained.” 

29. They employ several adverbs that are not used in prose 
or are used but seldom ; as, haply, felly, rifely. 

30. They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as: 

“ Peeping from forth their alleys green.” 

31. They omit the introductory adverb there; as : 

“Was nought around but images of rest.” 

32. They employ the conjunctions or ....or and nor .... 
nor; as: 

“ Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po.” 

33. They often place prepositions and their adjuncts before 
the words on which they depend ; as : 

“Against your fame with fondness hate combines.” 

34. They sometimes place the preposition after its object; 
as: 

“When beauty', Eden’s bowers within.” 

35. They employ interjections more frequently than prose 
writers; as: 

“ Oh, let me gaze—of gazing there’s no end. 

Oh, let me think—Thought too is wilder’d here.” 

36. They employ antiquated words and modes of expression; 
as: 

“ Withouten that would come an heavier bale.” 

“ He was to weet, a little roguish page, 

Save sleep and play, who minded naught at all.” 






























ELOCUTION. 


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48 






HOW TO READ AND SPEAK CORRECTLY AND ELEGANTLY. 


^jjp^LOCUTION does not consist, as many 
;*1*/»; suppose, in merely learning to “ recite 
pieces.’* It is the art of reading and 
speaking in the most correct and ele¬ 
gant manner. Before this can be at¬ 
tained it is necessary to articulate dis¬ 
tinctly, to pronounce correctly, and to cultivate 
and strengthen the vocal organs. 

The study of Elocution is one in which 
none can be pronounced perfect. As, in pen¬ 
manship, a proficient may greatly improve by 
practice, and thousands are content to possess a 
handwriting next to illegible, instead of the 
neat, elegant hand of which they could easily 
become master, so thousands are satisfied with 
a harsh, disagreeable voice, a careless articula¬ 
tion, a monotonous expression and a repulsive 
manner, when by a proper training they might 
become fluent conversationalists, expressive 
readers and easy, if not eloquent, speakers. 
How many are content to .work with one 
talent, when they could readily possess five! 
Among well educated persons of taste and 
refinement, how often do we find those to 
whom a knowledge of Elocution would be inval¬ 
uable, because of its power to set forth their 
other accomplishments! The first tones of a 
speaker’s voice always convey an idea, favorable 
or unfavorable, of the speaker himself; and, if 
the latter, much effort will be required of him 
to regain the estimation so unwittingly lost. 
What can be more satisfactory to its possessor 
than a rich, clear, melodious tone, a distinct, 
clean-cut articulation, a perfect command of the 
modulations, and a pleasing style both in voice 


and manner? All this is possible to any one 
who does not possess imperfect vocal organs 
and who will assiduously devote himself or her¬ 
self to the study, believing it to be worthy of 
all efforts required to obtain a mastery of the 
art. 

Elocution consists in the utterance or ex¬ 
pression of tho ught. 

Thought may be conveyed by voice or ges¬ 
ture; the latter reaching the hearer through the 
eye, the former through the ear. 

Elocution may be divided into four branches, 
viz.: Vocal Culture , Articulation , Expression, or 
Modulation, and Gesture. 

Vocal Culture. 

Voice is produced by breath passing over the vocal chords, 
which are situated in the larynx, or upper portion of the wind¬ 
pipe. 

The voice is the principal agent by which thought is conveyed, 
and is the basis of elocution. 

Proper llreatllillg consists in taking in and giving 
out full inspirations of pure air in such a manner as not to in¬ 
terfere with speech. . Correct breathing is an important factor 
in elocution, of more consequence than might be supposed. It 
should be so timed as not to interfere with speech. Breath should 
be taken only at pauses. Study at first never to destroy the 
connection of the thought by a pause for breathing purposes. In 
long sentences we should economize the breath as much as 
possible. 

The culture of the voice should be a matter of necessity as 
well as the training of the mind or the development of the body. 
Frequent vigorous practice induces healthy activity ; the voice is 
strengthened and rendered pure and resonant. 

Articulation. 

Articulation consists of a distinct and correct utterance 
of the elementary sounds. These sounds, forty-six in number, 
are formed by the organs of speech and are divided into Vocal 
Sounds, Aspirate Sounds and Combined Sounds. 



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ELOCUTION. 


49 


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The Organs of Articulation are the tongue, lips, 
palate and teeth, forming the Lingual, Labial, Palatal and 
Dental sounds, respectively. These organs, like valves, act 
either singly or together upon the stream of breath issuing from 
the larynx, and mould sound into speech. The mouth cavity 
and nasal cavity assist in modifying the tone of voice, giving it 
character and resonance. 

Vocal Sounds are those having vocality. 

Aspirate Sounds are those produced by the breath only. 

Combined Sounds are those which are produced by 
both voice and breath. 

Cognates are those sounds which occur in pairs, one vo¬ 
calized and the other not, but both having the same articulate 
modification. 

The Trilled 44 R ?? often adds much to the rendering of 
a passage; but, like the flourish, it may be misplaced. It 
should be used sparingly, seldom or never in the most serious 
discourse. In light descriptions and imitative modulations it 
may be employed, taking care, however, that it is never used 
unless immediately followed by a vowel sound. 

Practice in articulation should be directed especially to those 
exercises in which transitions or repetitions of the 
same sound occur, as those will be quite difficult of mastery. 
See that both sounds are correctly and distinctly given, and that 
the organs of speech pass rapidly from one to the other. 

Examples. — S, s. False sounds. 

sh, sh. Hus//, C/zarlotte! 
z, z. As zealous. „ 

st, si. Sever est si orins. 

Pronunciation. 

The subject of Pronunciation should receive special attention 
by the learner, as a good voice and a distinct articulation tend 
to magnify any defect in utterance. In reading, foreign words 
are often found which are utterly unpronounceable to one not 
having at least an elementary knowledge of the language to 
which they belong. To pronounce such words according to 
English rules would in many cases be allowable ; but this could 
not apply to Goethe and similar names. Clearly the only cor¬ 
rect way is to approach as nearly as possible to the native pro¬ 
nunciation, except in words and names thoroughly anglicized. 
To pronounce Paris Paree would be pedantry. 

Modulation. 

Modulation consists in such a use of the voice as will 
convey the thought in the best manner. It has reference to 
Quality, Melody, Form, Force, Time and Stress. Modulation 
concerns the proper management of the voice in speech and 
treats of those changes that should be made in it to best express 
the sentiment. 

QUALITY OF THE VOICE. 

The Quality or kind of voice may be Pure or Im¬ 
pure. In ordinary conversation, reading or speaking, we 
should always use the Pure ; but in expressing fear, anger, con¬ 
tempt, hatred, loathing, etc., we should employ a different qual¬ 
ity of tone. When we feel the influence of these passions, we 
can easily make use of the proper form, but we should so con¬ 
trol the voice that, in reading or speaking in the absence of 


passion, we can assume the tone best adapted to give expression 
to the sentiment. 

The Pure quality is used in all cases when there is not a 
demand for the Impure. Great attention should be given to 
the cultivation of the conversational voice, until a habit of cor¬ 
rect speech is acquired. This tone should always be full, rich 
and resonant. Of it there are two varieties, the Simple and 
Orotund. 

The Simple Pure is used in ordinary conversation, 
reading and speaking. 

Example. —And he said, A certain man had two sons; and the 
younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the portion of 
goods that falleth to me. And he divided unto them his living. 

The Orotund is a full, round tone used in expressing 
grandeur, awe, sublimity, courage, reverence, veneration and 
other holy emotions. 

Example. — Thou too, sail on, O Ship of State! 

Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 

The Impure quality of voice is used to express the action 
of the baser passions. It is also used in mimicry. The Impure 
qualities are the Aspirate, Pectoral, Guttural and Falsetto. 

The Aspirate is the intense whisper, with little or no vo¬ 
cality. It is used to denote fear, secrecy, great caution, etc. 

Example. —Soldiers, you are now within a few steps of the enemy’s 
outposts. 

The Pectoral is the deep tone of despair and anger. It 
is used to denote great solemnity and in describing the super¬ 
natural. It is orotund, very low in pitch, and is formed wholly 
in the throat. 

Example. —Oh, I have passed a miserable night— 

So full of dreadful dreams and ugly sights, 

That, as I am a Christian, faithful man, 

I would not spend another such a night, 

Though ’twere to buy a world of happy days—• 

So full of dismal terror was the time. 

The Guttural is a harsh throat-tone, lacking the orotund 
quality of the Pectoral—the language of hatred, intense anger, 
loathing and contempt. 

Example. — I loathe ye in my bosom, 

I scorn ye with mine eye, 

And I’ll taunt ye with my latest breath, 

And fight ye till I die! 

The Falsetto is a shrill, high-pitched tone used in ex¬ 
pressing pain or terror. It is also employed in imitating the 
female voice. 

Example. —When the lorn damsel, with a frantic screech 
And cheeks as hueless as a brandy peach, 

Cries, “ Help, kyind Heaven!'” and drops upon her knees 
On the green—baize, beneath the—canvas—trees. 

MELODY. 

Melody in elocution is the effect produced upon the ear 
by the succession of vocal notes. It has reference to Pitch, 
Slides and Cadence. 

Pitch. 

Pitch relates to the elevation or depression of the tone. 
It may be Natural, Low or High. 

Natural Pitch is used in all ordinary discourse. 

Example .— 

England’s sun was slowly setting o’er the hills so far away, 
Filling all the land with beauty at the close of one sad day. 


Y- 


A 
































S) 



ELOCUTION 


Low Pitch is used in language serious, grave, sublime, 
grand, solemn, reverential and vehement. 

Example. —Silence how dead, and darkness how profound; 

No eye nor listening ear an object finds; 

Creation sleeps. 

High Pitch is used to express sentiment lively, joyous 
or impassioned. It is also characteristic of fear and grief. 

Example. —“ Oh, spare my child, my joy, my pride; 

Oh, give me back my child! ” she cried. 

Slides. 

Slides are inflections of the voice used to prevent monotony 
and to give better expression to the idea. They are Ascending 
and Descending; both are united in the Circumflex. In music 
the ascent and descent is made by distinct steps ; but in speech 
the voice is bent more or less up¬ 
ward or downward. These 
changes are continually taking 
place, except in the Monotone, 
and they give expression to the 
voice. 

Ascending Slides de¬ 
note uncertainty, doubt, interro¬ 
gation and incompleteness of 
idea. 

Example. —Hast thou ever known 
the feeling 

I have felt, when I have 
seen, 

’Mid the tombs of aged 
heroes, 

Memories of what hath 
been? 

Descending Slides in¬ 
dicate positiveness, determina¬ 
tion or a completion of the 
thought. 

Example. —Come one, come all, this 
rock shall fly 

From its firm base as 
soon as I! 

The Circumflex is used 
to denote surprise or to express 
a secondary meaning which may 
be in harmony with or directly 
opposite to that conveyed by the 
words. 

Example. — What! shear a -wolf, a prowling -wolf? 

Cadence. 

Cadence is the tone with which a sentence terminates. 
According to the sentiment, it may have the ascending or the 
descending slide, the rising or the falling circumflex, or it may 
vanish with no slide whatever. A sentence expressing a com¬ 
plete thought, having no modifying phrase or clause, and not 
affected by anything preceding or following it, should always 
terminate with a downward inflection; but when so modified it 
should close with a tone adapted to the connection or meaning. 
The reader should study variety and avoid uniformity in closing 
sentences. 


FORM. 

Form of voice may be Natural, Effusive, Expulsive or 
Explosive. 

The Natural is that ordinarily used in conversation. 
Example. —While a single white cloud to its haven of rest. 

On the white wing of peace floated off in the west. 

The Effusive is a very light, gentle form usually charac¬ 
terized by a swell. It is used in expressing that which is beau¬ 
tiful, tranquil or pathetic. It is characteristic of lofty sentiment 
not requiring vigorous expression. 

Example. —How beautiful she is ! how fair 

She lies within those arms that press 
Her form with many a soft caress 
Of tenderness and watchful care. 

The Expulsive is a forcible utterance expressive of de¬ 
termination and intensity of 
feeling. 

Example. —Up, all, and shout for 
Rudiger— 

Defiance unto Death! 

The Explosive is used 
in vehement language and in 
powerful description. It usually 
manifests itself in the bursting of 
the voice on a single word. 
Example .— 

“Halt!” — the dust-brown rank 
stood fast; 

“Fire! ”—out blazed the rifle blast. 


FORCE. 

Force or power of the voice 
is of threekinds, Natural, Heavy 
and Gentle. 

Natural Force is that 
most commonly used in speak¬ 
ing or reading. 

Example .— 

We are two travellers,Roger and I. 
Roger’s my dog—come here, 
you scamp ! 

J ump for the gentleman—mind your 
eye! 


SELF-POSSESSION ON THE PLATFORM. 


Over the table—look out for the 
lamp ! 

Heavy Force is used in 
grand description and in con¬ 


veying any idea of power. 

Example .—Bell never yet was hung 

Between whose lips there swung 
So grand a tongue. 

Gentle Force is used in tender and pathetic descrip¬ 
tion, and in all cases where a subdued form is necessary to cor¬ 
rectly express the sentiment. 

Example .—Noiselessly as the daylight 

Comes when the night is done , 

And the crimson streak on ocean’s cheek 
Grows into the great sun. 

TIME. 

Time in Elocution has reference to Quantity, Rate and 
Pause. 





















































































s> 


7 

ELOCUTION. 51 


Quantity. 

Quantity is the amount of time given to a word. It may 
be Natural, Long or Short. 

Natural Quantity is that usually given to words in 
unemotional language. 

Example. —There is one accomplishment, in particular, which I 
would earnestly recommend to you. Cultivate assiduously the ability 
to read well. 

Long Quantity is used in expressing that which is 
grand, sublime, gloomy or humble. 

Example. —O thou Eternal One ! whose presence bright 
All space doth occupy, all motion guide. 

Short Quantity is used to express sentiment light, 
joyous, gay and brisk. It also expresses haste, fear, command, 
indignation, etc. 

Example .— 

The year is going, let him go; 

Ring out the false, ring in the true. 

Rate. 

Rate is the degree of rapid¬ 
ity or slowness with which sev¬ 
eral successive words are utter¬ 
ed. It may be Natural, Slow 
or Fast. 

Natural Rate is that 

which a person naturally uses 
in reading or speaking. 

Example .— 

O good painter, tell me true, 

Has your hand the cunning to draw 
Shapes of things that you never 
saw? 

Slow Rate may denote 
horror and awe; it should be 
used in language serious, sub¬ 
lime and pathetic. 

Example .— 

Meanwhile the shapeless iron mass 

Came moving o’er the wave, 

As gloomy as a passing hearse, 

As silent as the grave. 

Fast Rate is used to ex¬ 
press sentiment lively, joyous, 
impassioned and vehement. 

Example .— 

Hurrah! the foes are moving! Hark to the mingled din 
Of fife and steed, and trump and drum, and roaring culverin 1 

Pause. 

Pause is the suspension of the voice. Poetic and Oratori¬ 
cal Pauses express emotion. Rhetorical Pauses are those de¬ 
manded by the sense and structure of a sentence. Grammatical 
Pauses are those indicated by the usual marks of punctuation, 
and Prosodical Pauses are those used only in verse. But in 
this connection it is best to make three divisions, viz.: Nat¬ 
ural Pause, Long Pause and Short Pause. 

Natural Pause is used in unimpassioned language and 
ordinary description. 


Example. —Have you heard the tale of the Aloe plant, 

Away in the sunny clime? 

By humble growth of a hundred years 
It reaches its blooming time. 

Long Pause usually accompanies Slow Rate or a change 
of sentiment, and marks a suspension of the sense. 

&<j«//f.-Pause a moment. I heard a footstep. Listen now. I 
heard it again. But it is going from us. It sounds fainter —still 
fainter. It is gone. 

Short Pause accompanies Fast Rate, and is character¬ 
istic of haste, fear, etc. 

Example. —John, be quick ! Get some water! Throw the powder 
overboard ! It cannot be reached! Jump into the boat, then ! Shove 
off! There goes the powder—thank Heaven, we are safe! 

STRESS. 

Stress has much to do with 
the power, beauty arid general 
effect of a sentence. It is that 
finishing, polishing touch which 
causes the thought to stand out 
in relief—throwing it vividly 
upon the background, with its 
profile well defined, its lights 
and shadows harmoniously 
blended—rendering it com¬ 
plete, beautiful and sym¬ 
metrical. 

There are six distinct kinds 
of Stress, viz.: Initial, Final, 
Median, Compound, Thorough 
and Tremulous. 

Enitial Sts ■ess is an ex¬ 
plosive force on the first part of 
a syllable or word. It is char¬ 
acteristic of lively, joyous de¬ 
scription. 

Example .— 

I come from haunts of coot and 
hern; 

I make a sudden sally, 

And sparkle out among the fern, 
To bicker down a valley. 

The Final Stress is an 

explosive force on the latter part 
of a syllable or word. It is used in expressing defiance, de¬ 
termination, or intensity of feeling or purpose. 

Example. —A breath of submission we breathe not; 

The sword we have drawn we will sheathe not. 

Median Stress, or the Swell, characteristic of the Oro¬ 
tund Quality and Effusive Form, is most marked in the sublime, 
but it is found in all classes of literature, sometimes occurring 
on a single word and again continually through an entire sen¬ 
tence. 

Example. —Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 

Compound Stress is a union of the Initial and Final 
in one word. It is indicative of surprise, irony and determi¬ 
nation. 

Example.—Gone to be married! Gone to swear a peace! 

Shall lewis have Blanche, and Blanche these provinces ? 
















































































5 2 


ELOCUTION. 


Thorough. Stress is an abrupt, heavy force, used in 
command, fearlessness and braggadocio. 

Example. —Blaze, with your serried columns! 

I will not bend the knee! 

The shackles ne’er again shall bind 

The arm which now is free. 

Tremulous or Intermittent Stress is used in 
fear, joy and laughter, in the broken voice of sorrow, and in 
imitation of the feeble voice of age. 

Example. —Ho, why dost thou shiver and shake, Gaffer Gray, 

And why does thy nose look so blue? 

“ ’Tis the weather is cold, ’tis I’ve grown very old, 

And my doublet is not very new, well-a-day.” 

Emphasis. 

“Emphasis,” it has been said, “is in speech what coloring is 
in painting. It admits of all possible degrees, and must, to in¬ 
dicate a particular degree of distinction, be more or less intense, 
according to the groundwork or current melody of the dis¬ 
course.” It consists of any peculiarity of utterance which will 
call special attention to a particular word or words in a sentence. 
Thus it will be seen that emphasis may be of force, stress, qual¬ 
ity, pitch or rate. No definite rule can be given for the use of 
emphasis. It is so subtile, its shadings so delicate, that it can 
never be cabled to inflexible rules. But in general we should 
emphasize: 

1. Words, phrases or clauses that are particularly significant. 

2. Words, phrases or clauses that contrast. 

3. Anything repeated for the sake of emphasis. 

4. A succession of objects or ideas. 

Word Individuality. 

The “royal road” to success in reading lies in a true concep¬ 
tion of the spirit of the piece and a faithful delineation of the 
author’s meaning. Endeavor to grasp the ideas, make them a 
part of yourself and clothe your hearers with them. Another 
element of power lies xn. playing upon words and giving them 
their full individual expression. For instance, the word firm 
should usually be spoken in a firm tone of voice, strong in a 
strong tone, light in a light tone, grand in a manner conveying 
an idea of grandeur. 

Word Individuality. Expressive Intonation, Imi¬ 
tative Modulation and Sound to Sense are the terms used to 
express the act of playing upon words, sounding the syllables 
or intoning the vowels in such a way as to more fully bring out 
the meaning of the word by its sound. Old, sweet, long, gay, 
cold, deep, roar, whisper,pierce, wild, growl, titter, gush, burst, 
dash —these and similar words may be rendered infinitely more 
expressive by giving each word its own peculiar individual 
character. 

The following table of derivatives indicates the peculiar char¬ 
acter of words : 

St denotes firmness or strength ; as, stand, stay, stout, stop, 
stamp, etc. 

Str indicates violent force or energy; as, strive, stress, 
strength, strife, etc. 

Thr indicates forcible motion; as, throw, throb, thrust, 
threaten, thrill, etc. 


Gl indicates smoothness or silent motion; as, glib, glide, 
glow, etc. 

Wr denotes obliquity or distortion ; as, wry, wrest, wrestle, 
wring, wrath, wrangle, etc. 

Sw implies silent agitation or lateral motion ; as, sway, sweep, 
swerve, swing, etc. 

SI denotes gentle fall or less observable motion ; as, sly, slide, 
slip, slit, slack, sling, etc. 

Sp indicates dissipation or expansion; as, spread, sprout, 
sprinkle, split, spoil, spring, etc. 

—ash indicates something actingnimbly or sharply; as, crash, 
dash, rash, flash, lash, splash, etc. 

—ush denotes something acting more obtusely and dully ; as, 
crush, brush, hush, gush, blush, etc. 

Analysis and Grouping. 

In reading it is necessary first to analyze the thought, to de¬ 
cide in the mind what portions are most prominent, and these 
should receive greatest emphasis. The subordinate thoughts 
•should be properly grouped together and expressed in such a 
manner as will clearly show them to be subordinate. To use a 
figure of speech, let the more important parts stand in the fore¬ 
ground, giving them intensest light; the auxiliary thoughts may 
repose in the shadows of the background. In general the sub¬ 
ject, predicate, object and connectives of a sentence should re¬ 
ceive emphatic force. Give the same degree of force to words 
having a close grammatic connection, but separated from each 
other in the sentence. The intervening portions should be read 
parenthetically. 

Transition. 

Transition* is the art of changing easily, rapidly and 
completely from one modulation or form of voice to another. It 
should be carefully practiced. 

Climax. 

It has been previously stated that a succession of objects or 
ideas should receive emphasis; that is, each of the series should 
be made more emphatic than the one immediately preceding. 
This gives a constantly increasing emphatic scale. The extreme 
point of the scale is called the Climax. There the vocal ef¬ 
forts should reach their culmination, giving great strength to the 
sentence. 

Repose. 

Repose is the sublime emblem of infinite power. It is 
reserve force that is immeasurable. He who by violent exertion 
shows that he has reached his limit loses that greater concep¬ 
tion that we may have formed regarding his powers. Where 
Climax is employed in speech, in order to convey the greatest 
possible idea of power it is necessary to make the concluding 
portion of the sentence with that repose which indicates unlim¬ 
ited reserve strength. It has been well said, “The highest 
power is mastery, and the highest mastery is self-mastery, and 
of self-mastery repose is the emblem.” 






































ELOCUTION. 


53 


t 


Impersonation. 

In Impersonation the reader or speaker puts himself 
in the place of another, using the tone and style required by the 
assumed character. This, however, should not be resorted to 
when the beauty or sublimity of thought contained in a passage 
would be weakened thereby, as an assumed form always de¬ 
tracts from the ideas by directing our attention to the manner. 
But there are many times when personation really adds to the 
beauty and effectiveness of the rendering. The judgment of the 
reader must decide when it should be employed, and in what 
particular cases it may be omitted. When impersonating the 
voice may be changed, as well as the general manner. A heavy 
or light voice, fast or slow rate, low or high pitch will often be 
a sufficient change. Old age requires a feeble or cracked voice, 
higher pitch, slower rate, gentler force, a greater use of the in¬ 
flections, and an apparent toothlessness easily secured by re¬ 
tracting the lower jaw and drawing the underlip as far as possi¬ 
ble over the teeth. Children's voices are imitated by light 


force, many rising and falling slides, using great expression. 
Let the throat lie contracted that the voice may appear to be 
formed in the front part of the mouth. In imitating the voices 
of women the reader should employ greater or heavier force, as 
required. 

Dialogue Reading. 

In dialogue reading several impersonated voices may occur, 
varying one from another by changes of force, pitch, rate or 
quality. As a general rule, the direction of the eyes and head 
should change with each transition of character. When only two 
speakers are represented, the whole body may change position, 
but when several appear a slight change only is required. In 
representing two characters the gaze is alternated left and right, 
but the descriptive portions (those not spoken by either of 
the characters) should always be given front. Let changes of 
position and voice be sudden and decided, especially so when 
one speaker is interrupted by another. 



-(5 s —(55) GnJ- 1 *—*3- 

' IsSSaP 

•HltGES T T J R 1 •:.>:<- 

xfiV 

- —A—63 —y® ■ 



Elocution maybe divided into two parts: that which is heard, 
and that which is seen. The former is called Voice j the latter, 
liestiare. Both are important and indispensable to its 
proper study. The manner may be so out of harmony that it 
entirely contradicts the words, and an idea is conveyed directly 
opposite to that intended. It is important, then, that we study 
manner as well as matter. A pleasing style of delivery adds 
much to the effectiveness of a production, and in this Gesture 
plays an important part. It is absolutely essential to the per¬ 
fect success of vocal delivery that it be accompanied by a man¬ 
ner that will not provoke criticism, nor in any way draw the 
hearer’s attention from the thought uttered. It should rather 
aid that thought by conveying to the eye what the voice sends 
to the ear. Gesture should always be an assistant, never a hin¬ 
drance, as it certainly is when not properly used. Those who 
naturally employ many gestures should learn how to correctly 
use them ; those who use few should cultivate the use of more 
by making themselves familiar with the laws that govern intel¬ 
ligent gesticulation. Double Gestures have the same signifi¬ 
cance as single gestures. They are used for variety and greater 
effect and force. In speaking, do not employ one hand exclu¬ 
sively, but occasionally use the other to avoid sameness. 

Rules Governing Gesture. 

Iwesture is that part of elocution which appeals to the eye. 
It relates to Position and Movements. 


POSITION OF THE BODY. 

The position of the body should be in harmony with the 
character of the thought. Vigorous expression requires a firm 
posture ; beauty of sentiment, a graceful attitude. The position 
should be changed, not too often, as quietly and with as few 
movements as possible. The arms, when not in use, should 
hang easily at the sides, and one foot should be slightly in ad¬ 
vance, the head being held naturally erect. The speaker should 
always take his position near the front of the stage, to be better 
seen and heard. In reading, always stand or sit erect, with 
lungs well inflated. 

MOVEMENTS. 

Movements of the body are necessary to give character to the 
delivery, but they must be natural, graceful and appropriate. 

The Head. 

The Head should maintain an easy position and allow the 
eyes to move deliberately over the audience. Do not stare into 
vacancy while before a company, but fix your gaze upon the in¬ 
dividuals composing the assemblage. Avoid an excessive use 
of the head, both in reading and speaking. In reading, the 
eyes should be raised from the book as much as possible. Prac¬ 
tice will give facility in reading long sentences with a single 
glance at the book. The expression of the face should reflect 
the character of the thought. 









































54 


ELOCUTION. 


7 


The Hands in gesture should be used easily and grace¬ 
fully. Frequent practice before a mirror will be advantageous 
in securing freedom and grace of movement. The hands may 
be Supine, Prone, Vertical, Pointing and Clenched. 

The Supine Hand lies easily opened, with the palm upward. 
It is a common form of 
gesture. 

The Prone Hand is 
opened with the palm 
downward. It is used 
to denote negative as¬ 
sertion, superposition, 
etc. 

The Vertical Hand 
is opened, with the palm 
outward from the 
speaker. It is used in 
warding off and in de¬ 
noting a limit. 

The Pointing Hand, 
forefinger extended, is 
used in designating or 
pointing out any partic¬ 
ular thing or place. Or¬ 
dinarily, the hand is 
loosely opened, but, 
when the gesture i s 
emphatic, it is tightly 
closed. 

The Clenched Hand 
denotes intense action 
of the will or passions. 

The accompanying il¬ 
lustration, with explan¬ 
ations appended, shows 
the principal forms of 
hand gestures. 

The Arms. 

The Arms should 
be used naturally and 
with decision. In forci¬ 
ble utterance they move 
in straight lines; in 
graceful expression they 
move in curves, but 
even in the curves they 
should show that they 
are servants sent to per¬ 
form certain duties, and 
that they are guided in 
every motion by a 
power beyond them¬ 
selves. Sometimes, in familiar gesture, the forearm onlyisused, 
but ordinarily the arm moves freely from the shoulder. 

Hand and Arm Gestures. 

Hand and Arm Oestlires are made in four general 
directions, viz.: Front , Oblique, Lateral and Backward. 
Each of these is subdivided into Horizontal, Descending and 
Ascending. 


Front Gestures are used to designate or to illustrate that 
which is near to us, whether it be an object, a thought or 
a feeling. In addressing an object, real or ideal, we suppose it 
to be placed in the direction of the Front gesture. 

Oblique Gestures are less emphatic and more general in 

their application than 
the Front Gestures. 
They relate to things 
indefinitely. 

Lateral Gestures 
denote expansion, ex¬ 
treme distance, breadth, 
or the placing of per¬ 
sons, objects or ideas in 
contrast with one an¬ 
other. 

Backward Gestures 
indicate things remote, 
obscure or hidden. 

PIorizontal Ges¬ 
tures are employed in 
general allusions; they 
indicate a level or 
equality and belong to 
the realm of the Intel¬ 
lect. 

Descending Ges¬ 
tures denote inferior¬ 
ity or inequality, and, 
when emphatic, they 
show determination 
and purpose. They 
belong to the Will. 

As cending Ges¬ 
tures denote superior¬ 
ity, greatness, an un¬ 
folding or lifting up 
figuratively or literally. 
They belong to the 
Imagination. 

Make all gestures 
with decision. When 
the gesture is com¬ 
pleted, let the arm fall 
slowly to the side. 
Never allow the arms 
to swing. 


TjlE TH^EE FOf^pj OF ^EEdH. 

Conversation. This is the simplest form of speech, and 
it is the most natural. In conversation we are ourselves; we 
use no forced, unnatural style of utterance. Always endeavor in 



POSITIONS OF THE HANDS. 


i. Simple affirmation. 2 . Emphatic declaration. 3 . Apathy or prostration. 
4 . Energetic appeal. 5 . Negation or denial. 6 . Violent repulsion. 7 . Indexing 
or cautioning. S. Determination or anger. 9 . Supplication. 10 . Gentle en¬ 
treaty. 11 . Carelessness. 12 . Argumentation. 13 . Earnest entreaty. 14 . Resig¬ 
nation. 


J7 


\J 













































ELOCUTION. 


55 


conversation to express the best thoughts in the best manner, 
avoiding those subjects not of general interest to the listeners, 
using the best language at command. 

Heading. In conversation our ideas are evolved from 
our own minds. In reading the thought may be the same and 
the manner the same, though the phraseology differ. In read¬ 
ing our own composition, we are too liable to fall into a read¬ 
ing tone—an unnatural mode of expression. This droning 
process causes the hearer to lose a large portion of the thought 
which he would receive were the reading intelligent instead of 
mechanical. In emotional reading, he receives all the thought, 
and it is intensified in its conveyance to him. When you desire 
to read well, be sure to previously familiarize yourself with the 
words, arrangement of paragraphs and logical connection of 
all the thoughts contained in the piece of reading. Always hold 
your book or paper in such a way that you can readily take in 
a whole line at once. Allow the letters to be about fourteen 
inches from the eye, not directly below, nor horizontal with the 
eye, but half-way between these two positions. Look off the 
book as much as possible. 

Public Speaking. This is conversation magnified. 
The same forms of voice are employed as in conversation ; the 
difference lies in a symmetrical enlargement of the sentences. 
In' this, do not distort, but preserve the form in its simplicity 
and you will have it in its greatest purity and power. Apply 
all rules of elocution and rhetoric to your conversation, and you 
will have the form best suited to public address. Always make 
a marked distinction between the conversational (or explana¬ 
tory) and the oratorical and dramatic portions. Studiously 
avoid anything like an oratorical style in simple descriptions or 
narratives. Never appear in public without thorough prepara¬ 
tion, and be sure that this is succeeded by a period of rest, that 
you may be in your best condition. Tone the voice just before 
beginning your vocal effort. In your approach, do not appear 
hurried ; but let your manner be graceful and your bearing dig¬ 
nified. This will insure respect. Put yourself at ease by a 
strong mental effort and begin deliberately, gradually warming 
up with your subject. Never acquire the useless habit of drinking 
water during a vocal performance. Water will not supply the nat¬ 
ural moisture of the vocal organs, and if they are properly used 
there is no necessity for artificial moistening. Pay special at¬ 
tention to the articulation, and let it always be distinct. Deliver 
the sounds sharply and correctly, and your audience will ap¬ 
preciate your efforts, though they may not themselves know 
wherein lies the charm of the voice to which they listen. 





DRAMATIC ACTION. 




-Hfcsi 


Dramatic action differs from oratory, though it employs the 
same vocal expression. The orator is always himself, in his 
best condition; the actor acts an assumed character which 
would often not be consistent with the dignity of tire orator. In 
oratory we may borrow certain gestures (termed Special Ges¬ 
tures') from the art of acting; hence it is necessary for us to be 
informed as to the significance and proper method of using 
these gestures. 


In acting, the moderate step may become a stride. Actors 
are permitted to move in a lateral direction, while the orator 
can only advance and recede from his audience. The actor may 
also stamp, start or kneel. These demonstrations are forbidden 
the orator. 

An erect position is the only one suitable to the dignity of the 
orator. In acting, grief depresses, and pride throws the body 
backward. 

The head is raised in arrogance, inclined in languor or indif¬ 
ference, and hung in shame. The head may take the following 
positions: Inclined, Erect, Assenting, Denying, Shaking, 
Tossing, Aside. 

Considered in reference to the direction of the eyes, it may be 
Averted, Downward, Upward, Around or on Vacancy. 

The countenance may take the expression of anger, shame, 
contempt, pride, despair, terror or any other violent passion. 
In oratoiy this is not admissible. 

The hand may take the following positions : Hollow, Hold¬ 
ing or Grasping (according to the degree of energy). Applied 
(palms together). Clasped, Crossed (upon the breast), Folded- 
(fingers of right hand between the thumb and forefinger of the 
left). Enclosed (back of the one within the palm of the other), 
Touching (points of the thumb and fingers of each hand 
brought into contact), Wringing (clasped hand, lowered, and 
separated at wrists, but without fingers disengaged), Enumer¬ 
ating (first finger of the right hand laid successively upon first 
and other fingers of the left). 

The arms may be Folded (crossed and enclosing each other), 
Akimbo (one or both hands on hips, elbows extended at one or 
both sides), Reposed (elbows nearly resting on the hips, one 
hand holding the wrist of the other—a female position). 

In designating the manner of motion, Gesture may be con¬ 
sidered as Noting (the hand being drawn back and raised, then 
advanced and by gentle stroke depressed), Projecting (arm 
thrust forward in the direction, in which the hand may be point¬ 
ing), Retracting (the arm drawn back preparatory to projecting 
or to avoid an object), Waving (fingers pointing downward, 
the hand flung smartly upward), the Flourish (in which the 
hand describes a circle or part of a circle above the head), the 
Sweep (the hand making a curved movement, descending from 
the opposite shoulder and rising high above the head; or the 
reverse, changing in the first case from the Supine to the Ver- 
tical, and in the second from Vertical to Supine; sometimes a 
Double Sweep is used, combining both movements), Beckoning 
(with whole hand or simply the forefinger), Repressing (the op¬ 
posite of Beckoning), Advancing (the hand moved slowly for¬ 
ward and upward to the horizontal, the whole body aiding the 
action, and a step in advance being taken), Springing (the 1 
hand, having nearly arrived at the limit of the gesture, springs 
suddenly up to it by a quick movement of the wrist), Striking 
(hand and arm), Bending (preparation for Striking), Recoiling 
(a return to position after Striking), Throwing (arm flung out¬ 
ward in the direction of a person addressed), Clinching (clench¬ 
ed hand raised threateningly), Collecting (arm sweeps inward 
toward the body), Shaking (tremulous motion given to arm and 
hand), Pressing (the hand being laid upon any part, the elbow 
is raised and the fingers contracted), Rejecting (vertical hand 
pushed toward the object, head averted). 





















































BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 



-»W°—-o £>o<=^=><>^ o-- 


ETTER-WRITING in its true ex¬ 
cellence can scarcely be regarded 
as an art. Instruction may, no 
doubt, be imparted through the 
medium of rules, but those appli¬ 
cable to the subject are few and, at the same 
time, of the simplest character. The following 
observations will, it is hoped, be found of some 
practical use to young persons, and assist them 
in avoiding errors and in acquiring a degree of 
proficiency in epistolary composition. 

It should always be borne in mind that letter¬ 
writing is but “speaking by the pen.” The 
first endeavor of a writer should, therefore, be 
to express himself as easily and naturally as in 
conversation, though with more method and 
conciseness. 

STYLE. 

The style should be determined in some measure by the 
nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the 
relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On 
important subjects, the composition is expected to be for¬ 
cible and impressive, on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious ; 
in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation, 
lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful; to 
inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relations, 
affectionate. An old writer justly remarks: “Much has been 
said on the epistolary style, as if any one style could be 


appropriated to the great variety of subjects which are treated 
of in letters. Ease, it is true, should distinguish familiar 
letters, written on the common affairs of life, because the 
mind is usually at ease while they are composed. But even 
in these, topics incidentally arise which require elevated ex¬ 
pression and an inverted construction. Not to raise the style 
on these occasions is to write unnaturally; for nature teaches 
us to express animated emotions of every kind in animated 
language. The dependent writes unnaturally to a superior 
in the style of familiarity; the suppliant writes unnaturally if 
he rejects the figures dictated by distress. Conversation 
admits of every style but the poetic; and what are letters but 
written conversations ?” 

Arrangement of Ideas. 

The purport of every letter should be well considered 
before its commencement—not only with a view to the attain¬ 
ment of a thorough clearness of expression, which is of pri¬ 
mary importance, but likewise that the principal points to be 
discussed may be prominently brought forward, while those 
of a trivial nature are slightly mentioned. It requires, how¬ 
ever, not only a certain amount of tact, but some quickness 
of perception, to avoid the stiffness and formality which are 
incident to the arrangement of the subject, and which are 
great defects in letter-writing. 

Ornamentation. 

A redundancy of ideas and of language is a common fault 
with those capable of writing with facility. As a rule, there¬ 
fore, all striving after effect or attempt at ornamentation should 
be avoided ; and as the chief charm of a letter is its origin¬ 
ality, writers should not avail themselves either of hackneyed 





































































JV 


J- 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 


57 


expressions or of ideas borrowed from others. An exhibition 
of epistolary talent is far less likely to gratify a correspondent 
than an easy, free and faithful expression of the sentiments 
of the writer; and by thus expressing himself he will also 
naturally avoid any excess of flattery or exaggerated profes¬ 
sions of regard, so peculiarly objectionable in a letter, and at 
variance with all delicacy of taste. At the same time, a strict 
adherence to the natural expression of the thoughts will grad¬ 
ually introduce a degree of ease, fluency and force which 
may be carried to a high degree of perfection. 

Long Sentences. 

Unpracticed persons will at first find it desirable to make 
their sentences as short as possible, that they may have them 
completely under control. Long sentences, even when well 
constructed, frequently occasion some degree of obscurity, 
and are less forcible than short ones. Parentheses, though 
sometimes necessary, likewise tend to obscure the meaning 
of a writer, besides weakening the effect of sentences; they 
should therefore be avoided as much as possible. 

COMPOSITION OF LETTERS. 

As regards the composition of letters, it is generally desir¬ 
able to commence with some introductory remarks, not as a 
mere formality, but for the purpose of conciliating attention 
to the main subject of communication, which may otherwise 
strike too abruptly upon the mind of the reader. The intro¬ 
duction should be followed by the development of the topics 
for discussion, according to the importance attaching to each ; 
and the conclusion should, when occasion requires, be de¬ 
voted to the confirmation or summing up of what has been 
previously stated, and to expressions of regard or affection. 

Tautology. 

Tautology, or the repetition of the same words, should be 
guarded against, as forming a blemish of a striking character. 
In this effort, the continual need of words of like meaning 
will soon render a writer familiar with a variety of synonyms; 
and the possession of a copious vocabulary will conduce 
greatly to the general freedom of the composition. 

Postscripts. 

Postscripts are generally indicative of thoughtlessness, and 
should be avoided, except when necessary for the purpose of 
mentioning some circumstance that has occurred after a letter 
has been written. To convey any assurance of regard or 
affection by means of a postscript is a great impropriety, as 
appearing to imply Eli at the sentiments are so slightly im¬ 
pressed upon the mind of the writer as to be almost forgotten. 
There are special circumstances, however, which may render 
an expression of feeling in a postscript even more impressive 
than in the body of the letter; but such cases are exceptional, 
and must be left to the judgment of the practiced writer. 



Quotations. 

Quotations should not be introduced too frequently, for, 
though a short and appropriate one, occasionally given, is 
both effective and elegant, yet to give them prominence in a 
letter appears pedantic and affected. The common use of 
French or proverbial phrases also offends against good taste. 

Underlinings. 

Underlinings and interlineations are objectionable. A well 
constructed sentence will seldom require the emphasis to be 
marked by underlining any of the words, and a frequent re¬ 
petition of the practice is not complimentary to the under¬ 
standing of a correspondent. Any occasion for interlineations 
may usually be superseded by the exercise of care in writing 
and by a little forethought. 

Grammatical Correctness. 

It is scarcely necessary to observe that correctness in 
grammar and spelling is of the highest importance, and that 
no elegance of diction compensates for imperfection in these 
respects, but rather serves to render more glaring errors so 
essentially indicative of a defective education. When the 
rules of grammar are understood, the constant attention to 
apply them will soon render them familiar, and, at the same 
time, tend to promote readiness of expression. Abbreviations 
in spelling, even though warranted by general practice, have 
a certain appearance of laxity, ana detract much from a good 
style. 

Contractions and Abbreviations. 

Be careful and do not use the character except in the title 
of firms; as, Brown & Cox, A. T. Scott & Co. As a general 
thing, characters are to be avoided. The economy of time 
and space secured by their use hardly compensates for the 
mutilated appearance of the words and the liability to error 
involved. Don't, can't, isn't, and other contractions of the 
same class, are allowable in familiar letters, and where familiar 
conversation is quoted, but not in any graver style. 

Figures of Arithmetic. 

Numbers, except dates and sums of money, should be 
spelled in full, unless exceeding three words in length. Never 
write, “I saw 5 birds,” “We have 8 cats.” 

Capitals. 

Capitals should be cautiously used in letter-writing. We 
should certainly not confine the writer of a lettefr to the 
rigid rules observed in printed literature, because an impor¬ 
tant word may sometimes be graced with a capital which in a 
printed form would begin with a small letter. But an indis¬ 
criminate, or even frequent, use of capitals may be taken as a 
proof of the ignorance of the writer. 




































58 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 


Punctuation. 

Proper punctuation is essential to a 
correct and regular mode of expression. 
The best general rule to follow is to 
place the points where a pause would 
occur in speaking. Dashes should only 
be used to mark a sudden change in 
sentiment or in place of parentheses. 
Correct punctuation not only gives ele¬ 
gance to a composition, but it makes its 
meaning clear, enforces attention to those 
words or passages which most require it, 
and, to a great extent, prevents a mis¬ 
understanding or wilful misconstruction 
of the writer’s meaning. 

Repetition. 

Avoid repetitions. They always offend 
the judicious ear, and are seldom proper, 
except when they enforce any particular 
meaning or explain it more fully. 

Form of a Letter. 

A letter usually consists of six parts, 
viz.: the date, complimentary address, 
body of the letter, complimentary closing, 
signature, superscription. 

Position of the Parts of a 
Letter. 

The Date is written near the upper 
right-hand corner of the sheet. 

The Complimentary Address is be¬ 
gun on the line next beneath, one inch 
from the left side of the sheet. 



The Body of the Letter is com¬ 
menced nearly under the last letter of the complimentary 
address. 

The Complimentary Closing is begun on the line next 
beneath the body of the letter, one-half of the distance from 
the left to the right side of the page. 

The centre of the Signature should be under the last 
letter of the complimentary closing. 

The Name and Address of the person written to should 
come on the line beneath the signature at the left of the sheet. 

The Date. 

The date is a matter of great importance, particularly in 
business letters. You cannot be too careful, therefore, to state 
it in full and correctly. Unless you write from a large city 
like New York, Philadelphia, Brooklyn, New Orleans, Cin¬ 
cinnati, Boston, Chicago or St. Louis, you should always 
mention the State, and generally the county, as there are 




many post-offices of the same name in the United States. If 
you write from a street, mention the name and number of the 
street, or the name of the hotel. With English writers, it is 
customary to put the day before the month in dating a letter ; 
as, l8th September, instead of September 18th. Custom 
favors the latter in this country. 

Proper Modes of Address. 

The styles of address are varied to suit the occasion, and 
the terms of compliment at the close of a letter are always 
considered as mere courtesy or form; they should not, there¬ 
fore, on any occasion be avoided. To a person with whom 
a writer is not well acquainted he should say “ Sir,” or 
“Madam,” concluding with “Your obedient servant,” or 
“Yours respectfully;” to those with whom he is tolerably 
well acquainted, “Dear Sir,” or “Dear Madam,” with 
“Yours faithfully;” and to those with whom he is on familiar 




































[V 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 


59 


terms, “ My dear Sir,” or “ My dear Madam,” with “ Yours 
truly,” “Yours very truly,” “Yours sincerely,” or “Yours 
very sincerely.” To two or more ladies, married or single, 
the form of address is “Ladies.” To a young unmarried 
lady, the salutation is usually omitted to avoid the repetition 
of “Miss,” the address alone being used as an introduction. 
The complimentary address is generally written at the top of 
a business letter. 

Model Headings. 

Mr. William C. Jones, 

Washington, D. C. 


Dear Sir : 


Your letter of the I2th— 


Mrs. Maria Jansen, 

Philadelphia. 

Dear Madam : 

I send you herewith— 


Miss Edith Blaine, 

Chicago: 

You will receive by express- 


Messrs. Harper Bros., 

Broadway, 

New York. 

Dear Sirs: 

Yours of the 1st inst.— 


Messrs. Harper Bros.. 

Broadway, 

New York. 

Dear Sirs: Yours of the 26th ult. was— 


Messrs. Smith, Beggs Co., 

Chestnut St., 

Philadelphia. 

Gentlemen : 

We have none of the goods- 


Messrs. Smith, Beggs <j' Co., 

Chestnut St., 

Philadelphia. 

Gentlemen : We have the- 


Miss Lucy Hooper, 

Paris, III. : 

We have received your- 


My dear James: 

Your note of the 10th— 


My dear Cousin : 

I have been so busy— 


My dear Son : 

You have not written— 

Materials. 

The names of the different kinds of papers, and when used, 
are as follows : 

Legal-cap is used in writing all legal documents, articles 
of agreement, etc. The characteristic of legal-cap is a red 
line running from top to bottom of the sheet. 

Bill-paper is used for bills, etc., and is ruled expressly 
for the purpose, and usually bears the name and business of 
the person using it at the top. 

Foolscap is used in writing notes, orders, receipts, com¬ 
positions, petitions, subscription headings, etc. 

Letter-paper is used for the ordinary letter. 

Note and billet paper is used for notes of invitation, 
parents’ excuses for children to teachers, and all brief com¬ 
munications. It is the smallest sheet-paper made. 

Commercial note is used for business letters, and is 
generally narrower than ordinary paper. 

Titles. 

Titles in America are either social, scholastic or official. 

Social titles are Mr. (Mister, formerly Master), Sir, Esq. 
(Esquire), Gentlemen (only in the plural), Master (for boys 
only), Mrs. (Mistress), Madam, Miss, and Ladies. Esq. is 
properly used only to persons of some prominence. 

Scholastic titles are those conferred by universities or other 
institutions of learning. They may follow or precede the 
name, as Prof. W. M. Jones; W. M. Jones, A.M.; Dr. W. 
M. Jones; W. M. Jones, M.D. 

Official titles include titles applied to persons in the civil, 
military or naval service. 

The following list illustrates the various titles used for the 
different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary 
address or superscription on the envelope : 

To Royalty —To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty. 

To the Queen’s Most Excellent Majesty. 

To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. 

To Her Royal Highness the Princess of Wales. 

To His Royal Highness the Duke of Connaught. 

To Her Royal Highness the Princess Beatrice. 

To Nobility —To His Grace the Duke of Devonshire. 

To Her Grace the Duchess of Devonshire. 

To the Most Noble the Marquis of Salisbury. 

To the Most Noble the Marchioness of Salisbury. 

To the Right Honorable Earl of Carlisle. 

To the Right Honorable the Countess of Carlisle. 

To the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Palmerston. 

To the Right Honorable the Viscountess Palmerston. 

To the Honorable Baron Crandall. 

To the Honorable the Baroness Crandall. 

The younger sons of noblemen in England are addressed 
as Honorable ; also members of Parliament and other persons 




















































6o 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 




holding certain positions of honor and trust. The elder sons 
of noblemen take by courtesy the title next in rank below that 
of their fathers. 

Baronets are addressed thus : Sir Waiter Scott, Bart.; and 
Knights thus : Sir Morton Peto, Kt. 

Clerical Titles. 

The Pope —His Holiness Pope Leo XIII. 

Cardinal —His Eminence, John, Cardinal McCloskey. 

Archbishop —Most Rev. Peter R. Kenrick, D.D. 

Bishop —Rt. Rev. P. J. Ryan, D.D. 

Vicar-General —Very Rev. Henry Muehlsiepen. 

Priest or Clergyman —Rev. James Farquhar. 

■-Rev. Dr. Amos Foley. 

Titles Used in the United States. 

His Excellency —The President of the United States, 
Governor of any State, Ministers to foreign countries. 

Honorable —Vice-President of the United States, members 
of the Cabinet, members of Congress, heads of Departments, 
Assistant-Secretaries, Comptrollers and Auditors of the 
Treasury, Clerks of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
State Senators, Judges, Mayors of cities. 

Miscellaneous Titles. 

His Excellency and Mrs. R. B. Hayes. 

Governor and Mrs. Thos. T. Crittenden. 

Hon. and Mrs. James G. Blaine. 

Rev. Dr. and Mrs. T. De Witt Talmage. 

Professor and Mrs J. F. Crunden. 

Mr. and Mrs. Henry Ames. 

Dr-s. John M. and Chester H. Thorn. 

Drs. Walter C. and Mary C. Williams. 

Mr. W. T. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. James. 

Rev. H. E. and Mrs. Dr. E. C. Howe. 

Rev. Mrs. William Bass. 

Rev. Mrs. W. H. Crow. 

Rev. Jane IT. Moon. 

Rev. Miss Jane H. Moon. 

The Envelope. 

The superscription on the envelope should be written very 
plainly. It is fashionable to write it as near the right-hand 
under angle or corner of the envelope as convenient. The 
full name and title of the person addressed, with place of res¬ 
idence, written out fully, including town, county. State, and 
country, if it goes abroad. 

The number of the post-office box, or the door number and 
the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand 
at the lower left-hand corner. 



STAMP. ? 

5 








•/ 

P. O. Box 469. 






2375 Chestnut St. 








Or: 



In writing to the President of the United States, he is 
addressed on the envelope thus : 













































BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 



The Governor of a State is thus addressed: 


A letter of introduction should be addressed in this manner : 



When a person’s official designation is given in full it forms 
the next line below the name. 



\ I 

5 \ 

a 3 VAMP. X 

5 i 





(^//jCL-u/fyi-t CjCjtw-vC; 

Introducing 

Mr. Edward Granger, 

Of Charleston, S. C. 

<(W. 


When a letter is sent by a friend the name of the bearer is 
written on the lower left-hand corner. 


-- 4 >-- 

-ofo GENERAL HINTS. 

-' 4 *- ^3 

Either ruled or plain paper may be used, but unruled or plain pa»er 
is more stylish, and is to be preferred. 

Avoid all erasures or blots, even if compelled to rewrite your letter. 
Letters of compliment should always be written in the third person. 
Avoid writing' with a pencil. Never write other than business 
letters on a half sheet of paper. 

Owing to the almost universal use of gummed envelopes, the use of 
sealing-wax has become nearly obsolete, though it adds a much more 
refined appearance to a note than simply >closing it with adhesive 
gum. A neat little seal of red wax for a gentleman, and of gold, 
blue, or other fancy color, for a lady, is elegant and appropriate. 

The envelope should be adapted both in size and color to the paper. 
The stamp should be placed on the upper right-hand corner of the 
face of the envelope. The stamp should be right end up, and the 
edges of the stamp should be parallel with the edges of the envelope, 
as putting a stamp upside down or awry indicates carelessness, and 
is disrespectful to the person to whom it is sent. 





Be sure you affix the proper stamp to every letter before you send 
it. A letter will not be forwarded unless it is prepaid at least one 
full rate. 

In writing a letter the answer to which is of more benefit to your¬ 
self than the person to whom you write, enclose a postage stamp for 
the reply’. 

A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, 
as the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents. 

As a rule, everv letter, unless insulting in its character, requires an 
answer. To neglect to answer a letter when written to is as uncivil 
as to neglect to reply when spoken to. 

In the reply, acknowledge first the receipt of the letter, mentioning 
its date, and afterwards consider all the points requiring attention. 

In business and ceremonious letters do not write on bo;h sides. 

A person in mourning should never write a congratulatory letter on 
mourning paper. 





















































62 


BUSINKSS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 



S HE characteristics ol the commercial style are concise¬ 
ness and perspicuity. With the exception of a few 
terms of compliment, scarcely a superfluous word should 
be used. It is, however, not at' all necessary to sacrifice 
correctness of style or language. A careful simplicity and 
the clearness of expression necessary to convey the ideas to 
be imparted, combined with the rejection of all words not 
absolutely indispensable, while giving rise to a forcible style, 
form in themselves some of the chief essentials of true 
elegance. 

Persons unpracticed in correspondence, before writing a 
letter of any length, should note down the several heads of 
the matter forming the subject of communication, so that the 
various points may be brought forward in proper consecutive 
order. If several subjects are to be alluded to, they should 
be kept perfectly distinct, as the proper division of a letter 
into paragraphs is of the utmost importance. A confusion of 
sentences not only looks extremely ill, but is very likely to 
lead to a misapprehension of the writer’s meaning, and to 
result in delay or injury, or, at all events, to necessitate further 
correspondence. 

In replying to a letter, each point should be taken up as it 
arises, and be discussed in a separate paragraph ; and each 
paragraph should be so clear and unambiguous that its pur¬ 
port may in no way be doubted. All business letters should 
be answered the same day they are received. In all letters 
of business, it is customary to write the name and address on 
the first page, as otherwise, if the superscription were lost, 
it would not appear to whom the letter had been written. 
Business letters should always be written upon plain paper. 
To use gilt-edged or any other fancy paper for this purpose 
is accounted the extreme of vulgarity. 


From a Young Man Commencing Business to a Whole¬ 
sale House, with Order. 

Greenville, III., July 2, 18S3. 

Messrs. Gray Wardwell, New York. 

Gentlemen. Having commenced business here on my own ac¬ 
count, with every prospect of success, 1 shall be glad to open an 
account with your house, doubting not it will be to our mutual 
advantage. With this view, I note below an order, which I shall 
thank you to execute with the least possible delay, and on your best 
terms as to goods and prices. I beg to refer you to my late employer, 
Henry Weatherby, of Chicago, who will satisfy you as to my integrity 
and trustworthiness; but, as this is a first transaction, on your for¬ 
warding me an invoice of the goods, deducting discount for cash, I 


shall remit a sight draft on a bank in your city for the amount per 
return mail. Requesting your usual prompt attention, I am, 
gentlemen, 

Yours respectfully, 

John Hardaway. 


Reply from Wholesale House, with Invoice. 

New York, July 8th, 18S3. 

Dear Sir: Agreeably to your esteemed order of the 2nd inst., we 

have the pleasure to enclose invoice of goods amounting to $-, 

subject to five per cent discount for prompt cash. 

We may mention that, from the opinion entertained of you by Mr. 
Weatherby, we have no hesitation in opening the account, and at 
once placing you on our best terms. The parcels have been dis¬ 
patched this day per Adams Express, and we trust they will arrive 
safely and receive your approval. We believe the goods will bear a 
favorable comparison with those of any house in the trade, and 
desire that you should satisfy yourself as to value and quantities 
before remitting settlement. We are, dear Sir, 

Yours respectfully, 

Gray & Wardwell. 

To Mr. John Hardaway, Greenville , III. 

From Country Merchant Complaining of Quality of 

his Goods. 

Waukesha, Wis., Jan. 14, ’83. 

Dear Sir: Since I entered into business transactions with you, it 
has been my invariable course to act with integrity and honor, expect¬ 
ing the same conduct in return. Until lately, indeed, I had no cause 
to complain; but the goods I had last week from you, as well as the 
parcel just delivered, are so inferior in quality that I hesitate to offer 
them to any of my customers. As I can have much better value else • 
where, and I do not sell job goods on any account, I am reluctantly 
obliged to advise you that, unless you can send me others in their 
stead, I must withdraw my correspondence altogether. Meantime, 
both parcels are laid aside awaiting your orders. An immediate 
answer will oblige 

Yours respectfully, 

Abram Matthews. 

To Mr. yatnes Santee , New York. 


To a Publisher’s Firm, Proposing to Open an Account. 

Cincinnati, Jan. 1st, 18S2. 

Gentlemen; As our business is rapidly on the increase, we are 
desirous of opening an account with your house, and shall feel 
obliged by your transmitting us a trade list of your publications, as 
well as some of your general catalogues. Our usual terms of settle¬ 
ment are as follows: (here state them). Should they be agreeable to 
your house, the favor of an early attention to our request will oblige, 
Gentlemen, 

Your obedient servants, 

Benson & Co. 

To Messrs. Scribner &• Co., New York. 







































9 




r%r> 

UR examples under this head will be useful as afford¬ 
ing specimens of an appropriate style to be adopted 

^ in answering advertisements or in applying for situa¬ 
tions. On such occasions, while the proper deference due to 
an employer should be exhibited, it is desirable to preserve 
that tone of self-respect which, the employes should bear in 
mind, has a much better effect than any subservient expres¬ 
sions. 

From a Youth Applying for a Junior Clerkship. 

Albany, Jan. 16th, 1SS0. 

Gentlemen. Understanding by your advertisement in the Herald 
of the 15th inst. that you are requiring the services of a junior clerk, 
I beg respectfully to offer myself as a candidate for the appointment. 
I am fifteen years of age, and from my attainments in various branches 
of education, I believe myself qualified for the duties required. 

I may mention that I am not altogether unacquainted with book¬ 
keeping and accounts, having for some months past assisted my 
father, Mr. Phineas Kincaid, lumber merchant, in the counting- 
house department of his business. 

Should you entertain my application, I beg to refer you to Mr. 
Willis Bancker, of Walnut St., Philadelphia, and Mr. Paul Parker, 
of Chambers St., New York, who will have pleasure in testifying to 
my character and abilities. I am, gentlemen, 

Your most obedient servant, 

Philip Kincaid. 

To Messrs, Cole &r> Taylor, Trenton , N. Y. 


Reply of the Finn. 

Trenton, N. J., July 19th, 1SS2. 

Sir: Having made inquiries of Mr. Parker, one of the references 
mentioned in your letter of the 16th inst., we are satisfied with his 
recommendation. Before making an arrangement, however, we 
should desire a personal interview, and should, therefore, be glad if 
you could make it convenient to call at our counting-house on Satur¬ 
day forenoon at eleven o’clock. 

Yours, 

Cole & Taylor. 

To. Mr. Philip Kincaid, Albany, N. Y. 


Application for Situation as Housekeeper. 

No. 20 Canal St., New York. 

Box 301, Post Office : I beg respectfully to offer myself as a can¬ 
didate for the situation advertised as above in to-day’s Herald. I am 
at present, and have been for five years, housekeeper in the family of 
Mr. Hamilton, 2314 Madison Avenue, to whom I can confidently refer 
you as to my character and qualifications for the duties required. I 
am also permitted to refer you to John Houseman, Esq., Troy, N. Y., 
with whom I served two years in the same capacity previous to my 
engagement with Mr. Hamilton. My age is thirty-two years, and I 
am unmarried. 

I am your most obedient servant, 

Elizabeth Ellis. 


From a Nursery Governess in Answer to an 
Advertisement. 

Germantown, Pa., March 4th, 1882. 

Madam: Understanding that you have a vacancy for a nursery 
governess for your three daughters, I beg to state that I have occu¬ 
pied that position for three years in the house of Mr. Anthony, and 
only left in consequence of the family going to reside in the West. I 
am well acquainted with the usual routine of an English education, 
and have sufficient knowledge of French, drawing and music to teach 
the first rudiments, and attend to the practicing in the absence of the 
teacher, which, I presume, is all you would require. I enclose some 
testimonials which, I venture to hope, will satisfy you as to my 
character and competency for the office. Should you honor me with 
your confidence, I assure you that neither kindness nor exertion shall 
be wanting to do justice to your children, without exercising undue 
severity or unkindness. Awaiting the favor of your reply, 

I remain, Madam, 

Your obedient servant, 

Helen Holmes. 

To Mrs. Jeremiah Borie, Philadelphia. 


Application to a Clergyman for a Testimonial. 

Beeker St., Boston, May 4, ’82. 

Reverend Sir: Being a candidate for the appointment of matron 
in the New York Hospital, I beg to solicit the favor of a testimonial 
from you as to my general conduct, which you have had opportunities 
of observing in your capacity of director and visitor of the institution 
where I, at present, fill a responsible place. And should you deem 
me worthy of the more important situation referred to, anything you 
can do to forward my interests will be ever gratefully acknowledged 
by, reverend Sir, 

Your dutiful and humble servant, 

Eliza Hazleton. 

To the Rev. John Snowden, 

Rittenhouse Square, Boston. 


Application for a Situation as Gardener. 

No. 231 Canal St., New York, June 3d, ’83. 

Sir : Understanding that you want a gardener, I beg to offer myself 
as a candidate to fill the vacancy. I have had constant experience 
both in nursery grounds and private gardens, and am thoroughly 
acquainted with the management of the green-house and hot house. 

I inclose some testimonials from gentlemen with whom I have lived, 
which, I hope, will prove satisfactory. The last situation I filled was 
with Mr. Ogden, who will, I believe, speak favorably of my character 
and fitness for the office. I am a married man, with a family of three 
children, and my age is thirty-five. Should you entertain my appli¬ 
cation, a letter directed to the above address will meet with prompt 
attention from, 

Sir, your most obedient servant, 

James O’Reilly. 

To Henry Houghton, Esq., Troy, H. Y. 


1 




c) 








































BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 




N old writer says: “We all delight to talk of our¬ 
selves; and it is only in letters, in writing to a friend, 
that we can enjoy that conversation, not only without 
reproach or interruption, but with the highest propriety and 
mutual satisfaction. In such letters, above all things, a 
natural and lucid expression of the sentiments of the writer is 
necessary. Friends expect our thoughts and feelings, not a 
letter filled with unmeaning verbosity ; and though, where 
excellence is aimed at, considerable attention must be paid 
to the disposition of the words and sentences, it must not be 
at the sacrifice of the energy resulting from a free expression 
of the sentiments. Let the thoughts first be mastered, and the 
words be suggested by the sentiments, without the slightest 
affectation of manner. The ease of diction, so essential, may, 
in a measure, be acquired by familiarity with the best English 
authors, and an approach thus made to that perfection which 
may be said to be attained only by the happy union of ease 
and freshness with the dignity of true friendship.” 

It is a common saying with young friends, as an excuse for 
remissness in their correspondence, that they have nothing to 
write about; but surely, between friends, there must be a 
similarity of taste on some subjects, and a discussion of their 
sentiments and opinions on any one of them, in a course of 
correspondence, would be acceptable and also valuable, as 
tending to their mutual improvement. But this division of our 
subject comprises also the letters passing between relatives 
and others united by ties of affection—excepting only the 
correspondence of lovers, and of parents with their children, 
which form distinct chapters. In such letters, the heart 
speaks and the imagination is most eloquent. Letters of 
courtesy should be written on the best paper. For those to 
gentlemen the paper should be neither figured nor tinted. 


To a Lady Friend, with a Ring. 

Cincinnati, October 4th, 1882. 

My Dear Miss Atkins: As a ring was adopted by the ancients 
as a symbol of eternity, I venture to request your acceptance of the 
accompanying little circlet as an emblem of esteem and affection on 
my part, which, I am sure, will be perpetual. Please receive it in the 
spirit in which it is tendered. Place it on your finger, and let me hope 
that as often as you look at it you will be pleasantly reminded of one 
who has experienced much happiness in your society, and who is now, 
as heretofore, 


The Reply, Retnrning the Present. 

West Thirtieth St., New York, Oct. loth, iS 32 . 

Dear Sir: I hope you will not be offended at the liberty I have 
taken in returning your kind present, as I make it a rule never to 
receive anything in this way from gentlemen. I assure you that, 
while my sentiments of respect and esteem are as cordial as ever, j 
cannot allow myself, even on the score of friendship, to infringe on a 
hitherto inviolate principle; and I, therefore, trust the rejection of 
your valuable and kindly-meant gift will not be thought unfeeling or 
impolite. True good-will and esteem, indeed, are superior to such 
external evidences, and I am satisfied your generous mind will not for 
a moment doubt the sincerity of those feelings I continue to cherish 
toward you. 

I am, dear Sir, your faithful well-wisher, 

Lizzie Atkins. 

To Mr. Henry Lewis, Cincinnati, Ohio. 


A Young Lady Congratulating an Aunt on Her 
Birthday. 

Rittenhouse Square, Philadelphia, 
January 10th, 1882. 

My Dear Aunt: To-morrow will be the fiftieth anniversary of 
your natal day, and I should do injustice to my feelings were I to 
permit the occasion to pass without expressing my sincere congratu¬ 
lations and wishing you many happy returns of the day. Aside from 
the near tie of relationship which exists between us, I shall ever cherish 
with feelings of gratitude and affection the remembrance of the very 
many favors and kindnesses I have received at your hands. Conse¬ 
quently it is only natural I should feel a grateful interest in each return 
of this happy anniversary. Fortunate, indeed, shall I esteem myself 
if, at your age, I can review my past life with equal satisfaction, for, 
after all, there is no happiness so complete as that afforded by looking 
back upon a well-spent life. Birthdays are the milestones which 
mark the progress of the traveller along the difficult highway of life, 
and happy is the individual who can pass each one without a sigh of 
regret or a feeling of mistrust in the future. With my best wishes 
for your future happiness, I remain, 

Your affectionate niece, 

Kitty Pine. 

To Mrs. Mary Page, Fifth Avenue, N. Y. 


To a Friend, on Being Married. 

New York, Jan. 4th, 1882. 

My Dear Phil: I believe there are certain stereotyped phrases in 
which it is customary to congratulate newly-married folks; but, 
utterly disregarding all rules and regulations in such cases made and 
provided, I wish you joy in the familiar words which our friendship 
warrants and my feelings suggest. If your married life is half as 
happy as I desire it to be, you will have good cause to be satisfied 
with your lot. Present my kind regards and compliments to your 
bride. Wishing you many happy returns of the anniversary of your 
wedding-day, I remain, 

Your friend, 

To Mr. Philip Brandon, Chicago, III, 


Your old and sincere friend. 


Henry Lewis. 


Walter Cooper. 


























































BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 

/* 


6 5 





^ ♦ # ♦ Letters of # # # ^ 

Friendly Counsel and Remonstrance. 




F jrQ ERHAPS no class of letters demand more delicate 
treatment than such as one friend sends to another 
with words of counsel or remonstrance, either in com¬ 
mon emergencies or on subjects of general importance. We 
give a variety of examples. One is from the correspondence 
of Franklin, and is worthy of study as a model of the instruc¬ 
tive class, when the writer is the acknowledged superior of 
his correspondent in knowledge and experience. 




From Dr. Benjamin Franklin to a Young 1 Lady. 

My Dear Friend: I send you the books I mentioned to you last 
night. I beg you to accept them as a small mark of my esteem and 
friendship. They are written in the familiar, easy manner for which 
the French are so remarkable, and afford a good deal of philosophical 
and practical knowledge, unembarrassed with the dry mathematics 
used by more exact reasoners, but which are apt to discourage young 
beginners. I would advise you to read with a pen in your hand, and 
enter in a little book short hints of what you find that is curious or 
that may be useful, for this will be the best method of imprinting such 
particulars on your memory, where they will be ready either for prac¬ 
tice on some future occasion, if they are matters of utility, or, at least 
to adorn and improve your conversation, if they are rather points of 
curiosity. And as many of the scientific terms are such as you can- 
not have met with in your common reading, and may, therefore, be 
unacquainted with, I think it would be well to have a good dictionary 
at hand, to consult immediately when you meet with a word you do 
not comprehend the meaning of. This may at first seem troublesome 
and interrupting, but it is a trouble that will daily diminish, as you 
will daily find less and less occasion for your dictionary as you become 
more acquainted with the terms; and, in the meantime, you will read 
with more satisfaction, because with more understanding. When any 
point occurs on which you would be glad to have more information 
than your book affords y»u, I beg that you would not in the least 
apprehend that I should think it a trouble to receive and answer your 
questions. It will be a pleasure and no trouble. For though I may 
not be able, out of my own little stock of knowledge, to afford you 
what you require, I can easily direct you to the book where it may be 
found. Adieu, and believe me ever, my dear friend, 

Yours affectionately, 

B. Franklin. 


To a Friend who has Traduced You. 

No. 21 Madison Av., New York, 
October 12th, 1882. 

Sir: I have it from good authority that you have spoken of me in 
most unfriendly terms to our mutual acquaintances. At first I could 
scarcely believe it, and hoped that there was some mistake; but the 
proofs of your misstatements and misrepresentations are too strong 
to be doubted. What could have been your motive for thus slander¬ 
ing me, I cannot conceive. As you know full well that there were no 
grounds for the disparaging assertions you have made, the least you 
can do is to repair the evil by disabusing the minds of those to whom 
you have traduced me. This I shall expect of you, and without delay. 

Yours, etc.. 


To Sidney Delaney , Esq., Wall St., N. Y. 


Charles Singleton. 




Answer to the Foregoing. 

Wall St., Oct. 13th, 18S2. 

Dear Sir : I think the remarks to which you refer have been taken 
more seriously than they should have been by the parties who re¬ 
ported them to you. Still, I do not deny that, under the influence of 
vexation, for which I now believe there was not sufficient cause, I did 
speak of you in terms of which I am now ashamed. I therefore owe 
you an apology, and make it freely. Any false impressions concern- 
ing your character and conduct which may have been derived from 
my words, I will take care to remove by a full explanation. Hoping 
that this candid acknowledgment will satisfy you, 

I remain, Sir, 

Truly yours, 

Sidney Delaney. 

To Charles Singleton , Esq., No, 21 Madison Av, 


From an Aged Lady to her Niec^. 

“ The Highlands,” Sept. 4th, ’82. 

Dear Niece: The sincere love and affection which I have for 
your indulgent father, and ever had for your virtuous mother when 
alive, together with the tender regard I have for your future happi¬ 
ness and welfare, have prevailed on me to inform you of what I have 
heard of your unguarded conduct, and the too great freedom you take 
with Mr. Martindale. You have been seen with him at the theatres, 
in the Central Park, and other public places. Don’t imagine that I 
write this from a desire to find fault, but believe me, your familiarity 
with him gives me no small concern. His character is extremely bad, 
and he has acted in the most ungenerous manner to two or three 
young ladies of my acquaintance who entertained too favorable an 
opinion of his honor. It is possible, as he has an uncle of consider¬ 
able fortune, that you may be tempted to imagine his addresses an 
offer to your advantage; but that is greatly to be questioned, for I 
have heard that he is deeply in debt, and also that he is privately 
engaged to a rich old widow at Flushing. Let me prevail on you, 
dear niece, to avoid his company; for, notwithstanding your purity 
of heart, your good name may be compromised by such open acts of 
imprudence. I have no other motive but an unaffected zeal for your 
interest and welfare, and I flatter myself you will not be offended 
with the liberty here taken by your sincere friend 
And affectionate aunt, 

Sarah Glasgow. 

The Young Lady’s Answer. 

St. Luke’s Place, N. Y., Sept. 5, ’82. 

Dear Aunt: I received your letter, and when I consider your 
reasons for writing, thankfully acknowledge you my friend. It is 
true I have been at those public places you mention with Mr. Martin- 
dale, but was utterly ignorant of his true character. He did make me 
proposals of marriage, but I told him I would do nothing without my 
father’s consent. He came to visit me this morning, when I told him 
that a regard for my reputation obliged me never to see him any¬ 
more, nor even correspond with him by letter, and you may depend 
on my adhering to that resolution. In the meantime, I return you a 
thousand thanks for your friendly advice. I shall leave New York 
in about six weeks, and will call to see you after I have been at my 
father’s. 

I am, dear aunt, your affectionate niece, 

To Mrs. Sarah Glasgow. Bella Burns. 


kL. 




































































, ETTERS of this kind, although they do not relate 
to transactions which bear a commercial value, are 
t®"* ' generally connected with business and require prompt 
attention. Introductions, for example, are often of the 
highest value, and as such favors can always be reciprocated, 
they are seldom refused or neglected by men acquainted with 
the usages of society. Such letters may be written by persons 
having only a business acquaintance, or may pass between 
mutual friends. 

Soliciting a Loan from an Intimate Friend. 

Broad St., Philadelphia, May n, ’83. 

My Dear Sir: A disappointment in the receipt of some money 
due has exposed me to a temporary embarrassment. The sum which 
would extricate me from this painful difficulty is not large, as $400 
would be amply sufficient to release me from my present pressure. I 
have so great an aversion to borrowing money from a professional 
lender that I prefer the course of soliciting the aid of some well- 
known friend. I have thought of several, but none with a greater 
degree of confidence than yourself. Can you grant me, then, the ac¬ 
commodation of the above sum without in any way intrenching on 
your own convenience? If you can, I believe I may rely on your 
readiness to do so ; and you may in turn depend upon it being reim¬ 
bursed with the strictest punctuality by the 5th of April. A speedy 
reply to this request will extremely oblige, my dear Sir, 

Yours most sincerely, 

Howard Thomas. 

To Mr. Lee Williams, 21 Pine St., Philadelphia. 


Soliciting a Snbscription for the Benefit of a Widow. 

Logan Square, Philadelphia, April 4, ’82. 

Madam: I venture to solicit your benevolent aid on behalf of an 
urgent and most deserving case. The widow of John Wood, a 
laborer on the Hudson River Railroad, who was killed by an accident 
on the line, has been left by his untimely end with a family of six 
helpless children. The two youngest are at present afflicted with a 
dangerous fever, and require their mother’s sole care, thus preventing 
her from obtaining employment or doing anything for the support of 
those depending on her. 

As Mrs. Wood is a respectable and well-behaved woman, and is 
very much averse to applying for ward assistance, a very moderate 
sum is being raised to relieve her immediate necessities, and, if 
i possible, to establish her in a small shop as a means of future sub¬ 
sistence. Trusting you will excuse this intrusion, and that I may 
have the pleasure of adding your name to the accompanying sub¬ 
scription-list, 

I am, Madam, 

Your most obedient servant, 

Jane Headley. 

To Mrs. Katherine Roosevelt, 

Fifth Avenue , N. Y. 


In Answer to the Above, on Account of Incapability. 

No. 21 Pine St., Philadelphia, May 13, ’83. 

My Dear Sir: I truly regret that my circumstances will not per¬ 
mit me to oblige a friend so dear to me as yourself; but at present I 
am in greatneed of money, and last Friday I was compelled to borrow 
to meet a pressing obligation. I, therefore, do not have it within my 
power to comply with your request. Trusting that you may be more 
successful in some other quarter, and with feelings of regret at my 
own inability to render you a service which you might otherwise 
readily command, believe me to remain, 

Ever your sincere friend, 

Lee Williams. 

To Howard Thomas, Esq., Broad St., Philadelphia. 


Friendly Letter of Introduction. 

Chicago, Feb. 4th, 1S80. 

My Dear Sir : This will introduce to you my esteemed friend Mr. 
Henry W. Bonsall, whom, I am sure, you will be happy to know. 
Any attention you may have it in your power to bestow during his 
visit to Boston will be gratefully reciprocated by 

Your friend, 

Chauncey Gardener. 

To Raymond Howells, Esq., Boston. 


ki 


Answer to the Foregoing. 

Mrs. Roosevelt has received Mrs. Headley’s letter, and is happy in 
being able to assist with her mite so worthy an object, and is gratified 
in placing her name on the subscription-list for five dollars, which 
sum is herewith enclosed. Mrs. Headley will oblige by a note of 
acknowledgment. 

Fifth Avenue, N. Y., April 5th, 1SS1. 


From a Gentleman to his Friend, Requesting the 
Loan of a Book. 

“ Ingleside,'’ Oct. 10th, 1883. 

Sir: When last at your house you called my attention to a book 
entitled “ The Origin of Species,” which I remember as a work of so 
much interest that I feel much inclined to peruse it, and should esteem 
it a great favor if you would lend it to me. I will take great care of 
it and return it in a few days, as I have at present abundant leisure 
for reading. 

I am, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

John Carter. 

To Nathan Shewell, Esq., “ The Oaks." 


Affirmative Answer to the Foregoing. 

“ The Oaks,” Oct. nth, 1S83. 

Dear Sir: You are quite welcome to the volume you express a 
wish to see; but I must ask you to let me have it by the middle of 
next month, as I shall then have occasion to use it for some literary 
purposes. 

Believe me, dear Sir, 

Yours very truly, 

Nathan Shewell. 

To John Carter, Esq., “ InglesideN. Y. 


\ 


l£> 

























































V 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 


67 


/ 



-HHgEf Letters of Sympathy and Condolence.- 







ETTERS of this class are among the more important 
of those which friendship and affection dictate. 

<-»— ' Their composition should be more studied than ordi¬ 
nary letters of friendship. The most important rule is to 
avoid mere conventionalities. In the composition of such 
there must be no high-flown words or expressions, no strain¬ 
ing after effect. If heart speaks not to heart in the simplest, 
most soothing language of nature, words will to the sufferer 
prove cold and unimpressive—worse than useless. Be it ever 
borne in mind that, to the afflicted, the mourner in spirit, 
“there is only one true source of consolation, that we shall 
meet those we love in another and a better world, where the 
wicked cease from troubling and the weary are at rest.” 

Courtesy requires that the letters of condolence to a friend, 
on the death of a relative, should be written on black-edged 
paper and sealed with black wax, even though you should 
have been unacquainted with the deceased. 


To a Lady ou the Death of Her Child. 

Chicago, Jan. nth, 1880. 

My Dear Hester: The painful news of the removal of your dear 
child has just reached me, and I hasten to express my affectionate 
sympathy with you under so severe an affliction. 

Alas ! how fresh in my memory is the recollection of the liveliness 
and innocence of the lovely departed ! All that was mortal is changed 
now, and clouded forever; but how great is your comfort in the well- 
grounded assurance that the Good Shepherd, who “ careth for his 
flock,” has taken the gentle lamb into his own fold ! Your child has 
gone to him who said, “ Suffer little children to come unto me,” and 
we know not how soon our hour may come. Oh, that we may all 
meet in that brighter and happier world, where sorrow and sin and 
suffering are alike unknown! 

That a higher than human power may console and support you 
under this heavy stroke is the earnest prayer of, 

My dear Hester, 

Yours sincerely, 

Arabella Winters. 

To Mrs. Hester Appleby, Columbus, O. 


Reply to the Foregoing. 

Columbus, O., Jan. 13th, 1880. 

My Dear Arabella: It is indeed true, although yet we can 
scarcely believe it. A little while ago our darling child was regarded 
as the strong one of the family, overflowing with happy animal 
spirits—the fountain of joy in the house. Now her poor earthly 
garment is laid in the early grave, and her generous, loving, truthful 
spirit, with its mine of unwrought wealth, can be with us only by the 
eye of faith. Wonderful is this dispensation of a heavenly Father’s 
chastening hand! Yet can we see many merciful preparations for 
it, the foremost being the dear child’s own inner life; and through 


the trials of the past five or six weeks there have been mercies in¬ 
numerable, tempering the wind to the shorn lamb. Our hope and 
prayer is that, though seen no longer, she may be a ministering angel 
in our home. “To do good and distribute” was her element when 
visibly present. It may be that her desire to bless those she so fondly 
loved may only have received a deeper and more inward power. 

Believe me ever 

Most truly yours, 

Hester Appleby. 

To Mrs. Arabella Winters, Chicago, III. 


On a Sudden Reverse of Fortune. 

Stamford, Ct., July 6th, 1S80. 

My Dear Friend: Hackneyed phrases of condolence never yet 
comforted a man in the hour of trouble, and I am not going to try 
their effect in your case. And yet, let me say, in heartfelt earnest, 
that I was deeply pained to hear of your sudden and unexpected 
reverse of fortune. Misfortune is very hard to bear when it falls upon 
one like a flash of lightning from a clear sky, without any warning. 
But do not be discouraged. When Senator Benton saw the work of 
many years consumed in ten minutes, he took the matter coolly, 
went to work again, and saw the damage repaired before his death. 
So, I hope, will you. There is no motto like “ Try again ” for those 
whom fate has stricken down. Besides, there are better things than 
wealth, even in this world, to say nothing of the next, where we shall 
neither buy nor sell. Cheer up, and believe me, as of old, 

Your friend, 

Willis Goodhelp. 

To Mr. Harvey Brown , Boston, Mass. 


To a Lady on the Death of Her Husband. 

New York, December 12th, 1882. 

My Dear Mrs. James: Although unwilling to intrude on the 
sacred privacy of grief until its first pangs have, in some measure, 
subsided, I participate so sincerely in your affliction that I cannot 
longer keep myself from writing. And yet, so weak and ineffectual 
is all human consolation, that I scarcely know how to express the 
deep sense I have of the heavy stroke under which you are prostrated. 
Yours is, indeed, a sad bereavement; butl doubt not, from your strong 
faith in Him who ‘‘doeth all things well,” you will be sustained and 
comforted by his own consolations, which are “ neither few nor small.” 
The recollections of him who has so lately departed must be so full of 
painful regret, that I will not dwell on this dark side of the picture, 
but rather look to its brighter aspect, in the hope that he has gone to 
a happier sphere, and that what is loss to you is to him “ unspeakable 
gain.” 

I add no more but my fervent prayer that you may be divinely 
comforted in your sore trial, and be roused from your grief by claims 
of duty to those whose welfare demands your care and affection. 
Believe me, my dear Mrs. James, 

Your sympathizing friend, 

Jane Harvey. 

To Mrs. Henry jlames , Nantucket, Mass. 




















































BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 



ETTERS expressing the feelings of children toward 
their parents, and the anxious affection of parents for 
CP=r-* their children, afford themes of the most interesting 
character, and examples of the most perfect confidence. In 
style, they have the widest range ; “ from grave to gay, from 
lively to severe.” 

Children away from home, in the excitement of new scenes 
and new acquaintances, may for a time forget and neglect 
their parents; but moments must recur reminding them of 
their affectionate solicitude, and in trouble and affliction mak¬ 
ing them yearn for a sympathy they may then, only in its 
absence, thoroughly appreciate; and it is at such times that a 
letter reveals the heart of the writer and moves that of the 
parent. Children should, however, accustom themselves to 
write regularly to their parents, and they should express them¬ 
selves in the same easy, cheerful way that they would do in 
speaking at home. The only rule we think it necessary to 
lay down is the propriety of preserving a due regard to the 
relationship in which the writers are placed to each other. 
A father, when writing to a son, should preserve his superior¬ 
ity by a gentle degree of authority, and a son should never 
lose sight of the manner in which he can best express his sense 
of filial authority. 

From a Father to his Son at School. 

Tremont St., Boston, Sept. 23rd, 1883. 

My Dear Son: I am delighted to hear of your progress, and send 
you a little remittance of pocket money to prove to you that I am ever 
ready to give encouragement when it is deserved. You must always 
bear in mind that upon your career at school much of your future life 
depends. To waste the precious hours of youth is to make prepara¬ 
tion for a useless and dishonorable odd age; whereas by steady 
industry, care of that health with which God has happily blessed 
you, and submission to those who have the best right, as well as 
the best inclination, to advise you for your good, you may hope to 
ripen into a respectable and useful member of society, and to render 
yourself fit to encounter those responsibilities which fall to every 
man’s lot. Your mother unites in hearty wishes that you may go on 
as you have begun, and that your whole life may prove a credit to 
yourself and a comfort to us. Give our best respects to your excellent 
preceptor, and believe me 

Your affectionate father, 

James McHenry. 

To Master William McHenry, 

Nazareth Hall, Nazareth, Pa. 


From a Boy at School to Both Parents. 

Nazareth, Dec. 4th, 1883. 

My Dear Parents: It will doubtless give you much pleasure to 
learn that, owing to the unremitting attention of the Rev. Mr. Kluge, 


I have made such satisfactory progress that I have not only been re¬ 
moved one class higher in the school, but have carried off the second 
prize for Latin verse. 

I sincerely hope that I may continue sufficiently industrious to keep 
up all the expectations you have formed of me, and which you have 
spared no pains or expense to realize. With mingled feelings of 
regret at leaving my kind preceptor and of delight at the prospect of 
our speedy meeting for the holidays, 

I remain, my dearest parents, 

With kindest love to all at home, 

Your affectionate son, 

William McHenry. 

To Mr. and Mrs. McHenry, 

Tremont St., Boston. 


From a Young Lady to her Mother. 

Boston, Mass., June 8th, *8i. 

My Dear Mamma: From what you know of Boston, vou will not 
be surprised to hear that I have enjoyed an incessant round of gaiety 
and pleasure. My health, too, is completely recruited, and my 
friends are so kind that I feel almost at home. But I have another 
serious matter to confess to you, at which, I hope, you will not feel 
angry. It seems almost ungrateful to think of loving any one but 
you; but oh, Mamma, if you saw Harry Lenning, vou would forgive 
me, I am sure. He is so handsome, so gentle in his manners, and 
yet so sensible and so accomplished! We met at a party given by 
your old friend, Mrs. Grayson, and he scarcely quitted my side the 
whole evening. Mrs. Grayson has so high an opinion of him that the 
repeatedly invited him to her house, until his visits have become of 
almost daily occurrence. He is most honorable and straightforward, 
and only waits permission to write to you, in order to give you full 
particulars as to his condition and prospects. Forgive me, dear 
mamma, when I tell you that my feelings are deeply enlisted in his 
favor, and that I feel as if much of my future happiness depended on 
our union. I wish you were here to counsel and advise me, for never 
before did I so much feel my own heart master of my reason. I hope 
you will write directly or come immediately to your affectionate but 
anxious child, 

Minnie Howson. 

To Mrs. Gertrude Howson, Fifth Av., N. V. 


The Mother’s Reply. 

Fifth Avenue, June 10th, ’8l. 

My Dear Child: Make yourself perfectly at ease as to my consent 

to anything that will promote your happiness. If Mr. Lenning prove 
to be what you represent, my fondest wishes, that you might meet a 
desirable partner in life, will be realized. At the same time, do not 
be too hasty to give an unqualified assent to his proposals, but take 
time to study his character and disposition through a longer acquaint¬ 
ance. I shall be in Boston on the 15th, and I shall be delighted, not 
only to meet my dear child again, but to be introduced to the man 
whom she has thought so worthy of her affections. 

Your ever loving mother, 

Gertrude Howson. 

To Miss Minnie Howson, Boston, Mass. 













































V 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 


69 





S HE form of the note is most frequently adopted by 
ladies, who in this way generally issue invitations to 
parties. It is, however, on many general occasions 
extremely useful, as in returning thanks for any courtesy 
shown, or when any misunderstanding has arisen between 
friends, in which case it tends to guard against personalities. 
It is a form useful, also, as being intermediate between the 
distant and the familiar styles, though it is not usually em¬ 
ployed when the communication is of any length. Notes 
must be written in the third person throughout, any departure 
from this rule, either in allusion to the writer or to his corre¬ 
spondents, being a fault of the most glaring kind. It is neces¬ 
sary, also, to avoid the too frequent use of the personal 
pronouns, which may be effected by occasionally repeating 
the names of writer aud correspondent when the length of the 
note requires this expedient. The date and the address of the 
writer should always be at the foot of the note. The 
established forms for notes of invitation to dinner, to evening 
parties, etc., are given under the division of Etiquette. A 
note of invitation from an intimate friend may be appropri¬ 
ately written in whatever style the degree of mutual under¬ 
standing between the parties may justify. The chief reason 
for introducing this class of letters is to point out that they 
should always be definite, however brief, and however freely 
written. The best guide in these cases is to consider for a 
moment the time and circumstances under which the letter 
will be received. How often has unnecessary trouble and 
doubt been caused by a note without date or even the day of 
the week, inviting the recipient to come and dine with the 
family to-morrow! Another infallible recipe for obscurity 
in this class of notes is to write on a Tuesday afternoon, for 
example, and write your friend to come next Wednesday. 


A Lady to Her Friend in the City, Inviting Her to 
Spend a Mouth in the Country. 

Eddington, Bucks Co., Pa., June 4th, 1883. 

My dear Friend: I need scarcely tell you that I always feel the 
greatest pleasure in your society, and am selfish enough on the 
present occasion to covet it for a month, or for a longer period, should 
it suit your convenience. If, therefore, you are not so wedded to the 
attractions of a city life as to be loth to leave them for a short time, I 
think you would gather some amusement, and also, perhaps, improve 
your health, by a sojourn in the country. Will you, then, do us the 
favor of making our rural retreat your temporary abode, assuring 
yourself that your presence will enliven our family circle, and be a 
source of real enjoyment to 

Your sincere friend, 

Eliza Hooper. 

To Mrs. Letty Davidson, Fifth Av., N. Y. 


Answer to the Same, Affirmatively. 

Fifth Avenue, N. Y., June 5th, 1S83. 

My dear Eliza: I have just received your kind letter inviting me 
to spend a short time at your pleasant home. Though I live so much 
in New York, I assure you that there are few who feel more delighted 
with the country than myself, and I could be well contented to make 
it my residence during a larger part of every year, and should cer¬ 
tainly do so did the pursuits of Mr. Davidson allow us to live out of 
the city. However, my domestic duties are not at present of so press¬ 
ing a nature as to force me to decline your friendly invitation, and 
Mr. Davidson, so far from offering any obstacle to my absence from 
home for a short time, has urged me to send you an affirmative 
answer, as he thinks that, in addition to the enjoyment which I can¬ 
not fail to experience in the society of yourself and family, I shall 
benefit my health by a change of air and scene. I therefore accept 
your kind invitation most cheerfully, I may add gratefully. And I am, 
My dear Eliza, 

Your ever affectionate friend, 

Letty Davidson. 

To Mrs. Eliza Hooper, Eddington, Pa. 


An Invitation to a Bachelor Party. 

Sept. 20th, 18S3. 

My dear Alf: My festive self and half-a-dozen other good 
fellows are going to devote a few hours on Thursday evening to the 
enjoyment of a few glasses of wine, a game of euchre, and so on. I 
hope you will make one, as we have not enjoyed “ the feast of reason 
and flow of soul” in each other’s company for some time past. 
Believe me, dear Alfred, 

Yours ever, 

Harry Hunter. 

To Alfred Bellville, Esq., 

No. It) Madison Av., N. Y. 


An Invitation to a Water-Party. 


August 10th, 1883. 

Dear Charlie: Jack Halcoll, myself and four others are going 
down the bay in a six-oared boat next Wednesday. Now, you’re a 
jolly fellow and a good steersman, so I hope you will give us your 
company and your services; indeed, we will take no excuse. We 
shall set out from my rooms at 7:30 p.m. without fail. Do not dis¬ 
appoint us. 


Yours truly in haste, 


Edward Neville. 


To Charles Ellwood, Esq., Pine St., Philadelphia. 




































7° 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 





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WwWwM 

1 MS)MSl&XS)&Xsy 2awSaSa£V2a£V2a2> 


Miscellaneous Letters. 


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CTO V CTO 9 CTO 9 CIO 


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*7p*' HE reader will find arranged under this heading a 
variety of letters for a variety of circumstances and 
occasions. With the examples given on the preceding 
pages, they make the department of “ Business and Social 
Correspondence ” a complete and comprehensive guide for all 
classes of letter-writers. 


From One Young Man to Another in Reference to an 

Attachment. 

Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 4th, 18S3. 

My Dear Kenneth : You will laugh at me, and with some reason, 
when I tell you that all my old skepticism about matrimonial happi¬ 
ness is at an end. I have met with a young lady who, I believe, 
would convert even you to a belief that marriage may be a very 
happy state and that bachelors are only miserable wretches after 
all. In brief, I am the engaged and accepted suitor of Miss Ford, 
whose visit to New York you remember. Words cannot suffice to 
express how great has been the enjoyment I have hitherto derived 
from her society, and the more I see of her amiable character and 
high accomplishments, the more certain do I feel that the day that 
first made known to me her consent to share my fortunes will prove 
one of the happiest in my whole existence. You may think this a 
very wild effusion and one strangely at variance with my former 
avowed callousness on the score of domestic life; but, believe me, 
you will soon be a convert when you see my dear Lettie. Wishing 
that you may prove as fortunate in the selection of a partner as I 
have been, I remain, 

My dear boy, 

Ever affectionately yours, 

John Norton. 

To James Caskill, Wall St., A*. Y. 


Invitation from a Familiar Friend. 

Dear Mr. Mitchell; We shall look for you on Mondav evening 
(the 14th, mind!) at seven o’clock, and if Mrs. Mitchell can leave her 
baby and come with you, I need not say that we shall be doubly 
glad to see her. In great haste, which I know you will excuse 
and rather admire than otherwise, 

I am sincerely yours, 

Gertrude Gibson. 

Cambridge, March 10th, 1883. 



Requesting a Friend to Forward Letters. 

Norristown, April 9th, 18S3. 

Dear Sir: May I trespass on your kindness to send me in the 
enclosed envelope any letter that may come through you to me up to 
Wednesday, 21st inst. ? By so doing you will add to the many kind • 
nesses experienced by, 

Dear Sir, 

Your obliged friend, 

Harriet Hart. 

To Henry Chase, Esq., 203 Arch St., Phila. 


To a Daughter on Her Birthday. 

My dearest Child: You father, brothers and sisters all unite 
with me in sending you a thousand good wishes on this your 
fifteenth anniversary. We could all have desired that circumstances 
would have admitted of your spending it with us ; but feeling in these 
matters must sometimes be sacrificed for our good, and our selfish 
delights must not be permitted to interfere with the prospects of those 
dear to us. The package which accompanies this letter contains not 
only some trifling tokens of affection from all of us, but the materials 
for a little entertainment which, I have no doubt, Mrs. Bo3 r nton will 
allow you to give to your school fellows, as I have written to beg a 
half-holiday on the occasion. God bless you, my dear child! and 
that every succeeding year may see you increase in all that is desir¬ 
able in body and mind, is the earnest prayer of your ever anxious 
parents. With best compliments to your mistress and teachers, 
Believe me, 

Your ever affectionate mother, 

Margaret Thomas. 

To Miss Lettie Thomas, 

“Linden Hall" Seminary, Lititz, Pa. 


A Gentleman to His Son, on the Latter’s Marriage. 

Philadelphia, Jan. 30th, 18S3. 

My dear Son: It is with no small pleasure, and a slight feeling 
of parental pride, that I now congratulate you upon your recent 
change of state. That you have my best and heartiest wishes for your 
future happiness, you already know; but I feel natural pleasure in 
again giving them expression ; and here I have to add that no parent 
could join in those wishes with more fervent sincerity than your dear 
and kind mother, who desires to unite with me in the most affection¬ 
ate regards to our new relation, our daughter-in-law. That your 
marriage state may be blessed with the same domestic happiness that 
has fallen to my lot, is the sincere wish of 

Your ever affectionate father, 

John Paul Jones. 

To Henry Paul Jones, Pollstown, Pa. 


Requesting a Friend to Execute a Commission. 


Yonkers, June 3d, 1SS3. 

My dear Jennie: Will you kindly execute the following little 
commissions for me as soon as you can make it convenient? Purchase 
for me at Stewart & Co.’s the following articles (here state muslin, 
lace, etc.) Will you also call at Appleton’s and inquire when 
Bulwer’s new novel will be out, as 1 am all anxiety to know? 

Please give them my address at Stewart’s, and tell them to pack the 
parcel carefully and send it by express. 

The weather up here is delightful, but I wish l had the pleasure of 
your company to render it more so. Pray write a line, and let me 
know how soon you can make me a visit, and thus afford me an 
opportunity to thank you personally for your kindness. 


To Miss Jennie Hale, 

No. 40 Sixth Avenue, N. Y. 


Ella Forester. 



















































<s 


S> 








y 


BUSINESS AND SOCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 


71 


Application oi Servant for Testimonial. 

East Fourth St., N. Y., Jan. 1, ’S2. 

Respected Madam: Being tfesirofis of again entering setvice ia 
my former capacity of cook and laundress, I write to ask the favor of 
a testimonial from you as to my general character and capability. I 
am sorry to have to trouble you, but 1 feel that you will do anything 
you can to further me in obtaining employment. With sincere thanks 
for your past kindness, 

I am, respected Madam, 

Your grateful servant, 

Charlotte Fields. 

To Mrs. Louise Balmer, 

No. 24 West Fifty-first St., New York. 


A Letter of Introduction. 

New Orleans, Juhe 3d, ’§1. 

Dear Sir: The present will be handed you by Mr. Smith, partner 
of Mr. Stillwell, who was himself an associate of the house of Cijpss 
& Black, Memphis. Mr. Smith intending to visit your city on business 
of his house, we take the liberty of recommending him to you, and of 
begging you to render him all the services in your power, and to 
furnish him all the information of which he may have need, or which 
may appear likely to you to insure the success of his trip. Should 
Mr. Smith have need of any money for his expenses, you will be good 
enough to let him have what he may ask for, and charge the same to 
our account. 

Very respectfully, 


Acknowledging Receipt of Testimonial, with Thanks. 

Beaker St., Boston, May 15, ’82. 

Reverend Sir : I have received your most obliging and con¬ 
siderate communication, and I beg that you will accept my warmest 
thanks for the handsome, if not too flattering, testimonial you have 
been pleased to hand me. I sincerely trust that my future career may 
continue to be marked by conduct worthy of your approbation, and 
assuring you of my deep sense of the obligation under which you have 
placed me, 

I am, reverend Sir, 

Your obedient and grateful servant, 

Eliza Hazleton. 

To the Rev. John Snowden, 

Rittenhouse Square, Boston. 


Inquiry Regarding a Servant’s Character. 

No. 1428 Pine St., St. Louis, May 4, ’83. 

Madam: Susan Macy, who is applying for the place of cook in my 
house, refers me to you for her character and qualifications. I shall, 
therefore, feel obliged by your informing me if she is honest, cleanly, 
industrious and obliging; also if she is well acquainted with plain 
cookery. 

I am, Madam, yours respectfully, 

Mary Martin. 

To Mrs. Ann Cooper, 243 Arch St., Phila. 


A Merchant Urging Payment of Account. 

Warren St., New York, May 3, ’82. 

Sir : I must solicit your prompt attention to the enclosed account, 
which has already been due over two months. On the 10th I have a 
heavy obligation to meet, which will require all the funds I can pro¬ 
cure ; and, as you have not remitted me any cash for some time past, 
I trust you will comply with my request, and forward a draft for the 
whole or a considerable part of the balance due me. Please reply by 
return mail, and let me know whether I may depend upon you. 

Your obedient servant, 

James Parsons. 

To Henry P. Jones, Brooklyn. 


Yours, etc.. 

Lord & Taylor. 


To Julius Sic he l. Esq., Wall Street, N. 1 ’. 


From a Lady to Another, an Invalid. 

Spruce St., Philadelphia, May 1, 1SS3. 

My Dear Miss Hartman: I am truly grieved to hear of your _ ^ 
continued indisposition, but trust that you may speedily enjoy the 
return of your wonted health and energy. There is much consolation 
in the fact that your spirits are good, and that the illness does not 
affect any vital part. Considering which, I have every confidence 
that, with God’s blessing, the careful attentions of your friends will 
soon make your complete recovery a matter of certain and cordial 
congratulation. With kindest wishes and sympathy, I am, dear Miss 
Hartman, 

Yours ever sincerely, 

Amanda Merrill. 

To Miss Ella Hartman, Columbus, Ohio. 


An Invitation to a Picnic Party. 

Newark, June 15th, 1883. 

My dear Sir : We are endeavoring to get up a small excursion to 
visit High Bridge on the iSth of this month. Will you do us the favor 
of making one of our number? Mrs. Shaw and my family desire 
their compliments, and request me to mention that they have taken 
upon themselves the task of providing the “creature comforts” for 
that occasion, and trust that their exertions will meet with unanimous 
approval. Should you have no previous engagement for that day, 
and feel disposed to join our party, a carriage will be at your door by 
seven o’clock on Wednesday morning. And believe me to be, 

My dear Sir, 

Yours most sincerely, 

Charles Shaw. 

P. S. —The favor of an early answer will oblige. 

To Stephen Wainwright, Esq., Yonkers, N. Y. 


« 








































THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


V 


/ 


7 2 








SAAK? 




A Self-Instructor-« 


IN THE 


( jXj 




^German Language. 




BY THE NEW SYSTEM OF OBJECT-TEACHING, THE SIMPLEST METHOD KNOWN 

* 


TUDENTS will readily con¬ 
cede that of all foreign lan¬ 
guages the one which best 
deserves their attention is 
the German. The influence 
of the Teuton stock on 
American civilization and 
commerce is all-important, and as 
each year continues to bring thou¬ 
sands of German immigrants to our 
shores, it will be more and more 
felt. A practical illustration of 
this fact is shown in the cry for 
German in the public schools” which 
is heard in the leading cities of the 
country at the present day. Eventu¬ 
ally a knowledge of the language will 
become so essential in the spheres of commer¬ 
cial and professional life that the business or 
professional man who cannot conduct conversa¬ 
tion and correspondence in German will find 
himself at a decided disadvantage compared 
with him who has acquired the language. Those 
who wish to do so will find in the following sys¬ 
tem of self-tuition a means of grounding them¬ 
selves so thoroughly in the principles of the lan¬ 
guage that, with its lessons well learned, they 
will have no difficulty in conversing and corre¬ 
sponding intelligibly with Germans whom they 
may meet in the way of business or social con¬ 
verse. And, having accomplished so much, all 
that will be needed to gain a mastery of the 


language is careful reading of the standard 
works of German literature, which in time will 
bring fluency of both written and spoken expres¬ 
sion. 

THE ALPHABET. 

The German alphabet consists of the following twenty-six 
letters: 


X 

X 

X 


l h 

5 h 

w 3 
w H 


3 < 

& < 

E H 

PRONUNCIATION. 

z - 

W o' 

< W 


« 5-1 

o < 

*-} 




U* 


u 

V 

O 


A 

91 a 

ah 

as a in part. 

B 

21 b 

bay 

as in English. 

c 

6 c 

tsay 

as c in cape if before a, o, u or a consonant, or 



when final. 

D 

T? fc 

day 

as in English. 

E 

© e 

ay 

1 as a in tame when long. 

( as e in he//when short. 

F 

Tv f 

ef 

as in English. 

G 

© <i 

gay 

as g in go. 

H 

.0 b 

hah 

like h in horse. 

1 

3 i 

e 

as i in sit. 

J 

i 

yot 


as_y in year. 

K 

St f 

kah 


L 

e i 

el 



M 

9 J 1 m 

em 



N 

O 

91 n 
D o 

cn 

o 


>as in English. 

P 

98 v 

pay 



Q 

O q 

koo 



R 

9 f r 

err 


• 

s 

©Sf 

es 

as s in sit. 

T 

£ t 

tav 

as in English. 

U 

U u 

oo 

as oo in pool. 

V 

25 o 

fow 

as y"in feel. 

W 

953 in 

vay 

as v in vary . 

X 

£ £ 

iks 

as x in box. 

Y 

S S 

ypsilon 

as y in system. 

Z 

3 J 

tset 

as Is in sits. 


VOWELS. 

The simple vowels are a, e, t, 0, U. Their sounds are given above. 

COMPOUND VOWELS. 

a, cz, pronounced like a in have. 

0 , oe, pronounced like eu in the French word feu, or ou in touch. 
u, tie, pronounced like ecu, or the n in the French word stir. The ac¬ 
curate sound of this, as well as of the 6, can only be learned from 
a German, as there are no similar sounds in English, 
au, att, is pronounced like ow in now. 

eu, eu, is like oy in joy. . 


Y- 


Al 


































































THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


73 


CONSONANTS. 

The g i g, has never the soft sound as in genius, but is either hard as 
in gave, or has the guttural sound of d), which letter is sounded like the 
cli in the Scotch word loch. In the pronouncing column, the g and c/t 
will be printed in italics whenever they should have the guttural sound. 
Sch is pronounced like sh in ship. 


Masculine. 

ter 

dair 


THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

Feminine. Neuter. 

tie bag, is the German Article, 

dee das 

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 


Masculine. 


Nom. 

ein ©ater, 

a father. 

Nom. 

eine ©tabt, 

a town. 

Gen. 

eined ©aterg, of a father. 

Gen. 

einer ©tatt, 

of a town. 

Dat. 

einem ©ater, 

to a father. 

Dat. 

eiiter ©tatt, 

to a town. 

Acc. 

einen ©ater, 

a father. 

Acc. 

eine ©tatt, 

a town. 


Feminine. 



Neuter. 


Nom. 

ein ©djiff, 

a ship. 

Gen. 

eined Spiffed, 

of a ship 

Dat. 

einem ©djiffe, 

to a ship, 

Acc. 

ein ©d)iff, 

a ship. 


COMBINATION OF ARTICLE AND NOUN. 

a finger 

ciit ginger 

ine fing-er 





the flesh 

bag gleifd) 

das flyshe 


DECLENSIONS 


the foot 

ber gu6 

dair fooss 

The German language has three genders: Masculine, ter; Feminine, 

the hair 

bag §aar 

das har 

tie; Neuter, tad; which form the definite Article. 

the hand 

bie £anb 

dee hahnd 

The definite article is declined 

as well 

as the substantive, and 

the right hand 

bie red)te fjanb 

dee rechtay hahnd 

examples are here 

given: 



the left hand 

bie linfe ijanb 

dee linkay hahnd 


Masculine. 


the heart 

bag §erj 

das hairz 

Singular. 


Plural. 

the hip 

bie §iifte 

dee hiftay 

Nom. ber©Bann, 

the man. 

bie ©Banner, the men. 

a knee 

ein 5 tnie 

ine knee ( lepronounc' 

Gen. ted ©Banneg, of the man. 

ber ©Banner, of the men. 

the lip 

bie Sippe 

dee lippay 

Dat. tem ©Banne 

, to the man. 

ben ©Bcinnern, to the men. 

the neck 

ber ©laden 

dair naheken 

Acc. ten ©Bann, 

the man. 

bie ©Banner, the men. 

the nose 

bie ©lafe 

dee nahzay. 


Feminine. 


a mouth 

ein ©Bunb 

ine moond 

Nom. tie grau, 

the woman. 

bie grauen, the women. 


THE FAMILY. 


Gen. ter grau, 

of the woman. 

ber grauen, of the women. 

The father 

ber ©ater 

dair fahter 

Dat. ter grau, 

to the woman. 

ben grauen, to the women. 




Acc. tie grau, 

the woman. 

bie irrauen. the women. 

the grandfather 

ber ©rofjoater 

dair grossfahter 





the stepfather 

ber ©tiefoater 

dair shteeffahter 


Neuter, 


the fatherland 

bag ©aterlanb 

das fahterland 

Nom. tad ©fert, 

the horse. 

bie ©ferbe, the horses. 

the mother 

bie ©Butter 

dee mootter 

Gen. ted ©ferted 

of the horse. 

ber ©ferbe, of the horses. 

a brother 

ein ©Gruber 

ine brooder 

Dat. tem ©ferte, 

to the horse. 

ben ©ferben, to the horses. 

the sister 

bie ©djroefiet 

dee shwester 

Acc. tad ©fert, 

the horse. 

bie ©ferbe, the horses. 

the uncle 

ber Dnfel 

dair onkel 

EXERCISES IN THE 

ARTICLE AND NOUN. 

the aunt 

bie iEante 

dee tahntay 





the nephew 

ber ©leffe 

dair neffay 


THE EARTH. 


a niece 

eine 9 Ud)te 

ineay nic/ztay 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

the girl (maiden) 

bag ©Babdien 

das maidc/zen 

The earth 

tie Grbe 


dee airdai 

the man 

ber ©Bann 

dair mahnn 

a fire 

ein geuer 


ine foyer 

the young man 

ber junge ©Bann 

dair yoongay mahnn 

the water 

bad ©Gaffer 


das vasser 

the old man 

ber alte ©Bann 

dair altay mahnn 

the rainwater 

bad ©legenroaffer 

das ragenvasser 

the wife (woman) 

bag ©Beib 

das vybe 

the stream 

ber ©from 


dair shtrome 

a bride 

eine Sraut 

ineay browt 

the sea 

bie ©ee 


dee say 

the widow 

bie ©Bittice 

dee vitvay 

the weather 

bad ©Better 


das vetter 

the widower 

ber ©Bittrcer 

dair vitver 

the summer weather tad ©ommerrcetter 

das summervetter 

the guest 

ber ©aft 

dair gahst 

the winter weather 

bad ©Bintermetter 

das vintervetter 

the neighbor 

ber ©ladtbar 

dair nac/zbar 

the wind 

ber ©Ginb 


dair vinnd 

the friend 

bergreunb 

dair froint 

the rain 

ber ©Jegen 


dair ragen 




the storm 

ber ©turm 


dair shtoorm 


FOOD. 


the hail 

ber £agel 


dair hahgel 

The beer 

bag ©ier 

das beer 

the frost 

ber grofl 


dair frust 

the glass 

bag ©lag 

das glahs 

the summer 

ber ©ommer 


dair summer 

the flask (bottle) 

bie glafd^e 

dee flashay 

the winter 

ber ©Sinter 


dair vinter 

the bread 

bag ©rob 

das brote 

the snow 

ber ©d;nee 


dair shnay 

fresh bread 

frifdjeS ©rob 

frishes brote 

the ice 

■ bad Gig 


das ice 

the butter 

bie ©utter 

dee bootter 

the thunder 

ber Conner 


dair dunner 

fresh butter 

frifdje ©utter 

frishay bootter 


ENGLISH. 


GERMAN. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


the morning 

ber ©Bergen 

dair morgen 

a day 

ein 3 iag 

ine tahg 

the midday 

ber ©Bittag 

dair mittah^ 

the night 

bie ©?ad)t 

dee nacht 

themoon 

ber ©Bonb 

dair mond 

the sun 

bie Sonne 

dee sonnai 

a star 

ein ©tern 

ine shtaim 

the light 

bag Sid)t 

das lic/zt 

a year 

ein gafyr 

ine yahr 


THE HITMAN BODY. 


The arm 

the beard 

the blood 

the bosom 

the breast (chest) 

the eye 

the ear 

a chin 

the eyebrows 
the elbows 
the fist 


ter Jlrm 
ter ©art 
bag ©lut 
ter ©ufen 
tie ©tuft 
tad ©luge 
tad Dljr 
ein Sinn 
tie 91ugenbrauen 
ter Glbogen 
tie gauft 


dair arm 
dair bart 
das bloot 
dair boosen 
dee broost 
das owgay 
das ore 
ine kin 

dee owgenbrowen 
dair elbogen 
dee fowst 




































Q 


V 

74 


THE GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 



/ 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 



the cheese 

fcer 5 ?nfe 

dair caysay 

the postmaster 

ber spoftmeifler 

dair postmiceter 



the honey 

ber .gonig 

dair honi^z 

to ride 

reiten 

riten 



the milk 

tie SDitld) 

dee mil ch 

the riding-master 

ber 9 iittnieijler 

dair rittmiceter 



the buttermilk 

bte S 3 uttermild) 

dee boottermilc// 

the school 

bie ©diule 

dee shoolay 



the oil 

bag Del 

das cel 

the schoolmaster 

ber ©djulmetfter 

dair shoolnnceter 



the fish 

bcr gif<$ 

dair fish 

the smith 

ber ©d)titteb 

dair shmit 



the flesh (meat) 

bag gleifd) 

das flyshe 

the smithy 

bte ©djnttebe 

dee shmeedav 



the wine 

ber 2Bein 

dair vine 

the nailsmith 

ber 9 Jagelfd)inteb 

dair nahgelshmit 



old wine 

alter SEeitt 

alter vine 

the goldsmith 

bcr ©olbfdjmteb 

dair goldshinit 



the punch 

ber Eunfd) 

dair poonch 

the coppersmith 

ber Supferfd)mteb 

dair koopfershmit 



the rum 

ber 9 ium 

dair room 

the weaver 

ber 2 Eeber 

dair vayber 



the water 

tag SEaffer 

das vasser 

the king 

ber Sonig 

dair koenig 



the salt 

bag <Sal3 

das saltz 

the prince 

ber Eriitj 

dair prints 



the pepper 

ber Efeffer 

dair pfeffer 

the baron 

ber 93 arott 

dair bahrone 



the salad 

ber ©alat 

dair salaht 

the officer 

ber Cfficter 

dair offeetseer 



the soup 

bte ©uppe 

dee sooppay 

the soldier 

ber ©olbat 

dair soldaht 



the beefsteak 

bag 23 ecfftcaf 

das beefsteak 

the pope 

ber ipabft 

dair pahhst 



the pudding 

ter Eubbtng 

dair poodding 

the archbishop 

ber (Srgbifd>of 

dair airtsbishof 



the coffee 

ter Saffee 

dair kaffay 

the bishop 

ber Stjdjof 

dair bishofe 



the tea 

bcr Slice 

dair tay 






the chocolate 

bte (Sljofotabe 

dee chocolahday 


CLOTHING. 




the lemonade 

tie Cintonabe 

dee limonahday 

The jacket 

bte Sacfe 

dee yackay 






the shoe 

ber ©dutf; 

dair shoe 




TOWN AND COUNTRY. 

the hat 

ber £ut 

dair hoot 



The house 

bag $aug 

das house 

the brush 

bie SBiirfte 

dee beeurstay 



the garden 

ber ®arten 

dair garten 

the hairbrush 

bie £aarbitrfte 

dee harbeeurstay 



the land 

bag Sanb 

das lahnd 

the frock (coat) 

ber gtacf 

dair frak 



the market 

ber 9 )iarft 

dair markt 

the wool 

bie 2 Eolle 

dee vollay 



the street 

tie ©trajje 

dee strahssay 

the cravat 

bie Graoatte 

dee cravahtte 



the church 

bte Sirdje 

dee keerchay 

the purse 

bie 93 orfe 

dee boersay 



the mail 

bte Eoft 

dee pust 

the cap 

bie Sappe 

dee kappay 

# 


the bank 

bte Sanf 

dee bank 

the ring 

ter SHtttg 

dair ring 



the theater 

bag Sweater 

das tavahter 






the hospital 

bag jjcfpital 

das hospitahl 

BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, ETC. 



the coffee-house 

bag Saffeeljaug 

das kaffayhouse 

The hound (dog) 

ter £>tinb 

dair hoond 



the palace 

ber Eataft 

dair palast 

the cat 

bie Sfa(je 

dee kahtsay 



the harbor 

ber §afett 

dair hahfen 

the rat 

bie SWatte 

dee rattay 



the field 

bag $elb 

das feld 

the mouse 

tie SDiatig 

dee mouse 



the dale (valley) 

bag Ttjal 

das tahl 

the swine (pig) 

bag ©dpreitt 

das shvine 



the wood (forest) 

ber 3 Balb 

dair vald 

the hare 

ber £afe 

dair hahzay 



the bush 

ber 93 uj<f) 

dair boosh 

the roe 

tag (Kef) 

das ray 



the heath 

tie £atbe 

dee hiday 

the ox 

ber Odjfe 

dair ocksay 



the hill 

ber §iiget 

dair heeugel 

the cow 

tie Sul) 

dee koo 



the mill 

tie 9 J 2 uljle 

dee meeullay 

the calf 

bag Salb 

das kalb 



the corn 

bag Sorn 

das korn 

the sheep 

tag ©d)aaf 

das shahf 



the straw 

bag ©troll 

das shtro 

the lamb 

bag Samm 

das lam 






the fox 

ter Judig 

dair fooks 



TRADES AND PROFESSIONS. 

the wolf 

ber SEoIf 

dair volf 



The baker 

ber Sader 

dair becker 

the bear 

ter 93 ar 

dair bier 



the bookbinder 

ber Sudjbtnber 

dair boor/zbinder 

the elephant 

ter Glepbant 

dair elefahnt 



the book 

bag SBud) 

das hooch 

the camel 

bag Samecl 

das cahmail 



the doctor 

bcr Softer 

dair doktor 

the swan 

ter ©dnoan 

dair shvan 



the hat 

ber £ut 

dair hoot 

the falcon 

bcr jjalfe 

dair falkay 



the hatter 

ter £utmacf)cr 

dair hootmar/ier 

the goose 

bie ®ang 

dee gahns 



the shoe 

bcr ©d)ufy 

dair shoe 

the stork 

ber ©tord) 

dair shtorrft 



the shoemaker 

ter ©d)ttl)ttiad)er 

dair shoemar 7 /er 

the snipe 

bie ©d)ttepfe 

dee shnepfay 



the razor 

bag SRaftrmeffer 

das raseermesser 

the raven 

ber SNabe 

dair rahbay 



a barber 

ein SSarbter 

ine barbeer 

the lark 

bie fierce 

dee lairc//ay 



the glass 

bag ©lag 

das glahs 

the crow 

bie Sral;e 

dee krayay 



the glazier 

bet ©lafer 

dair glaiser 

the nightingale 

bie 9 iad)tigall 

dee nac/ttigal 



the nail 

ber 9 !agel 

dair nahgel 

the cuckoo 

ber Sucfttcf 

dair kookook 



the saddle 

ber ©attel 

dair sattel 

the swallow 

tie ©dpoalbe 

dee shvalbay 



the saddler 

ber ©attler 

dair sattler 

the finch 

ber gtnfe 

dair finkay 



the mill 

bte 9 )iuf)le 

dee meeullay 

the sparrow 

ber ©perling 

dair spairling 



the miller 

ber SDiutler 

dair meeuller 

the fish 

ber gijd) 

dair fish 



the master 

ber 9 Jieifter 

dair miceter 

the carp 

ber Karpfe 

dair carpfay 



dancing 

tattjen 

tanzen 

the herring 

ter faring 

dair hairing 



the dancing-master 

ber Sanjmetfter 

dair tanzmiceter 

the eel 

ber ?tal 

‘ dair ahl 



the post 

bte iJSoft 

dee pust 

the frog 

ber grojd) 

dair frush 









\ 



IS 




<5 






























A 

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 75 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

the worm 

ter aSurm 

dair voorm 

the spider 

tie ©pinne 

dee shpinnay 

the oyster 

tie Jlufter 

dee ouster 

the crab 

ter Srcbg 

dair kreps 

the flea 

ter glof) 

dair flo 

the fly 

tie gtiege 

dee fleegay 

the bee 

tie 23 iene 

dee beenay 

the wasp 

tie 23 efpe 

dee vespay 

the snail 

tie Sdjnetfe 

dee shneckay 

MINERALS AND 

METALS. 

The gold 

bag @olb 

das gult 

the silver 

tag ©ilber 

das silber 

the copper 

bag Supfer 

das koopfer 

the iron 

tag Gtfen 

das eisen 

the tin 

bag 3tnn 

das tsin 

the steel 

tag ©tafyt 

das shtahl 

the zinc 

tag 3int 

das tsink 

the bronze 

tie SBronje 

dee bronsay 

the diamond 

ter Oiamant 

dair deeamahnt 

the pearl 

tie 5?erle 

dee pairlay 

the coral 

tie SoraHe 

dee corallay 

the marble 

tag SDiarmor 

das marmor 

the gypsum 

ter @ppg 

dair gyps 

the clay 

ter Sefnn 

dair lame 

the chalk 

ter Saif 

dair calk 

the coal 

tie Soljle 

dee coalay 

the earth 

tie Grte 

dee airday 

the sand 

ter ©anb 

dair sahnd 

the stone 

bet ©tein 

dair stine 


SHIPS AND SHIPPING. 

The ship 

bag ©d)iff 

das shiff 

the boat 

tag Soot 

das boat 

the ship-of-the-line 

tag Sinienfdflff 

das leenvenshiff 

the fisherboat 

tag giftfyerboot 

das fisherboat 

the anchor 

ter Sinter 

dair anker 

the deck 

bag $ecf 

das deck 

the flag 

tie glagge 

dee flaggay 

the mast 

ter 9 J 2 aft 

dair mast 

the foremast 

ter SSorbermafi 

dair fordermast 

the sail 

tag ©egel 

das saygel 

the strand 

ter ©tranb 

dair shtrand 

the rudder 

tag IRuter 

das rooder 

the net 

tag 31 e (5 

das netz 

the lading (freight) 

tie Cabling 

dee lahdung 

the freight 

tie gradjt 

dee frac/it 

the coast 

tie Siifie 

dee kistay 

the cliff 

tie Slippe 

dee klippay 

the downs 

tie Hiinen 

dee deeunen 

the ground 

ter ®runb 

dair groond 

the storm 

ter ©turn 

dair shtoorm 

the fleet 

tie gtotte 

dee flottay 

the frigate 

tie gregatte 

dee fregattay 


TIME AND SEASONS. 

The century 

bag 3al)rfmnbert 

das yarhoondert 

the year 

tag Ja^r 

das yar 

the month 

ter STOonat 

dair monat 

the week 

tie SEGof&e 

dee voc/iay 

the day 

ter Hag 

dair ta^ 

the hour 

tie ©tunbe 

dee shtoonday 

half-an-hour 

eine §atte ©tunbe 

inay halbay shtoonday 

the minute 

tie SKinute 

dee minoohtay 

the second 

tie ©efunbe 

dee secoonday 

the seasons 

tie 3al)tcgjeiten 

dee yarestsiten 

spring 

grujjling 

freeling 

summer 

©ommer 

summer 

autumn 

§erbft 

hairbst 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION, 

winter 

SBinter 

vinter 

J anuary 

3 anuar 

yanooar 

February 

gebruar 

febrooar 

March 

9 J?arj 

mayrts 

April 

Slpril 

apreel 

May 

992 at 

my 

June 

3 «nt 

yoonee 

July 

Suit 

yoolee 

August 

Slugufl 

owgoost 

September 

September 

September 

October 

October 

October 

November 

December 

november 

December 

®ejember 

daytsember 

the days of the week 

tie SBoifjentage 

dee voc/ientahgay 

Sunday 

©onntag 

sunta^ 

Monday 

SDlontag 

monetao' 

Tuesday 

®tenftag 

deensta^ 

Wednesday 

9 )?ittrro<f) 

mittvor/i 

Thursday 

®onnerftag 

donnersta^r 

Friday 

greitag 

freitahjr 

Saturday 

J ©amftag 

1 ©onnabenb 

sahmstahff’ 

sunnahbend 

The holiday 

ber geiertag 

dair firetao - 

Christmas 

©eifynadjten 

vinac/zten 

Easter 

Dftern 

ohstern 

Whitsuntide 

Spfingfien 

pfingsten 

the morning 

ber 9 ) 2 orgen 

dair morgen 

noon 

9 J 2 ittag 

mitta^ - 

the afternoon 

ter 92 aibmittag 

dair nac/imitta^ 

the evening 

ber Mbenb 

dair abend 

the night 

tie 92 ad?t 

dee nac/it 

midnight 

2 J2itterna$t 

mitternac/it 


THE HOME. 


The bell 

bte (Slocfe 

dee gluckay 

the knocker 

ber Slopfer 

dair klupfer 

to open 

offnen 

oeffnen 

the servant 

tie 9 J 2 agb 

dee ma»d 

the staircase 

tie Hreppe 

dee treppay 

the room 

bag 3i t n m «t 

das tsimmer 

the drawing-room 

bag H 3 ut}jimmer 

das pootstsimmer 

the sitting-room 

bag 2Se!)njtmmer 

das vohntsimmer 

the dining-room 

bag Gtrimmer 

das esstsimmer 

the sleeping-room 

bag ©djlafjimmer 

das shlahftsimmer 

the kitchen 

tie Sudje 

dee keeuc//ay 

the cellar 

ber Seller 

dair keller 

the window 

bag genfter 

das fenster 

the stove 

ber Dfen 

dair ohfen 

the chimney 

ber Samtn 

dair kameen 

the looking-glass 

ber ©piegel 

dair shpeegel 

the table 

ber Hifd) 

dair tish 

the chair 

ber ©tu$! 

.dair shtool 

the arm-chair 

ber SIrmfluI)! 

dair armshtool 

the carpet 

ber Heppidi 

dair teppic/i 

the chest of drawers 

tie Sommobe 

dee commohday 

the sofa 

bag ©opI)a 

das sofa 

the candlestick 

bet Seudjter 

dair loyc/iter 

the candle 

tag 2id)t 

das lic/it 

the lamp 

bte Campe 

dee lampay 

the wick 

ber Hod;t 

dair doc//t 

the oil 

tag Del 

das cel 

to light 

anjunbeit 

antsinden 

the bed 

bag Sett 

das bet 

the counterpane 

tie Settbeife 

dee betdeckay 

the sheets 

tie 23 ctttudjcr 

dee betteec/zer 

the pillow 

tag Sopffificn 

das kupfkissen 

the basin 

bag SSafdjbecfen 

das vashbecken 

the soap 

tie ©etfe 

dee sifay 

the towel 

bag £>anbtud) 

das handtoocA 



































7 6 


THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

warm water 

rcarmeg Staffer 

varmes vasser 

cold water 

lalteg SBaffer 

kaltes vasser 

hot water 

fyeifseg SBaffer 

hyses vasser 

to wash 

trafdjen 

vashen 

the comb 

ter Kamm 

dair kamm 

to comb 

fiimmen 

kemmen 

FRUITS, TREES AND 

FLOWERS. 

The apple 

ter Slpfel 

dair apfel 

the apple-tree 

ter Slpfelbaum 

dair apfelbowm 

the pear 

tie 23 irne 

dee beernay 

the pear-tree 

ter SBirnbaum 

dair beernbowm 

the plum 

tie iJSflaume 

dee pflowmay 

the plum-tree 

ter HBflaumenbaum 

dair pflowmenbowm 

the cherry 

tie Kirfdje 

dee keershay 

the chestnut 

tie Kaftanie 

dee kastanyay 

the peach 

ter 5 Pfirfi$ 

dair pfeersif/z 

the apricot 

tie Jlpricofe 

dee apreecohsay 

the orange 

tie Slpfelfine 

dee apfelseenay 

the lemon 

tie Gitrone 

dee tsitronay 

the grape 

tie SBeintraube 

dee vinetrowbay 

the nut 

tie 9 iuf) 

dee nooss 

the walnut 

tie SBallnup 

dee vallnooss 

the currant 

tie 3 oI)anniSbcere 

dee yohanisbairay 

the gooseberry 

tie ©tacbelbeere 

dee shtazr/zelbairay 

the raspberry 

tie ©imbeere 

dee himbairay 

the blackberry 

tie ©rombeere 

dee brombairay 

the strawberry 

tie Grtbeere 

dee airdbairay 

the oak 

tie Gicfye 

dee izr/zay 

the beech 

tie ©ucfye 

dee booc/zay 

the poplar 

tie Sjiappel 

dee pappel 

the lime 

bie Sinte 

dee linday 

the ash 

tie Gjcfye 

dee eshay 

the fir 

bie itanne 

dee tannay 

the willow 

bie SBeibe 

dee viday 

the rose 

bie Dfofe 

dee rosay 

the pink 

bie 3 Jelfe 

dee nelkay 

the tulip 

bie Hulpe 

dee toolpay 

the lily 

bie Silie 

dee leeleay 

the violet 

bag 23 eild;en 

das filec/zen 

the lilac 

ber glieber 

dair fleeder 

the lily of the valley 

bag SDiaiblumcben 

THE TOILET. 

das mybleumchen 

The clothes 

bie Kleiber 

dee klider 

the coat 

ber 9 Zoc£ 

dair ruck 

the trowsers 

bie §ofen 

dee hozen 

the pocket 

bie Sajdje 

dee tashay 

the buttons 

bie Knopfe 

dee kneepfay 

the dressing-gown 

ber ©ddafrotf 

dair shlahfruck 

the slippers 

bie SJ 3 antofjelit 

dee pantuffeln 

the drawers 

bie Unterbofen 

dee oonterhosen 

the stockings 

tie Strumpje 

dee streeumpfay 

the shirt 

tag £emb 

das hemt 

the braces 

bie §ofentrager 

dee hosentrayger 

the waistcoat 

bie SBefte 

dee vestay 

the boot 

ber ©tiefel 

dair shteefel 

the boot-jack 

ber ©tiefclfnedit 

dair shteefelknezr/zt 

the cap 

bie SJiufce 

dee mitsay 

the gloves 

bie £anbfd)uf>e 

dee handshooay 

the handkerchief 

bad 3 ;afd)entud) 

das tashentooc/z 

the watch 

bie Uf)t 

dee oor 

the umbrella 

ber 9 icgenfd)irm 

dair raygensheerm 

the purse 

bie 936 rfe 

dee boersay 

the brush 

bie ©urfle 

dee birstay 

the comb 

ber Kamm 

dair kamm 

the apron 

bie ©cfyurje 

dee sheeurtsay 

the fan 

ber gddier 

dair feeder 

the dress 

tad Kleib 

das klite 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

pronunciation. 

the petticoat 

ber Unterrorf 

dair oonterruck 

the stays 

bag ©djnurleib 

der shneerlipe 

the veil 

ber ©djleier 

dair shlire 

the powder 

bag ipuber 

das pooder 

the soap 

bie ©eife 

dee sifay 

the tooth-powder 

bag 

TRAVEL. 

das tsahnpoolfer 

The voyage 

bie Dieife 

dee rizay 

the traveller 

ber SReifenbe 

dair rizendav 

the road 

bie Sanbftrajse 

dee lahndshtrahsay 

the railroad 

bie Gifenbafjn 

dee isenbahn 

the. station 

bie ©tation 

dee stahtzione 

the train 

ber 3ug 

dair tsoo£ 

the engine 

bie 9 Jiafd)ine 

dee masheenay 

the carriage 

bie Kutfdje 

dee kootshay 

the wagon 

ber SBagen 

dair vahgen 

the departure 

bie 9 Ibreife 

dee abrizay 

the arrival 

bie Slnfunft 

dee ankoonft 

the pass-port 

ber $afj 

dair pass 

the inn (hotel) 

ber G'aftfyof 

dair gasthof 

the landlord 

ber 25 irtl) 

dair veert 

the waiter 

ber Kellner 

dair kelner 

the bill 

bie SRedputng 

dee rezr/znoong 

the interpreter 

ber $Dlmetjd)er 

dair dullmetsher 

the luggage 

bag Giepacf 

das gepeck 

the trunk 

ber Koffer 

dair cuffer 

the carpetbag 

ber SKeijcfad dair rizaysack 

AT THE WRITING-DESK. 

The paper 

bag papier 

das papeer 

the writing-paper 

bag ©djreibpapier 

das shribepapeer 

the writing 

bie ©djrift 

dee shrift 

the sheet 

ber SBogen 

dair bogen 

the pen 

bie geber 

dee fayder 

the steel-pen 

bie ©taljlfeber 

dee stahlfayder 

the penknife 

bag gebermeffer 

das faydermesser 

the inkstand 

bag Sintenfajj 

das tintenfass 

the ink • 

bie SEinte 

dee tintay 

the pencil 

ber 2?leiftift 

dair blystift 

the scissors 

bie @d)eere 

dee shavray 

the date 

ber Saturn 

der dahtoom 

the direction 

bie Slbrejfe 

dee alulressay 

the mail 

bie $oft 

dee pust 

the seal 

bag spetfdjaft 

das petshaft 

the sealing-wax 

ber ©iegellad 

dair seegellac 

the wafer 

bie ©Mate 

dee oblahtay 

the ruler 

bag Cineal 

das leenayahl 

the letter 

ber S 3 rief 

dair breef 

the note 

bag SSillet das bilyet 

LANDS AND PEOPLES. 

The country 

bag 9 anb 

daslahnd 

the native land 

bag SSalerlanb 

das fahterlahnd 

the state 

ber ©taat 

dair shtaht 

the empire 

bag SKeid) 

das riz:/ze 

the kingdom 

bag Kbmgreicf) 

das koeniorizr^e 

Europe 

Guropa 

oiropa 

the European 

ber Guropaer 

dair oiropayer 

America 

Slmerifa 

amayricah 

the American 

ber Slmerifaner 

dair amayrikahner 

Asia 

91 lien 

azien 

Africa 

Stfrifa 

afrika 

the East Indies 

SDftinbien 

ostindien 

the West Indies 

SBeftinbien 

vestindien 

the United States 

bie rereinigten ©taaten 

dee verinioten stahten 

Brazil 

23 rafilien 

brahzeelien 

England 

Gngtanb 

englahnd 

the Englishman 

ber Gnglanber 

dair Englender 



























ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION 

Ireland 

3 rlanb 

eerlahnd 

rich 

reid; 

riche 

the Irishman 

ber Jtlanbet 

der eerlcnder 

cold 

fait 

kalt 

Scotland 

©djottlanb 

shutlahnd 

warm 

rearm 

varm 

the Scotchman 

ber Sd)otte 

dair shuttay 

long 

fang 

lahng 

France 

granfreid) 

frankricAe 

high 


hoa ch 

the Frenchman 

bet gran}ofe 

dair frantsosay 

full 

con 

foil 

Germany 

$eutfd)!anb 

doytshlahnd 

cool 

fu^I 

keel 

the German 

ber ®eutfd)c 

dair doytshay 

near 

natye 

nah 

Holland 

£oUanb 

hullahnd 

hard 

§art 

hart 

the Dutchman 

ber fjotlanber 

dair hullender 

light 

leidjt 

\ycht 

Austria 

Defterretd) 

eceterric/re 

wild 

rcilb 

villd 

the Austrian 

ber Deflerreidjer 

dair ecetcrricAer 

fat 

felt 

fet 

Prussia 

^reufjen 

proyssen 

fine 

fein 

fine 

the Prussian 

ber SJSteujje 

dair proyssay 

mild 

milb 

milld 

Russia 

Mufjlanb 

roossland 

deep 

tief 

teef 

the Russian 

ber Diuffe 

dair roossay 

fresh 

MW 

frish 

Sweden 

©djreeben 

6 hvayden 

ripe 

reif 

rife 

the Swede 

ber ©djreebe 

dair shvayday 

unripe 

unreif 

oonrife 

Denmark 

£anemarf 

danemark 

bitter 

bitter 

bitter 

the Dane 

ber ®dne 

dair daynay 

small 

fdjmal 

shmahl 

Switzerland 

bie ©d;reei(} 

dee shvyts 

wide 

reeit 

vite 

the Swiss 

ber ©d)reei(jer 

dair shvytser 

open 

offen 

uffen 

Italy 

3 talten 

eetalven 

loud 

laut 

lout 

the Italian 

ber 3taliener 

dair eetaleeayner 

right 

redjt 

recht 

Spain 

©panicn 

shpanyen 

wise 

reetfe 

visay 

the Spaniard 

ber ©panier 

dair shpaneeyare 

blind 

blinb 

blinnd 

Greece 

©riedjenlanb 

greec/ienlahnd 

unwell 

unreoljl 

oonvole 

the Greek 

ber ©riedje 

deir greecAay 

hot 

f>ei& 

hice 

Turkey 

bie SEiirfet 

dee teerki 

thick 

bid 

dick 

the Turk 

ber Stiirfe 

dair teerkay 

neat 

nett 

net 

the J ew 

ber 3“be 

dair yooday 

thin 

bunn 

din 

the Persian 

ber Sperfter 

dair perzier 

broad 

breit 

brite 




round 

runb 

roond 


THE ADJECTIVE 


false 

falW 

fahlsh 


The German adjective is placed before the substantive. 

With the definite article it takes the termination in e; with the in¬ 
definite article or without the article, it takes the termination of its 
gender; as: 

$er gute Safer, the good father; guter Safer, good father; eirt guter 
Safer, a good father. 

®ie gute Stutter, the good mother; gute Stutter, good mother; etne gute 
Stutter, a good mother. 

®a§ gute Sint, the good child ; guteS Sint, good child ; ein guteg Sint, 
a good child. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

The comparative of a German adjective is formed by adding er to 
the positive, the superlative by adding fte; as: 

Slcin, little — flciner, smaller — lleinfte, smallest. 

SHeid), rich — reiser, richer — reidjfte, richest. 

The “ than” following the comparative is translated by „al§". 

Grift tleiner alS id); he is smaller than I. 

VOCABULARY OF ADJECTIVES. 


White 

roeifj 

vice 

red 

rot£> 

rote 

blue 

blau 

blou 

brown 

braun 

brown 

gray 

grau 

grou 

green 

grim 

green 

yellow 

getb 

gelb 

orange 

orange 

orahn^ie 

purple 

purpur 

poorpoor 

violet 

ciolett 

veeolet 

old 

alt 

ah It 

young 

jung 

yoong 

new 

neu 

noi 

great 

grofe 

gross 

good 

gut 

goot 


sour 

hollow 

sharp 

flat 

small 

narrow 

low 

beautiful 

handsome 

ugly 

bad 

easy 

heavy 

soft 

true 

short 

far 

sweet 

hollow 

blunt 

delicious 

disagreeable 

honest 

polite 

obliging 

kind 

prudent 

stupid 

ridiculous 

reasonable 

happy 

unhappy 

glad 

satisfied 

active 


fauer 

fdjarf 

flacf) 

flein 

enge 

niebrig 

fdjon 

fjiibfdj 

fyafiltdj 

fd)!ed)t 

lei^t 

fdjreer 

rceid; 

rcafyr 

fur} 

reett 

ftumpf 

foftlid) 

unangenefym 

efrelid) 

IjofUd) 

gefatlig 

gutig 

flug 

bumm 

ladjerlidj 

cernunftig 

gtucflid) 

ungludlicfy 

fro^ 

jufrieben 

t^atig 


sour 

hole 

sharf 

fla ch 

kline 

engay 

needri^ 

schoen 

hibsch 

hesslic/i 

shlee/it 

leicAt 

shvair 

xyche 

vahr 

koorts 

vite 

seess 

hole 

shtoompf 

kcestlir^ 

oonahngenaym 

ayrlicA 

haefli ch 

gefelli^ 

geeti^- 

kloo^ 

doomm 

lec/ierlir/i 

ferninfti^ 

glicklicA 

oonglicklicA 

fro 

tsoofreeden 

taiti^ 






£> 

T 


(d 





























78 


THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. 


proud 

ftOlj 

shtults 

rude 

grob 

grope 

bold 

fiifjn 

keen 

strong- 

flat! 

shtark 

weak 

fdjroadj 

shvach 

attentive 

aufmerffant 

owfmerksahm 

clever 

gefefyieft 

geshickt 

sick 

fraitf 

krahnk 

pale 

bla& 

blahss 

Healthy 

gejuttb 

gezoond 

poor 

arm 

arm 

empty 

leer 

lair 

light 

fyell 

hell 

dark 

bunfef 

doonkel 

dry 

troefen 

trocken 

wet 

ttafs 

nahss 

dirty 

ftymufctg 

shmootsi^o" 

cheap 

biHig 

billi^o- 

clean 

rein 

rine 

tired 

miibe 

meeday 

angry 

b&fe 

bees ay 

merry 

luftig 

loosti^- 


CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

One 

ein, eing 

ine,ines 

two 

jroet 

tsvi 

three 

brei 

dri 

four 

tier 

feer 

five 

funf 

finf 

six 

fed)g 

sex 

seven 

fiebeit 

seeben 

eight 

ad;t 

ac/it 

nine 

neun 

noyn 

ten 

jebn 

tsane 

eleven 

elf 

elf 

twelve 

jwolf 

tsvelf 

thirteen 

brcijebn 

drytsane 

fourteen 

Bierjetyn 

feertsane 

fifteen 

funfjefm 

finftsane 

sixteen 

fecf?^jef?it 

sextsane 

seventeen 

fiebenjefm 

seebentsane 

eighteen 

ad)tjef)tt 

ae/ittsane 

nineteen 

neunjefpt 

noyn tsane 

twenty 

jrcanjig 

tsvan tzig 

twenty-one 

einunbjrcattjtg 

ineoondtsvantzi^- 

twenty-two 

jrceiunbjroattjig 

zvioondtsvantzi^- 

twenty-three 

bretunbjrcanstg 

dryoondtsvantzi^- 

thirty 

breifiig 

drysio- 

forty 

cierjig 

feertzitf 

fifty 

funfjtg 

finftzicr 

sixty 

fecbSjig 

se.ch\.7\g 

seventy 

fiebenjig 

seebenzi^- 

eighty 

ad^tjig 

&cht7.\g 

ninety 

neunjig 

noyntzi^" 

one hundred 

fyunbert 

hoondert 

one hundred and one 

franbert unb eing 

hoondert oond ines 

one hundred and two 

fmnbert unb jmet 

hoondert oond tsvi 

two hundred 

jreet fmnbert 

tsvi hoondert 

three hundred 

brjt bunbert 

dry hoondert 

four hundred 

Bier bunbert 

feer hoondert 

five hundred 

funf bunbert 

finf hoondert 

six hundred 

fed )3 bunbert 

sex hoondert 

seven hundred 

fieben bunbert 

seeben hoondert 

eight hundred 

ad)t bunbert 

acht hoondert 

nine hundred 

neun bunbert 

noyn hoondert 

one thousand 

taufenb 

towsend 

two thousand 

jinet taufenb 

tsvi towsend 

three thousand 

tret taufenb 

dry towsend 

ten thousand 

jebn taufenb 

tsane towsend 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

a million 

eine OJtiflion 

inay milleeone 

one thousand eight ein taufenb ac^t bunbert ine towsend ac/;t hoon- 

hundred and 

fifty- neuitunbfunfjig 

dert noyn oond finf- 

nine. 


tsig 


THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

the first 

ber erfle 

dair ayrstay 

the second 

ber jrcette 

dair tsvitay 

the third 

ber britte 

dair drittay 

the fourth 

ber Bterte 

dair feertay 

the fifth 

ber fiinfte 

dair finftay 

the sixth 

ber fed)§fle 

dair sextag 

the seventh 

ber fiebente 

dair seebentay 

the eighth 

ber a<bte 

dair ac/itay 

the ninth 

ber neunte 

dair noyntay 

the tenth 

ber jcbnte 

dair tsanetay 

the eleventh 

ber elfte 

dair elftay 

the twelfth 

ber jiBclfte 

dair tsvelftay 

the thirteenth 

ber breijefjnte 

dair drytsanetay 

the fourteenth 

ber Bierjebnte 

dair feertsanctay 

the fifteenth 

ber fuitfjebnfe 

dair finftsanetay 

the sixteenth 

ber fedjgjefjnte 

dair ser/itsanetay 

the seventeenth 

ber fiebenjelmte 

dair seebentsanetay 

the eighteenth 

ber atbfjebnfe 

dair ac//tsanetay 

the nineteenth 

ber neunjefmte 

dair noyntsanetay 

the twentieth 

ber jtranjigfle 

dair tsvanzio'stay 

the twenty-first 

ber einunbjiBanjigfte 

dair ineoondtsvantsig- 



stay 

twenty-second 

ber jiBetunbjiBanjigfte 

dair tsvioondtsvantsi^- 



stay 

the twenty-third 

ber breiunbjtBattjtgfle 

dair drioondtsvantsi^- 



stay 

the thirtieth 

ber breifjigfte 

dair drysiostay 

the thirty-first 

ber etitunbbreifiigfle 

dair meoonddrysiirstay 

the thirty-second 

ber jtBeiunbbretfjigfle 

dair tsvioonddrysi^Stay 

the fortieth 

ber Bterjigfte 

dair feertsiostay 

the fiftieth 

ber f unfjigfte 

dair finftsi^stay 

the sixtieth 

ber fecbSsigfte 

dair serAtsi^stay 

the seventieth 

ber ficbcnjigfte 

dair seebentsi^stay 

the eightieth 

ber acbtjtgfte 

dair ac/itsi^stay 

the ninetieth 

ber neunjigfte 

dair noyntsi^stay 

the one hundredth 

ber tyunbertfte 

dair hoonderstay 

the one hundred 

and ber fyunbertunberfte 

dair hoondertoondayr- 

first 


stay 

the two hundredth 

ber jipetfmnbertfte 

dairtsvihoondertstay 

the three hundredth ber breifmnbertfte 

dairdrihoondertstay 

the one thousandth ber taufenbfte 

dair towsendstay 


COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. 

A pair 

ein ? 5 aar 

ine palir 

a dozen 

ein CDufjenb 

ine dootsend 

a score 

jrcanjig 

tsvantsio- 

firstly 

erfteng 

ayrstens 

secondly 

jrceiteng 

tsvitens 

thirdly 

britteng 

drittens 

the first time 

bag erfle 95 ?at 

das ayrstay mal 

the second time 

bag jineite 2kat 

das tsvitay mal 

once 

einmal 

inemal 

twice 

jtBeimat 

tsvimal 

thrice 

bretmaf 

drvmal 

single 

einfadf 

inefar// 

double 

boppelt 

duppelt 

threefold 

treifadj 

dryfa ch 

fourfold 

Bierfad) 

feerfa ch 

one sort 

einerlei 

inerlye 

two sorts 

jrceierlei 

tsvierlye 

three sorts 

breterlei 

drierlye 

four sorts 

Bierertei 

feererlye 

ten sorts 

gelynerlei 

tsanerlye 






























THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


79 


PRONOUNS. 


I 

id? 

mine 

mein 

thou 

®u 

thine 

®ein 

he 

er 

his 

fein 

she 

fie 

her 

tbr 

we 

n'ir 

ours 

unfcr 

you 

3 ^* 

you rs 

(Suer 

they 

fie 

theirs 

tbr 

this 

biefer 

who, which 

treldjer 

th at 

jener 

who 

trer 

such 

f otd)er 

each, every one 

jeber 

somebody 

jcmanb 

nobody 

niemanb 

The polite 

form of address in German is to use the pronoun ©ie, in 


stead of ®u, in the second person singular. In that sense ©ie is writ¬ 
ten with a capital letter. 

THE VERB. 

Before studying the regular verbs the student must learn by 
heart the auxiliary verbs, whose conjugations are as follows: 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 

£aben — to have. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present. fyaben, to have 

Perfect. gebabt baben, to have had. 

Future. baben trerbeit, to be about to have. 
Participles: Present, b fl benb, having. 

Perfect, gel)abt, had. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 


icb babe, 

I have 

icb b fl be, 

I may have 

®u baft, 

thou hast 

®u babeft, 

thou mayst have 

er bat, 

he has 

er babe, 

he may have 

trir baben, 

we have 

trir baben, 

we may have 

3 br babt, 

you have 

3 br babet, 

you may have 

fie baben, 

they have 

fie baben, 

they may have 


Imperfect. 


id) Ijatte, 

I had 

id) batte, 

I might have 

®u batteft, 

thou hadst 

®u batteft, 

thou mightest have 

er batte, 

he had 

er I)atte, 

he might have 

trir batten, 

we had 

trir batten, 

we might have 

3 br battet, 

you had 

3 br battet, 

you might have 

fie batten, 

they had 

fie batten, 

they might have 


I have had. 
tcf> babe gebabt 
®u baft gebabt 
er Ijat gebabt 
mir baben gebabt 
3 b* babt gebabt 
fie baben gebabt 

I had had. 
id) batte gebabt 
®u batteft gebabt 
er batte gebabt 
mir batten gebabt 
3 br battet gebabt 
fie batten gebabt. 

I shall have, 
tcb trerte baben 
®u rnirft baben 
er trirb baben 
trtr trerben baben 
3 b* merbet baben 
fie trerben baben 


Perfect. 

I may have had. 
id; babe gebabt 
®u babeft gebabt 
er babe gebabt 
trir baben gebabt 
3 b* babet gebabt 
fie baben gebabt 

Pluperfect. 

I might have had. 
id) batte gebabt 
®u batteft gebabt 
er batte gebabt 
ti'ir batten gebabt 
3 b* battet gebabt 
fie batten gebabt 

First Future. 

If I shall have, 
id) trerte baben 
®u trerbeft baben 
er trerbe babett 
trir trerben baben 
3 br trcrbet baben 
1 fie ti'erben baben 


INDICATIVE. 

I shall have had. 
id) trerte gebabt baben 
®u rnirft gebabt babett 
er trirb gebabt babett 
trit trerbeit gebabt baben 
3 br trerbct gebabt baben 
fie trerbeit gebabt baben 

FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

I should have, 
id) rnitrbe babett 
®u trurbeft baben 
er trurbe baben 
trir trurben baben 
3 b* triirbet baben 
fie trurben baben 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Second Future. 

If I shall have had. 
id) trerte gebabt baben 
®u trerbeft gebabt baben 
er trerte gebabt baben 
trir trerbeit gebabt baben 
3 b* trertet gebabt baben 
fie trerbeit gebabt baben 

SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

I should have had. 
id) trurbe gebabt baben 
®u trurbeft gebabt babett 
er trurbe gebabt baben 
trir trurben geljabt baben 
3 br triirbet gebabt baben 
fie trurben gebabt baben 


babe, 
babe er, 


have 

let him have 


IMPERATIVE. 

baben trir, 
b a b t(3bO/ 
baben fie, 


let us have 
have ye 
let them have 


©ein — to be. 


INFINITIVE. 

Present. feilt, to be. 

Perfect. getrefen fein, to have been. 

Future. fein trerben, to be about to be. 
Participles: Present, feietlb, being. 

Perfect, getrefen, been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


INDICATIVE. 


icb bin, 

I am 

id) fei 

I may be 

®u bift, 

thou art 

®u feift, 

thou mayestbe 

er ift, 

he is 

er fei, 

he is 

trir finb, 

we are 

trir feien. 

we may be 

3 b* feib, 

you are 

3 b* feiet, 

you may be 

fie finb, 

they are 

fie feien, 

they may be 


Imperfect. 


id) mar, 

I was 

id) tudre, 

I might be 

®u marft, 

thou wert 

®u rcdreft, 

thou mightest be 

er rear, 

he was 

er metre, 

he might be 

trir traren, 

we were 

trir maren, 

we might be 

3 b* traret, 

you were 

3 br maret, 

you might be 

fie traren, 

they were 

fie maren, 

they might be 


Perfect. 


I have been. 

I may 

have been. 

id) bin getrefen 


icb fet getrefen 

®u bift getrefen 

®u feift gemefen 

er ift gcmefen 


er fei gemefen 

trir finb getrefe 

11 

trir feien getrefen 

3 b* feib getrefen 

3 br feiet gemefen 

fie finb getrefen 


fie feien getrefen 


Pluperfect. 


I had been. 

I might have been. 

icb mar gemefen 


icb tudre getrefen 

®u marft gemefen 

®u rcareft gemefen 

er mar gemefen 


er mare gemefen 

trir marett gemefen 

mir maren getrefen 

3 b* maret getrefen 

3 b* traret gemefen 

fie maren getrefen 

fie maren gemefen 


First Future. 


I shall be. 
id) trerbe fein 
®u trirft fein 
er trirb fein 
trir trerbeit fein 
3 br trerbet fein 
fie trerben fein 


If I shall be. 
iib trerbe fein 
®u trerbeft fein 
er trerbe fein 
nur trerben fein 
3 br nerbet fein 
fie trerben fein 


\ 













































THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


© 


8o 


Second Future. 

I shall have been. 

If I shall have been. 

id) roerbe gcroefen fein 

id) roerbe geroefen fein 

®u rcirft geroefen fein 

®u roerbeft geroefen fein 

er roirb geroefen fein 

er roerbe geroefen fein 

roir roerben geroefen fein 

roir roerben geroefen fein 

3^r roerbet geroefen fein 

3t)r roerbet geroefen fein 

fie roerben geroefen fein 

fie roerben geroefen fein 

FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

I should be. 

I should have been. 

id) roiirbe fein 

id) rcurbe geroefen fein 

®u rourbeft fein 

®u rourbeft geroefen fein 

er roiirbe fein 

er rcurbe gcroefen fein 

roir rourben fein 

roir rourben geroefen fein 

3t)r roiirbet fein 

3f)r rourbet geroefen fein 

fie rourben fein 

fie rourben geroefen fein 

IMPERATIVE. 

fei be 

feien roir let us be 

fei er let him be. 

feib 31 >t be ye 

feien fie let them be 

SBerben—to become. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, roerben, to become. 

Perfect, geroorben, geroorben fein, to have become. 

Future, roerben roerben, 

to be about to become. 

Participles: Present, rccrbenb, becoming. 

Perfect. geroorben, become. 

INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

id) roerbe I become 

id) loerbe I may become 

®u rcirft thou becomest 

®u roerbeft thou mayestbecome 

er roirb he becomes 

er roerbe he may become 

loir roerben we become 

loir roerben we may become 

3t)r roerbet you become 

3bt roerbet you may become 

fie roerben they become 

fie roerben they may become 

Imperfect. 

id) rcurbe I became 

id) lourbe I might become 

®U rourbeft thou becamest 

®u rourbeft thou mightestbecome 

er rcurbe he became 

er lourbe he might become 

roir rourben we became 

loir rourben we might become 

3t)r rourbet you became 

3f)r loiirbet you might become 

fie rourben they became 

fie rourben they might become 

Perfect. 

I have become. 

I may have become. 

id) bin geroorben 

id) fei geroorben 

®u bift geroorben 

®u feift geroorben 

er ift geroorben 

er fei geroorben 

roir finb geroorben 

roir feien geroorben 

3f)r feib geroorben 

3f)r fetet geroorben 

fie finb geroorben 

fie feien geroorben 

Pluperfect. 

I had become. 

I might have become. 

id) roar geroorben 

id) rccire geroorben 

®u rcarft geroorben 

®u rccireft geroorben 

er roar geroorben 

er retire geroorben 

loir rcaren geroorben 

roir rcaren geroorben 

3f>r rcaret geroorben 

3f)t roaret geroorben 

fie rcaren geroorben 

fie rcaren geroorben 

First Future. 

I shall become. 

If I shall become. 

id; roerbe roerben 

td) roerbe roerben 

®u rcirft roerben 

®u roerbeft roerben 

er roirb roerben 

er roerbe roerben 


roir roerben roerben 
3 fyr roerbet roerben 
fte roerben roerben 


Second Future. 


roir roerben roerben 
3 l)t roerbet roerben 
fie roerben roerben 


I shall have become, 
tdj roerbe geroorben fein 
®u rcirft geroorben fetn 
er roirb geroorben fetn 
roir roerben geroorben fein 
3 ^r roerbet geroorben fein 
fie roerben geroorben fein 


If I shall have become, 
id; roerbe geroorben fein 
®u roerbeft geroorben fein 
er roerbe geroorben fein 
roir roerben geroorben fein 
3 f)r roerbet geroorben fein 
fie roerben geroorben fein 


FIRST CONDITIONAL. 


SECOND CONDITIONAL. 


I should become. 


I should have become. 


id) roiirbe roerben 
®u rourbeft roerben 
er roiirbe roerben 
roir rourben roerben 
31)t roiirbet roerben 
fie rourben roerben 


id; roiirbe geroorben fein 
®u rourbeft geroorben fein 
er roiirbe geroorben fein 
roir rourben geroorben fein 
3 f)r roiirbet geroorben fein 
fte rourben geroorben fein 


IMPERATIVE. 


roerbe (®U) become thou 
roerbe er let him become 


roerben roir let us become 
roerbet 35 r become ye 
roerben fie let them become 








-fDfbgen— to may, to like. 


INDICATIVE. 

I may. 

id) mag 
®u magft 
er mag 
rotr mogen 
3 f)r mogt 
fie mogen 
Imperfect, id) tnod)te 
Perfect. id) t)abe gemod)t 
Pluperfect, id) fiatte gemodtt 
istFuture, id) roerbe mogen 
2d Future, id) roerbe gemodjt I)aben 

First Conditional. 

Second Conditional. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

I may. 
id) moge 
®u mogeft 
er moge 
roir mogen 
3 ^r moget 
fie mogen 

id) mod)te 
id) tfabe gemodjt 
id) tfatte gemodjt 
id) roerbe mogen 
id) roerbe gemodjt fyaben 

id) rcurbe mogen. 
id) roiirbe gemodjt l)aben. 


SBotten—to be willing-. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 


I am willing. 

id) roitt 
®u rcitlft 
er roitt 
roir rooften 
3 bt rootlet 
fie rcotten 
Imperfect, id) roollte 
Perfect. id) Ija6e geroottt 
Pluperfect, id) Ijatte geroottt 
ist Future, td) roerbe rootlen 
2d Future, id) roerbe geroottt tja&eit 

First Conditional. 

Second Conditional. 


I may be willing. 

id) rootle 
®u rcotteft 
er rootte 
roir rootlen 
3 br rootlet 
fie rootlen 

id) roottte 
id) Ijabe geroottt 
idj fidtte geroottt 
id) roerbe rcotten 
id) roerbe geroottt tjaben 
id) roiirbe rcotten. 
id) roiirbe geroottt t)aben. 


©otten— to be obliged: 

INDICATIVE. 


I shall, I ought. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 


I shall. 


Present. 


I shall. 


id) foil 
®u foil ft 


id) fotte 
®u fotteft 


o 











































\ 

THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 



er fell 
toir foUert 
SB* follct 
fie foHen 


cr fotle 
toir fotlen 
3B* foUet 
fie follen 


Imperfect, icf) fctTtC 

Perfect. id) Bate gefottt 

Pluperfect, id; finite gefetlt 

ist Future, id) loerbe fotlen 

2<i Future, id) toerbe gefottt Baben 


id; fottte 

id) Babe gefottt 

id) Batte gefottt 

id) merbe fotlen 

id) loerbe gefolft Baben 


First Conditional. id) toiirbe fotlen. 
Second Conditional, id) toiirbe gefottt Baben. 


ffennen—to be able. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 


I am able, I can. 
id) !nnn 
®u fnnnft 
er fnnn 
toir fonnen 
3 B* tonnet 
fie fonnen 

Imperfect, id) fonnte 
Perfect. id) I)nbe gefonnt 
Pluperfect, id) Batte gefonnt 
ist Future, id) toerbe fonnen 
zd Future, id) loerbe gefonnt Baben 
First Conditional. 
Second Conditional. 


I may be able, 
id) fonne 
®u fonnefi 
er fonne 
toir fonnen 
3I)r fonnet 
fie fonnen 

id) fonnte 
id) Babe gefonnt 
id) Batte gefonnt 
id) loerbe fonnen 
id) loerbe gefonnt Baben 
id) toiirbe fonnen. 
id) loiirbe gefonnt Baben. 


$urfen—to be allowed, to dare. 


INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 


I am allowed. 

id) barf 
$u batfft 
er barf 
loir biirfen 
3^r biirfet 
fie biirfen 

Imperfect, id) burfte 
Perfect. id) Babe geburft 
Pluperfect, id) Batte geburft 
ist Future, td) toerbe biirfen 
2d Future, id) toerbe geburft Ijaben 
First Conditional. 
Second Conditional. 


I may be allowed, 
id) biirfe 
®u biirfeft 
er biirfe 
loir biirfen 
3I)r burfet 
fie biirfen 

id) biirfte 
id) I)abe geburft 
id) Batte geburft 
id) loerbe biirfen 
id) loerbe geburft fjcifceti 
id) toiirbe biirfen. - 
id) toiirbe geburft Baben. 


fUfiiffen—to be obliged. 


INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


I am obliged, I must. 

id) ntufi 
®u lnujjt 
cr mufi 
loir tiuiffen 
3I)r miipt 
fie miiffcn 

Imperfect, id) mufite 
Perfect. id) Ijabe gemufit 
Pluperfect, id) Batte gemufit 
1st Future. ict> loerbe iniiffen 
zd Future, id) loerbe gemufit Ijabeit 
First Conditional. 
Second Conditional. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

I may be obliged, 
id) miiffe 
CDu miiffeft 
er miiffe 
loir miiffcn 
3 Br tnuffet 
fie iniiffen 

id) ntufjte 
id) Babe gemufit 
id) Batte gemufit 
id) loerbe iniiffen 
id) loerbe gemufit Babes 
id) toiirbe miiffcn. 
id) toiirbe gemufit BaBen. 


Caffen—to let. 


INDICATIVE. 

I let. 

id) laffe 
$u laffeft 
er lafit 
loir laffen 
3B* laffet 
fie laffen 

Imperfect, id) lief) 

Perfect. id) Babe gelaffen 
Pluperfect, id) Batte gelaffen 
1st Future, id) toerbe laffen 
2d Future, id) toerbe gelaffen Baben 

First Conditional. 
Second Conditional. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

I may be let. 

id) laffe 
CDu laffeft 
er lafit 
tcir laffen 
3 B* laffet 
fie laffen 

id) liege 

id) Babe gelaffen 
id) Batte gelaffen 
id) loerbe laffen 
id) toerbe gelaffen Baben 

td) toiirbe laffen. 
id) toiirbe gelaffen Baben. 


IMPERATIVE. 

lafs ®u laffen toir 

lag er laffet 3Br 

laffen fie 


THE REGULAR VERB. 

The rule for the formation of the regular verb is very simple. It 
runs: The present tense is formed by dropping the n of the infinitive; 
the imperfect by dropping the final e of the present and adding te; the 
past participle by dropping the final e of the imperfect and prefixing 
ge. For example: Infinitive, Icbett, to live; present, id) lebe, I live; 
imperfect, id) lebte, I lived; past participle, gelebt, lived. 

Active Voice. 

Seben—to live. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, leben, to live. 

Perfect, gelebt Baben, to have lived. 

Future. leben toerben, to be about to live. 

Participles: Present. Iebenb, living. 

Perfect, gelebt, lived. 

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 


id) lebe 

I live 



id) lebe I may live 

Tu lebft 

thou livest 


$U lebeft thou mayest live 

cr lebt 

he lives 



er lebe he may live 

loir leben 

we live 



toir leben we may live 

3f>* lebt 

you live 



3Br Icbet you may live 

fie leben 

they live 



fie leben they may live 



Imperfect. 


id) lebte 

I lived 



id) lebte I might live 

T?u lebteft 

thou livedst 


$U lebteft thou mightest live 

er lebte 

he lived 



er lebte he might live 

toir lebten 

we lived 



loir lebten we might live 

3 Br Icbtet 

you lived 



3 Br lebtet you might live 

fie lebten 

they lived 



fie lebten they might live 



Perfect. 



I have lived. 



I may have lived. 

id) Babe gelebt 



id) Babe gelebt 

®u Baft gelebt 



®u Babeft gelebt 

er Bat gelebt 



er Babe gelebt 

loir Baben gelebt 



toir Baben gelebt 

3 Br Babt gelebt 



3 Br Babet gelebt 

fie Baben gelebt 



fie Baben gelebt 



Pluperfect. 


I had lived. 



I might have lived. 

id) Batte gelebt 



id) Batte gelebt 

®u Ijatteft gelebt 



$u Bdtteft gelebt 













































(5 


S> 


THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 

et fmtte gelebt 



er $atte gelebt 

to believe 

glaubeit 

glowben 

Kir flatten gelebt 



Kir fatten gelebt 

to know 

niffen 

vissen 

3l)t tyattet gelebt 



3f)r l;Sttet gelebt 

to write 

fdjreiben 

shriben 

fie fatten gelebt 



fie fatten gelebt 

to read 

lefen 

layzen 





to pronounce 

au§fpred)en 

owsshprec//en 


rirst f uture . 


to translate 

fiberfefcen 

eebersetsen 

I shall live. 



If I shall live. 

to recollect 

fid) erinnern 

sic// erinnern 

id) werbe leben 



id) rcerbe leben 

to forget 

pergeffen 

fairgessen 

Du mirft leben 



Du Kerbeft leben 

to promise 

oerfpred)en 

f airshprec//en 

er Ktrb leben 



er lrcrbe leben 

to expect 

ensarten 

airvarten 

Kir Kerben leben 



Kir Kerben leben 

to converse 

unterfjalten 

oonterhalten 

3f>r loerbet leben 



3fyr rcerbet leben 

to express 

auSbruden 

owsdricken 

fie Kerben leben 



fie Kerben leben 

to explain 

erflaren 

airklayren 


Second Future. 


I shall have lived, 
id) rcerbe getebt Ijaben 
®u roirft getebt fiaben 
er rcirb getebt fyaben 
loir tocrben gelebt l)aben 
3 f>t toerbet gelebt fyaben 
fie rcerben gelebt fiaben 

FIRST CONDITIONAL. 

I should live, 
idj trurbe leben 
Du niurbeft leben 
et itiitbe leben 
wit roiirben leben 
3 t)r icurbet leben 
fie irurben leben 


If I shall have lived. 

id) roerbe gelebt fiaben 
Du trerbeft gelebt I)aben 
et U'erbe getebt fiaben 
n'ir toerben gelebt fiaben 
3 f>r loerbet gelebt Ijaben 
fie luerben gelebt l;aben 

SECOND CONDITIONAL. 

I should have lived, 
idj trurbe gelebt fiaben 
Du niurbeft gelebt fiaben 
et iriirbe gelebt fiaben 
trir n'iivben gelebt fiaben 
3 I)t niiirbet gelebt fiaben 
fie tturben gelebt fiaben 


IMPERATIVE. 


lebe (Du) 

live (thou) 

leben Kir let us live 

Iebe er 

let him live 

lebet (3^r) live (ye) 

leben fie let them live 


VOCABULARY OF VERBS. 

To eat 

effen 

essen 

to drink 

trinfen 

trinken 

to dream 

iraumen 

troymen 

to wash 

tcafdjen 

vashen 

to comb 

fdmtnen 

kemmen 

to go 

gefien 

gayen 

to speak 

fpred)en 

shprec//en 

to laugh 

ladjen 

lac//en 

to think 

benfen 

denken 

to learn 

lernen 

lairnen 

to bathe 

baben 

bahden 

to break 

breefyen 

brec^en 

to bite 

beifien 

bisen 

to cost 

foflen 

custen 

to hear 

fyiiren 

hceren 

to help 

Ijelfen 

helfen 

to give 

geben 

gayben 

to make 

tnadjen 

mac//en 

to do 

tljun 

toon 

to ride 

rciten 

riten 

to say 

fagen 

sahgen 

to send 

fenben 

senden 

to seek 

fud)en 

sooc/ren 

to breakfast 

frfil)ftuden 

freeshticken 

to dine 

fpeifen 

shpeyzen 

to sup 

3U SHbenb effen tsoo ahbend essen 

to arrive 

anfommen 

ankummen 

to depart 

abreifen 

abrizen 

to meet 

treffen 

treffen 

to be tired 

mube fein 

meeude sevn 

to be sleepy 

fd)lafrig fein 

shlayfri^seyn 

to excuse 

entfdjulbigen 

entshooldigen 

to understand 

rerfiefyen 

fairshtayen 


to tell 
to call 
to weep 
to recommend 
to receive 
to send 
to buy 
to pay 
to order 
to furnish 
to sell 
to reply 


fagen 

rufen 

roeinen 

empfefilen 

empfangen 

fcfjiden 

faufen 

beja^Ien 

beftetlen 

liefern 

perfaufen 

antrcorten 


ADVERBS. 


saagen 

roofen 

vinen 

empfaylen 

empfangen 

shicken 

kowfen 

betsahlen 

beshtellen 

leefern 

fairkowfen 

antvorten 


Yes 

(jaKofil 

yah 

yahvole 

indeed 

in ber SE^at 

in dair taht 

truly 

rcafyrlid) 

vaarlirA 

certainly 

gercifi 

geviss 

surely 

fid)erlid) 

sic/terlic/r 

only 

nur 

noor 

some 

ctrcaS 

etvas 

nothing 

nid)t8 

nic//ts 

much 

Piel 

feel 

quite 

ganjlid) 

gentzlic// 

very 

fe^r 

sare 

so 

fo 

so 

thus 

alf o 

also 

how 

Kie 

vee 

no 

nein 

nine 

not 

nidjt 

nic//t 

but 

nur 

noor 

enough 

genug 

genoon' 

scarcely 

faunt 

kowm 

all 

ganj 

gants 

almost 

beinalje 

bynahe 

here 

flier 

heer 

there 

ba 

da 

where 

K0 

VO 

in 

herein 

herine 

out 

f>erau§ 

herows 

then 

benn 

den 

now 

iefet 

yetst 

soon 

balb 

bald 

till 

bi8 

bis 

seldom 

felten 

selten 

since 

feit 

site 

ever 

immer 

immer 

never 

nie 

nee 

oft 

oft 

uft 

already 

fdjon 

schone 

to-day 

tyeute 

hoytay 

yesterday 

gefiern 

gestern 

late 

fpdt 

shpate 

why? 

toarum? 

varoom? 

because 

loeil 

vile 


VL 


























THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


83 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

if 

menn 

ven 


I say it is not. 

3 dj fage e 3 ift nidjt. 

I ch saagay es ist niz/zt. 

perhaps 

Pielleidjt 

feellyr/zt 


It is not so. 

68 ift nidjt fo. 

Es ist niz/zt so. 





It is not true. 

63 tft nidjt mafjr. 

Es ist niz/zt var. 


PREPOSITIONS. 



I say nothing. 

3 $ fage nid)t 3 . 

I ch saagay niz/zts. 

Above 

fiber 

eeuber 


He is not here. 

6 r ift nidjt filer. 

Air ist niz/zt heer. 

about 

um 

oom 


I have it not. 

3 d> Ijabe e 3 ntd)t. 

Ich haabay es nizM. 

after 

nad) 

na ch 


He has it not. 

6 r f>at e 8 nidjt. 

Air hat es niz/zt. 

against 

gegen 

gaygen 


We have it not. 

SEtr Ijabett e 8 nidjt. 

Veer haaben es niz/zt. 

before 

»or 

fore 


You have it not. 

3 fjr f)abt e 3 nidjt. 

Eer haabt es niz/zt. 

of 

non 

fun 


He said no. 

6 r fagte nein. 

Airsaa^tay nine. 

over 

fiber 

eeuber 


Has he said no? 

§at er nein gefagt ? 

Hat air nine gesaaod? 

since 

feit 

site 


Has he said nothing? 

§at er itid)tS gefagt ? 

Hat air niz/zts gesaa^t? 

for 

ffir 

feeur 


I have not heard it. 

3 $ §abe e 3 nid)t geljbrt. Ich haabay es nic/zt ge- 

from 

pen 

fun 




hoert. 

in 

in 

in 


You are quite wrong. 

©ie tyaben bureaus Un* 

See haaben doorz/zouse 

near 

nafye 

nali ay 



redjt. 

oonrez/zt. 

under 

unter 

oonter 





up 

auf 

owf 





with 

mit 

mit 


PHRASES OF INTERROGATION. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 



Who ? 

SBer ? 

Vair? 

And 

unb 

oont 


Who was it? 

SBer mar e 8 ? 

Vair var es? 

but 

abet 

ahber 


What is it? 

SBa 8 ift e 3 ? 

Vas ist es? 

also 

auci) 

011 ch 


Who is it? 

SBer ift e 3 ? 

Vair ist es ? 

even 

fegar 

sog-ar 


Did you say it? 

©agten ©ie e 8 ? 

Saa^ten see es? 

or 

ober 

oder 


What are you doing? 

SBaS tljun ©ie ? 

Vas toon see? 

nor 

nod) 

nu ch 


What is he doing? 

SBaS t£»ut er ? 

Vas toot air? 

yet 

bod) 

du c/z 


Tell me. 

©agen ©ie mir. 

Saagen see meer. 

because 

me it 

vile 


Will you tell me? 

SBollen ©ie mir fageit ? 

Vollen see meer saa- 

that 

bafi 

das 




gen? 

therefore 

bafyer 

dahair 


How are you? 

SBie gebt ’8 ? 

Vee gates? 





How is he ? 

SBie geljt’S if)tn ? 

Vee gates eem? 





What for? 

SBoffir ? 

Vofeer? 





Why ? 

SBarum ? 

Varoom? 

A\ 




Why do you ask? 

SBarum fragten ©ie ? 

Varoom fraagen see? 

m CONVERSATION IN GERMAN. 


Why shall I go? 

SBarum foil idj gefyen ? 

Varoom sull iz/zgayen? 




if 

What do you say? 

3 Ba 3 fageit ©ie ? 

Vas saagen see? 


PHRASES OF AFFIRMATION. 


ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

It is true. 

63 ift mafjr. 

Es ist var. 

It is so. 

68 ift fo. 

Es ist so. 

1 believe it. 

3 $ glaube eS. 

Ich glowbay es. 

I think so. 

3 $ benfe e 3 . 

Ich denkay es. 

I say yes. 

3 d) fage ja. 

Ich sahgay yah. 

I say it is. 

3 $ fage e 3 ift. 

Ich sahgay es ist. 

I am certain. 

3 d) bin gemtfi. 

Ich bin gayviss. 

I am certain of it. 

3 d) btn beffen geroiji. 

Ich bin dessen gayviss. 

You are right. 

©ie fiaben 9 ied)t. 

See haaben rez/zt. 

You are quite right. 

©ie f>aben ganj fRedjt. 

See haaben gantz rez/zt. 

I know it. 

3 d) rcetfi e 3 . 

Ich vice es. 

I know it well. 

3 dj metjj e 8 genau. 

Ich vice es genow. 

I know him. 

3 d) fenne ifyn. 

Ich kenne een. 

I know it positively. 

3 $ metf) e 8 fidjer. 

Ich vice es siz/zer. 

I promise it. 

3 d; oerforedje e 8 . 

Ich vershprez/zay es. 

I promise it to you. 

3 $ oerfprecfye e 3 3 ^nen. Ich vershprec/zay es 
eenen. 

I give it. 

3 ^ gebe e 3 . 

Ich gay bay es. 

I give it to you. 

3 d) gebe e 3 3 § n e n * 

Ich gaybay es eenen. 

I will give it to you. 

3 d) mill eS 3 ^ nen geben. I ch villes eenengayben. 

You are wrong. 

©ie fiaben Unrest. 

See haaben oonrez/zt. 

He is wrong. 

6 r Ijat Unred)t. 

Air hat oonrez^t. 

I believe him. 

3 d) glaube if)tn. 

Ich glowbay eem. 

Very well. 

( ©eljr mo()t. 

Sare vole. 

1 ©ef)r gut. 

Sare goot. 


I don’t speak to you. 3 $ fpredje nut 31jnen Icr/zshprec/zaymiteenen 


No. 

I say no. 


PIIRxlSES OF NEGATION. 

fftetn. Nine. 

3 d) fage nein. I ch saagay nine. 


Do you understand? 
Listen! 

Come here. 

What is that? 

Answer. 

Why don’t you an¬ 
swer? 

What do you mean by 
that? 

You speak German, I 
suppose ? 

Very little, sir. 

Do you know Mr. H.? 
I know him by sight. 

I know him by name. 

I know him well. 

What do you call that? 
What is that in Ger¬ 
man ? 

What does that mean? 
Why do you speak? 
Why are you silent? 
Why did you go? 

Is it ready? 

Have you heard? 

Do vou hear? 


nidjt. 

5SerfteI>en ©ie ? 
jjoren ©tel 
Sfommen ©ie ^ierfyer 
SBa8 tft ba8 ? 
SIntroorten ©te. 
SSBarum antmorten 
nid)t ? 


niir/zt. 

Fershtayen see? 

Hceren see! 

Kummen see heerhair. 
Vas ist das? 

Antvorten see. 

©ie Varoom antvorten see 
niz/zt? 


2 Ba 3 meinen©ie baratt ? Vas minen see damit? 


3d) oermutlje ©ie fpre= 
djen ©eutfd). 

©el)t roenig, mein £err. 

Sfenncn ©ie §errn fj. ? 

3d; fenne ifjn ton an= 
feljen. 

3d) fenne iljn £>ei Stfas 
men. 

(Sr ift tnir rcofyl befannt. 

SBie nennen ©ie ba3 ? 

9Bie f)eifjt ba3 auf 
(Deutfdj ? 

5E3a-3 fyeifit ba3 ? 

SBarum fpredjcn ©ie ? 

SBarum fdjmeigen ©ie ? 

SBarum gingen ©ie ? 

3ft e3 fertig ? 

£aben ©te getjort ? 

§bren ©te ? 


I ch fermootay see 
shprez/zen doytsh. 

Sair vanbr, mine hair. 

Kennen see hairn ha? 

I ch kennay een fun an- 
sane. 

I ch kennay een bynah- 
men. 

Air ist meer vole bay- 
kant. 

Vce nennen see das? 

Vee histe das owf 
doytsh? 

Vas histe das? 

Varoom shprec/zen see? 

Varoom shvigen see? 

Varoom gingen see? 

Ist es fairti^? 

Haaben see gehoert? 

Hceren see? 





























o 


o 


84 


THE GERMAN 

LANGUAGE. 



ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

pronunciation. 

ENGLISH. 

GERMAN. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

Where is she ? 

SBo tft fie ? 

Vo ist see? 

Do you understand? 

2 Serfiel)cn ©ie ? 

Fershtayen see ? 

Where are vou ? 

2Bo firtb ©ie ? 

Vo sind see? 

Can you understand? 

tfonnen ©ie rerfle^en ? 

Kcennen see ferstayen! 

Where are you going? 

SBo getyen ©ie tyin ? 

Vo gayen see hin? 

Speak slower. 

©pred)cn ©ie langfamer. 

Shprec/zen see lang- 

Where do you come 
from? 

Where were you ? 
What? 

2Bo fommen ©ie tyer ? 

©So maren ©ie ? 

2 Ba 8 ? 

Vo kummen see hair? 

Vo varen see? 

Vas? 

You speak too fast. 

Give me some bread. 

©ie fpredjen 311 fdjnett. 

©ebett ©ie mir ©rob. 

samer. 

See shprec/zen tsoo 
shnell. 

Gayben see meer brote. 

What is that? 

©Sa6 ift bag ? 

Vas ist das? 

Give me something to ©eben ©ie mir ©ttrag 

Gayben see meer etvas 

What o’clock is it? 

©Sie riel Utyr ift eg ? 

Veefeel oor ist es? 

eat. 

ju effen. 

tsoo essen. 

What have you? 

©Sag tyaben ©ie ? 

Vas haaben see? 

Something to drink. 

©trcag ju trinfen. 

Etvas tsoo trinken. 

What do you say? 

©Sag fagen ©ie ? 

Vas saagen see? 

Bring me some coffee. 

©ringen ©ie mir Slaffee. 

Bringen see meer kaaf - 

What do you want? 
What will 5'ou do? 

©Sa6 irollen ©ie ? 

©Sag trollen ©ie tbun ? 

Vas vullen see? 

Vas vullen see toon? 

I thank you. 

3d) banfe 3 I? ncn ‘ 

fay. 

Ich daankay eenen. 

PHRASES OF COMMAND. 

Good morning. 

Good day. 

®uteit fIBorgen. 

©uten SEag. 

Gooten morgen. 

Gooten taa^. 

Come away! 

Sfommen ©ie fort! 

Kummen see fort! 

How do you do? 

9 Bie gef)t’g ? 

Vee gates ? 

Come here! 

Slommen ©ie I)icrt)er. 

Kummen see heerhair! 

How are you ? 

2 Bie X'efinben ©ie fidj ? 

Vee bayfinden seesic/z? 

Go there 1 

©etycn ©ie bortl)in! 

Gayen see dort-hin ! 

Very well. 

©ef>r tool)I. 

Sair vole. 

Come back! 

ftommen ©ie juriicf! 

Kummen see tsoorick! 

I am very well. 

3d) befinbe mid) feljr 

I ch bayfinday mi ch sair 

Go on ! 

©etycn ©ie rceiter! 

Gayen see viter! 


trotyl. 

vole. 

Sit down! 

©etyen ©ie fid)! 

Setsen see si ch! 

Pretty well. 

3iemltcty trotyl. 

Tseemlizr/z vole. 

Stand still! 

©tetyen ©ie ftiU! 

Shtayen see shtill! 

Tolerably. 

©0 jiemlid). 

So tseemlizr/z. 

Wait! 

©Sarten ©ie! 

Varten see! 

How is your father? 

Sffiie befinbet fid) 3b* 

Vee bayfindet siz:/z eer 

Wait for me! 

©Sarten ©ie auf mid)! 

Varten see owf mi ch! 


§err ©atcr ? 

hair faater? 

Wait a little! 

©Sarten ©ie ein inenig! 

Varten see ine \a.yn\g! 

How is your mother? 

2Bie befinbet fid) 3b re 

Vee bayfindetsizr/z eeray 

Make haste! 

9 J 2 ad)en ©ie fcf)neU! 

Mazr/zen see shnel! 


grau Gutter ? 

frow mootter? 

Be quick! 

©eeilen ©ie fid)! 

Bay-ilen see si ch! 

I am not well. 

3d) bin nid)t trotyl. 

Ich bin nizr/zt vole. 

Follow me! 

golgen ©ie mir! 

Fulgen see meer! 

I am unwell. 

3cty bin untrotyl. 

I ch bin oonvole. 

Tell him 1 

©agen ©ie if)m! 

Saagen see eem! 

She is ill. 

©ie ift franf. 

See ist krank. 

Call him 1 

9 iufen ©ie ityn! 

Roofen see een! 

He is very ill. 

©r iftfetyr franf. 

Air ist sair krank. 

Speak! 

©predjen ©te! 

Shprezr/zen see! 

She has a cold. 

©ie tyat fid) erfdltet. 

See hat sizr/z airkeltet. 

Eat! 

©ffen ©ie! 

Essen see! 

I have a toothache. 

3d) tyabe ^atyntrety. 

Ich haabay tsahnvay. 

Drink! 

SLrinfen ©ie! 

Trinken see! 

I must go. 

3d) mup getyen. 

Ich mooss gayen. 

Hear! 

§6rcn ©ie! 

Hoeren see! 

It is time to go. 

66 ift 5“ getyen. 

Es ist tsite tsoo gayen. 

Hear me! 

£oren ©ie mi<ty! 

Hosren see mi ch! 

F arewell. 

Seben ©ie motyl. 

Layben see vole. 

Look at me! 

©el)en ©ie mid) an! 

Sayen see mi ch an ! 

Good-by. 

9 lbieu. 

Adyoe. 

Begin! 

gangen ©ie an! 

Fangen see an! 

I wish you a good 3dj munfd/e 3^ nen einen 

Iz:/z vinshay eenen inen 

Continue! 

gatyren @ie fort! 

Faaren see fort! 

morning:. 

guten IDiorgen. 

gooten morgen. 

Stop! 

§alt! 

Halt! 

Good evening. 

©luten 9 lbenb. 

Gooten ahbend. 

Tell me! 

©agen ©ie mir! 

Saagen see meer! 

Good night. 

©ute 9 Jad)t. 

Gootay naz'/zt. 

Tell it to him ! 

©agen ©ie eS itynt! 

Saagen see es eem! 

I wish you goodnight. 3d) t»unfd)e 3^ nen 9 u i e 

Ich vinshay eenen goo- 

Speak to him! 

©predjen ©ie mit itym 1 

Shprezr/zen see mit eem ! 


9 ?a^it. 

tay naz:/zt. 

Be quiet! 

©eien ©ie rutyig! 

Syen see rooi g! 

My compliments at SKeirte Gmpfcbtungen 

Minay empfayloongen 

Go ! 

©etyen ©ie! 

Gayen see! 

home. 

ben Styrigen. 

den eeri^en. 

Go to him! 

©cf)en ©ie ju itym! 

Gayen see tsoo eem ! 


A MORNING CALL. 

Go to bed! 

Fetch it! 

@el)en ©ie ju Sette! 
tgiolen ©ie eg 1 

Gayen see tsoo bettay ! 
Holen see es! 

There is a knock. 

66 flopft. 

Es klupft. 

Bring it! 

©ringen ©ie eS ! 

Bringen see es! 

It is Mr. A. 

66 ift £err 91 . 

Es ist hair ah. 

Bring it to me! 

©ringen ©ie eg mir! 

Bringen see es meer! 

It is Mrs. B. 

66 ip ffrau ©. 

Es ist frow bay. 

Let it be! 

Saffen ©ie eg fein! 

Lassen see es sine! 

I am glad to see you. 

3<ty freue mid) ©ie ju 

Ich froyay mizr^ see tsoo 

EVERY-DAY UTTERANCES. 

Pray be seated. 

fetyen. 

ffiitte fetyen ©ie fid). 

sayen. 

Bittay setsen see sic^. 

Tell me! 

©agen ©te mir. 

Saagen see meer. 

What news is there? 

25 a 6 gibt’6 9 Jeue 6 ? 

Vas geepts noyes? 

If you please. 

©utigft—gefalligft. 

Geeti^st—gayfellfost. 

Good news. 

©ute 9 tactyrid)ten. 

Gootay naz:/zric/zten. 

Have the goodness. 

£aben Sie bie ©iite. 

Haaben see dee geetay. 

Do you believe it? 

©tauben ©ie e6 ? 

Glowben see es? 

Yes, sir. 

3a, mein §err. 

Yah, mine hair. 

I don’t believe a wort 

3 d) glaube fein SSort 

Ich glowbay kine vort 

Yes, madam. 

3a, ©ftabam. 

Yah, madam. 

of it. 

baron. 

daafun. [so. 

No, sir. 

9 iein, mein £err. 

Nine, mine hair. 

I think so. 

3ity benfe (glaube) fo. 

Ich denkay (glowbay) 

No, madam. 

©ein, SDiabam. 

Nine, madam. 

I think not. 

3d) benfe nidjt. 

Iz 7 z denkay nizr/zt. 

No, miss. 

©ein, mein graufein. 

Nine, mine froyline. 

Who told you ? 

2Ber tyat e6 3ty«f« 9^= 

Vair hat es eenen ge- 

Do you speak German ©pred)CU ©te ©eutfd) Shprezr/zen see doytsh 

. 

fagt? 

saaot? 

or French? 

ober granjbfifcty ? 

oder frantsoesish? 

It is true. 

66 ift matyr. 

Es ist var. 

I do not speak Ger 

3 d) fpredjcnictyt ®eutfd). Ich shprezr/ze nizr/zt 

I doubt it. 

3<ty bejmeifle e6. 

Ich bavtsviflay es. 

man. 


doytsh. 

Have you heard frorr 

$abcn ©ie ron fjaufe 

Haaben see fun how- 

I understand it, but do 3 d) perftetye eg, abet id 

Ich fershtayay es, aaber 

home? 

getyort ? 

say gayhoert? 

not speak it. 

fpredje eg nid)t. 

ich shprezr/ze es nizr/zt. 

The postman brought ®er 93 rieftrnger X'radjte 

Dair breeftrayger 

I speak English. 

3<ty fpredje ©nglifdj. 

Ich shprezr/ze english. 

me a letter to-day. 

mir tyeute einen ©rief. 

brazr/ztay meer hoytay 

I speak Frenchalittle. 3 d) fpred)e ein mentg Ich shprezr/ze ine vaynijr 
granjbfifcty. frantsoesish. 

Sad news. 

©ctyled)te 9 iad)rid)ten. 

inen breef. 

Shlezr/ztay nac/zrizr/zten. 


ki 


-N 


V 


































THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


85 


ENGLISH. 

Will you dine with us? 

No, thank you. 

I cannot stay. 

You are in a great 
hurry. 

I have a great deal to 
do. 


GERMAN. 

SBotten ©ie tnit un3 
fpeifen? 

9tcin, tcfy banfe 3f>uen. 
3d) fattn nidjt bleiben. 
©ie fitib in grofjer Site. 

3d) fjabe Die! ju tl)un. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Vullen see mit oons 
shpisen? 

Nine, irA daanke eenen. 
I ch kann nicAt blyben. 
See sind in grosser ilay. 

IcA haabay feel tsoo 
toon. 


PLEASURE AND REGRET. 


What! 

Is it possible! 

Can it be! 

How can it be possi¬ 
ble ! 

Who would have be¬ 
lieved it! 

Indeed! 

It is impossible ! 

That cannot be 1 
I am astonished at it! 

You surprise me! 

It it incredible 1 
I am very sorry. 

What a pity! 

It is a great pity. 

It is a sad thing. 

It is a great misfortune 


2Ba8! 

3ft e3 mbglid)! 

£ann e8 fein! 

233ie faun e8 moglid) fein 

2Ber irurbe bag gegtaubt 
fiaben 1 
SBirflid)! 

63 iff unmbglidj! 

65 fann nid)t fein ! 

3d) rounbcre mid) bar; 
fiber 1 

©ie iiberrafdjen mid)! 

63 ift unglaublid)! 

63 tljut mir feljr leib. 
2Sie fdiabe! 

63 ift fel)t fd)abe. 

63 ift eine traurige 
©ad)e. 

. 68 ift ein grofjeS Un; 


Vas! 

1st es moegli ch ! 

Kan es sine! 

! Vee kan es matgiick 
sine! 

Vair veerday das ge- 
glowpt haaben! 
VeerklieA/ 

Es ist oonmoe^licA / 

Es kan nicAt sine ! 

I ch voonderay mi ch 
daareeber. 

See eeberrashcn mirA. 
Es ist oonglowblirA / 
Es toot meer sair lite. 
Vee shahday1 
Es ist sair shahday. 

Es ist inay trowrigay 
sac//ay. 

Es ist ine grosses oon- 


I am glad of it. 

I am glad. 

It gives me pleasure. 

It gives me great joy. 

I am happy. 

How happy I am ! 

I wish you joy. 

I congratulate you. 


gliicf 1 

3d) freue mi$ bariiber. 

63 ift mir lieb. 

63 rnadjt mir 2?ergnu; 
gen. 

63 mad)t mit grofie 
greube. 

3d) bin gliicflidj. 

SBie glfidlid) id) bin 1 

3d) trunfdjc 3 1) n e n 
©fiitf. 

3<f) gratulire 3§nen. 


glick. 

Ich froyay mi ch dar- 
eeber. 

Es ist meer leeb. 

Es macAtmeerfergnee- 
gen. 

Es macAt meer grossay 
froyday. 

I ch bin gleeklicA. 

Vee gleekli ch ich bin ! 

Ich vinshay eenen 
glick. 

Ich gratooleeray 
eenen. 


ANGER AND BLAME. 


I am angry. 

He is angry. 

Don’t be angry. 

You are wrong. 

You are right. 

Why don’t you doit? 

Be quiet! 

What a shame! 

How could you do it? 

I am ashamed of you ! 

You are very much to 
blame. 

Be patient 1 
I will improve. 


How old are you? 

I am twenty years old. 


3dj bin argerlid). 

6r ift argerlid). 

©eicn ©ie nid)t drger; 
lid). 

©ie fyaben Unrest. 

©ie fjaben 9ted)t. 
SBarum tl)un ©ie e3 
nidjt? 

©eien ©ie ruljig! 
SBcldje ©djanbe 1 
SBie fonnten ©ie e3 
tfiun ? 

3d) fdjame mid) 

©ie ftnb fefir ju tabeln. 

®ebutben ©ie ©id) 1 
3d) merbe mid) beffern. 

AGE. 

SBie ait finb ©ie ? 

3d) bin 3>»anjig 3at;re 
ait. 


Ich bin airgeriich. 

Air ist airgerli ch. 

Syen see nicAt airger- 
li ch. 

See haaben oonrecAt. 

See haaben recAt. 

Varoom toon see es 
nicAt? 

Syen see rooi»-/ 

VelcAay shanday! 

Vee kunten sec es toon ? 

Ich shamay mi ch 
eerer! 

See sind sair tsoo taa- 
deln. 

Gaydoolden see si chi 

Ich vairday mi ch bes- 
sern. 

Vee alt sind see? 

Ich bin tsvaantsio’ yah- 
ray alt. 


ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. 


I shall soon be thirty. 

He looks older. 

She is younger. 

She cannot be so 
young. 

He must be older. 

I did not think you 
were so old. 

He is at least sixty. 

How old is your 
father? 

He is nearly eighty. 

Is he so old? 

A great age. 

He begins to grow old. 

How old is yoursister: 

She is fifteen. 


3d) tuerbe balb breifiig 
fein. 

6r fiel)t alter au3. 

©ie ift jiinger. 

©ie fann nid)t fo jung 
fein. 

6r mufi alter fein. 

3d) glaubte nid)t bajj 
©ie fo alt feien. 

6r ift rcenigftcnS fed)3; 

jig- 

SBie alt ift 3?t Slater ? 

6r ift beinalje ad)tjig. 

3ft er fo alt? 

6in IjofycS Sifter. 

6r fdngt an alt ju loer; 
ben. 

SBie alt ift 3f)te ©djroe; 
fter? 

©ie ift ffinfoeljn. 


Ich vairday bald drysi^r 
sine. 

Air sect elter owse. 

See ist yinger. 

See kann nicAt so yoong 
sine. 

Air moos elter sine. 

Ich glowptay nicAt das 
see so alt syen. 

Air ist vani^stens secA- 
tsig. 

Vee alt ist eer fahter? 

Air ist bynahay a.chtsig. 

Ist air so alt? 

Ine holies alter. 

Air fengt an alt tsoo 
vairden. 

Vee alt ist eeray shvcs- 
ter? 

See ist finftsain. 


An early morning. 

It is a fine morning. 

What o’clock is it? 

It is nearly eight. 

Light the fire. 

I am going to get up. 
Get me some hot 
water. 

Some dinking-water. 
Make haste. 

There is no towel. 

Bring me some soap. 

I want to wash myself. 

How have you slept? 

Did you sleep well? 

Very well, thank you. 

Not very well. 

I could not sleep. 

I was so tired from 
travelling. 


A MORNING CHA1 

6in frufter IDlorgen. 

63 ift ein fd)6ncr allot; 
gen. 

5ffiaS ift bie Uljr ? 

63 ift beinafye adjt Utjr. 

3unben ©ie ba8 geuer 
an. 

3d) null auffteljen. 

SBringen ©ie mir etrcag 
f)etfieg SBaffer. 

6tma3 Trinftraffer. 

311ad)en ©ie fd)nell. 

63 ift fein jjanbtuc^ ba. 

SBringen ©ie mir ©eife. 

3d) rcfinfdje mid) 311 
nafdjen. 

SBie fjaben ©ie gefd)ta; 
fen ? 

£abcn ©ie gut gefd)la; 
fen? 

©ef)r gut, i^ banfe 3f)= 
nen. 

9?id)t fe^r gut. 

3d) fonnte nidjt fdjlafen. 

3d) roar fo miibe oon ber 
31eife. 


Ine freer morgen. 

Es ist ine shcener mor¬ 
gen. 

Vas ist dee oor? 

Es ist bynahay ac//t 
oor. 

Tsinden see das foyer 
an. 

Ich vill owfshtayen. 

Bringen see meer etvas 
hises vasser. 

Etvas trinkvasser. 

Mae/zcn see shncll. 

Es ist kine haandtooc// 
dah. 

Bringen see mecrsifay. 

Ich vinshay mi ch tsoo 
vashen. 

Vee haaben see ge- 
shlaafen? 

Haaben see goot ge- 
shlaafen? 

Sair goot, ich dankay 
eenen. 

Nic//t sair goot. 

Ich kuntay nic//t shlaa- 
fen. 

Ich var so meeday fun 
dair risay. 


AT THE BREAKFAST TABLE. 


Breakfast is ready. 

Come to breakfast. 

Let us breakfast. 

Does the water boil? 
Is the tea made? 

Give me a cup of tea. 

A cup of coffee. 

A roll. 

Do you drink tea or 
coffee? 


®a3 griiljftucf ift fertig. 

Slommen ©ie sunt grfif); 
ftucf. 

gaffen ©ie un3 friify; 
ftficfen. 

£od)t baS SBaffer? 

3ft ber SLf>ee fertig? 

©eben ©ie mir eine 
ftaffe ftfjee. 

6tne Taffe Staffee. 

©in 9Iitld)brob. 

Trinfen ©ie ftljee obcr 
faffee? 


Das freeshtick ist fair 

Kummen see tsoom 
freeshtick. 

Lassen see oons free- 
shticken. 

KucAt das vasser? 

Ist dair tay fairtiv'? 

Gayben see meer inay 
tassay tay. 

Inay tassay kaffay. 

Ine milc/zbrotc. 

Trinken see tay oder 
kaffay? 











































~ 7 \ 


86 


THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 


GERMAN. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


Will you take an egg? SBoflen ©tc ein Gi cffen? Vullen see ine eye es- 

sen? 


These eggs are hard. 

Give me the salt. 

Pass me the butter. 

Bring some more but¬ 
ter. 

Give me a spoon. 

Is the coffee strong 
enough? 

We want more cups. 

Take some more su¬ 
gar. 

Cold meat. 

The table-cloth. 

The sugar-basin. 

Chocolate. 

A knife. 

A fork. 

The knife is blunt. 

We have done break¬ 
fast. 

You can take away 
the things. 


©iefe Gier finb §art 
®cben ©ie mir 
©alj. 

IReidjcu ©ie mir 
Sutter. 


, Deesay eyer sint hart, 
bad Gayben see meer das 
salts. 

bie Ryc//en see meer dee 
bootter. 


Sringett ©ie mir ettrag Bringen see meer etvas 


me§r Sutter. 

©eben ©ie mir 
fioffel. 

3fi ber Coffee ftarf ge: 
nug ? 

2Bir braudfen mebr ©af 
fen. 


mair bootter. 

einen Gayben see meer inen 
Iceffel. 

1st dair kaffay shtaark 
gaynoo^? 

Veer browcAen mair 
tassen. 


9 ReI)men ©ie nodj ehnag Naymen see nu ch etvas 
3uder. tsoocker. 

Sfalteg gleifd). Kaaltes flyshe. 

®ag ©ifdjtud). Das tishtooc/i. 

©ie 3 ucferbiid)fe. Dee tsookerbiksay. 

GI)ofoIabe. Chocolahday. 

Gin 2 Reffer. Ine messer. 

Gine ®abcl. Inay gahbel. 

©ag HReffet ift fturnpf. Das messer istshtoompf. 
SBir finb mit bem griify; Veer sind mit dame 
ftiicf fertig. freeshtick fairti^. 

©ie fonnen bie ©atben See kcennen dee sa- 
fortne^inen. che .n fortnaymen. 


Have you ordered din¬ 
ner? 

I will order dinner. 

Show me the bill of 
fare. 

Waiter. 

What soup will you 
have? 

Rice-soup. 

Have you any roast 
beef? 

We have very fine fish. 

Trout. 

Fried pike. 

Roast mutton. 

What wine will you 
have? 

Let us see. 

Here is the wine list. 

What time will you 
dine? 

We shall dine at six 
o’clock. 

Be punctual. 

Help yourself. 

It is excellent. 

I like German cook¬ 
ery. 

I do not like foreign 
cookery. 

Do you take pepper? 

No, thank you. 

Yes, if you please. 

Give me the mustard. 


DINNER. 

.Sjaben ©ie ba8Gffenbe= 
fteUt ? 

3d) merbe bag ©iner 
beftetlen. 

3eigcn ©ie mir bie 

©peifefarte. 

Sfedncr. 

SBag filr ©uppe t»un= 
fd;en ©ie ? 

DIeigfuppe. 

£aben ©ie SRinbers 

beaten ? 

2Bir f)aben fetjr guten 

8tM. 

goretlen. 

©ebratene £edjte. 

fjammelbratcn. 

2 Bag filr SBein rcunfdfen 
©ie ? 

Saffen ©ie fe^en. 

§ier ift bie UBeintarte. 

Urn rneldje 3 eii rcunfdjen 
©ie 511 fpeifen ? 

SBir roerben um fcdjg 
Ufir fpeifen. 

©eien ©ie punfttid). 

ffiebienen ©ie fid). 

68 ift rortrefftid). 

©ie beutfdje Sfudje ge= 
fdtft mir. 

©ie au 3 ldnbifd)e Kiidfe 
fd)tnedt mir nid)t. 

iReljmen ©ie S| 3 feffer ? 

9 Rein, i$ banfe. 

3a, id) bitte. 

©eben ©ie mir ben 
©enf. 


Haaben see das essen 
baystellt ? 

I ch vairday das deenay 
bayshtellen. 

Tsigen see meer dee 
shpisaykartay. 

Kelner. 

Vas feer sooppay vin- 
shen see? 

Ricesooppay. 

Haaben see rinder- 
braaten? 

Veer haaben sair goo- 
ten fish. 

Forellen. 

Gebraatenay hec/itay. 

Hammelbraaten. 

Vas feer vine vinshen 
see? 

Lassen see sayen. 

Heer ist dee vinekar- 
tay. 

Oom velc/my tsite vin¬ 
shen see tsoo shpisen ? 

Veer vairden oom sex 
oor shpisen. 

Syen see pinktlicA. 

Baydeenen see sic/i. 

Es ist foretrefflicA. 

Dee doytshay keec/iay 
gefellt meer. 

Dee owslendishay kee- 
c//ay shmeckt meer 
nir^t. 

Naymen see pfeffer? 

Nine, i ch dankay. 

Yah, i ch bittay. 

Gayben see meer dane 
senf. 


ENGLISH. 

Change the plates. 

I want a spoon. 

Are you hungry? 

Not very. 

I am hungry. 

You do not eat. 

I am very thirsty. 

I am dying of thirst. 
Take a glass of wine. 

Give me something to 
drink. 

I want some beer. 


GERMAN. 

SBedjfeln ©ie bie ©eEer. 
3 d) miinfd)e einen Soffel. 
©inb ©ie fmngrig ? 
SRidjt fe$r. 

3$ bin ljungrtg. 

©ie effen nid)t. 

3d) bin fel)r burftig. 

3d) fierbe Por ©urft. 
fRc^men ©ie ein ©Ia8 
ilPein. 

©eben ©ie mir etrcag 
ju trinfen. 

3 $ roiinfdfe 23 ter. 


PRONUNCIATION. 
Veckseln see dee teller. 
Ie 7 /vinshay inen Iceffel. 
Sind see hoongri^? 
Nic//t sair. 

I ch bin hoongri^? 

See essen nic/it. 

I ch bin sair doorsti^. 

I ch stairbay for doorst. 
Naymen see ine glaas 
vine. 

Gayben see meer etvas 
tsoo trinken. 

I ch vinshay beer. 


TALK AT THE TEA TABLE. 


Tea is quite ready. 

They are waiting for 
you. 

I am coming. 

Bring a saucer. 

Pour out the tea. 

The tea is very strong. 
It is very weak. 

A slice of bread and 
butter. 

Hand the plate. 

Will you take some 
cake? 

A small piece. 

Make more toast. 
Make haste. 

This is good tea. 

The tea-tray. 

A set of tea-things. 
Have you finished? 
Take another cup. 

Brown bread. 

White bread. 

Stale bread. 

New bread. 


®er ©bee ift ganj fertig. Dair tay ist gants fair- 
*g- 

HRan rcartet auf ©ie. Man vaartet owf see. 


It is late. 

What o’clock is it? 

It is still early. 

Are you tired? 

Not at all. 

Not much. 

It is only ten. 

1 It is time to go to bed. 

It is a fine evening. 

It is moonlight. 

Is my room ready? 

Sheets. 

A blanket. 

Good-night. 

Are you sleepy? 


3$ fomme. 

Sringen ©ie eine Unter= 
taffe. 

©cfyenfen ©ie ben ©bee 
ein. 

©er ©bee ift felfr ftarf. 
Gr ift fef)r fdjmad). 

Gin ©tiidd)en Sutters 
brob. 

©eben ©ie mir ben ©els 
ler. 

2 Biinfd)en ©ie Sfudfen ? 

Gin ©tucfdfen. 

SRbften ©ie mefjr 23 rob. 
SDiadjen ©ie fd)netl. 

©ie§ tft guter ©bee. 

©er Stdfentirtetler. 

©ag ©IjeeferPice. 

©inb ©ie fertig ? 
SRefimen ©ie nod) eine 
©affe. 

©dpoarjeS Srob. 

SBctfieS Srob. 

SllteS 23 rob. 
grifdjeg ©rob. 

BED TIME. 

G§ ift fpat. 

2 Ba 8 ift bie Ubr ? 

G 3 ift nod) fnil). 

©inb ©ie miibe ? 

Giar nidjt. 

9 ?id)t fel)r. 

68 ift erft jc^n. 

68 ift 3 eit ju Sett ju 
geben. 

63 ift ein fd)Bner 9 lbenb. 

68 ift TOonbfdiein. 

3ft mein 3immer fertig? 

©ie Safen. 

Gine loollene Settbede. 

©ute fRacbt. 

©inb ©ie fdjliifrig ? 


Ich kummay. 

Bringen see inay oon- 
tertassay. 

Shenken see dane tay 
ine. 

Dair tay ist sair shtark. 
Air ist sair shvac//. 

Ine shtickc//en bootter- 
brote. 

Gayben see meer dane 
teller. 

Vinshen see kooc/*en? 

Ine shtickcAen. 

Rcesten see mairbrotc. 
Marten see shnell. 
Dees ist gooter tay. 
Dair praysenteerteller. 
Das taysairveece. 

Sind see fairti^.f 
Naymen see nucA inay 
tassay. 

Shvaartses hrote. 

Vices brote. 

Altes brote. 

Frishes brote. 


Es ist shpate. 

Vas ist dee oor? 

Es ist nu ch free. 

Sind see meeday? 

Gar nic//t. 

Nic//t sair. 

Es ist airst tsane. 

Es is tsite tsoo betttsoo 
gayen. 

Es ist ine shoenerah- 
bend. 

Es is mohndshine. 

Ist mine tsimmer fair- 
ti g? 

Dee laaken. 

Inay vullenay bett- 
deckav. 

Gootay nac/,t. 

Sind see shlayfri^r? 




























THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


87 


THE HOUR OF THE DAY. 


ENGLISH. 

What o’clock is it? 
My watch has stopped. 
It does not go. 

I forgot to wind it up. 

My watch is too fast. 
It is too slow. 

It is five minutes too 
slow. 

It goes right. 

One o’clock, 
h ive minutes past two. 

A quarter past three. 
Half-past four. 

A quarter to five. 

Just six o’clock. 
Twenty minutes to 
seven. 

It has just struck 
eight. 

Noon. 

Midnight. 


GERMAN. 

SEaS tfi bie Ufyr ? 

SDteine Uljr ftefyt. 

©ie geljt nid)t. 

3d) rergafj fie aufju= 
jieljen. 

fDJeine Uljr geljt oor. 

©ie gefyt nad). 

©ie ift fiinf SKtnuten ju 
fpat. 

©ie gefd ridjtig. 

Gin Ufir. 

gunf DJUnuten nad; jmei. 

Gin SSiertel auf Bier, 
jjatb funf. 

®ret Biertet auf fiinf. 
®erabe fed)3 Ul)r. 
^tranjig SDiinuten Bor 
fteben. 

G3 fyat eben ad)t gefd)la= 
gen. 

SJlittag. 

902itternad)t. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Vas ist dee oor? 

Minay oor shtate. 

See gayt mcht. 

\ch vairgaass see owf- 
tsootseen. 

Minay oor gayt fore. 
See gayt na ch. 

See ist finf minooten 
tsoo shpate. 

See gayt rich\\g. 

Ine oor. 

Finf minooten na ch 
tsvi. 

Ine feertel owf feer. 
Haalb finf. 

Dry feertel owf finf. 
Gayraaday sex oor. 
Tsvaantsi^ minooten 
fore seeben. 

Es hat ayben a chi ge- 
shlaagen. 

Mittaa^. 

Mitternac/it. 


THE PROMENADE. 


Shall we take a walk? 


Yes, let us walk. 

Where shall we go ? 

On the high road. 
There is a good deal 
of dust. 

Into the fields. 

They are reaping. 
They are making hay. 
What apleasantscent! 

Let us take a walk 
into the town. 

What street is that? 

Where does it lead to ? 
Handsome shops. 

Bad pavement. 

Are these Prussian 
soldiers ? 

Where is King street? 

Straight before you. 
To the left hand. 

To the right hand. 

Is the village far from 
here? 

About a mile. 

A good hour. 

Hardly a mile. 

Half a mile. 


SBotlen mir einen ©pa= 
jiergang madjen ? 

3a, mir molten au3ge= 
fyen. 

233o moHen mir fdnge= 
Tjcn ? 

Stuf bie Gfjauffee. 

G3 iff bort fefjr ftaubig. 

Stuf bie getber. 

2JJan erntet. 

G3 ift ^eucrnte. 

2Ea8 fur ein angeneljnter 
®erudj! 

SKadjen mir cine $rome= 
nabe in bie ©tabt. 

SBa8 ift ba3 fiit eine 
©trafje ? 

SEo fuf)rt fie ljin ? 

©djbne Saben. 

©d)led)te8 ipflafter. 

©inb bie§ preufsifdie 
©olbaten ? 

SSo ift bie SfbnigSftrafe ? 

93or 31jnen. 

Sinter ®anb—lints. 

SRedjter £>anb—redjts. 

3ft baS ®orf meit oon 
tyter ? 

Ungefaljr eine SDteite. 

Gine gute ©tunbe. 

Staum eine SUteile. 

Gine Ijalbe SDleile. 


Vullen veer inen 
shpaatseergang ma- 
che n ? 

Yah, veer vullen ows- 
gayen. 

Vo vullen veer hin- 
gayen ? 

Owf dee shossay. 

Es ist dort sair shtou- 

bio - . 

Owf dee felder. 

Man airntet. 

Es ist hoyairntay. 

Vas feer ine ange- 
naymer gayrooc^ / 

Macien veer inay 
prummenahday in 
dee shtadt. 

Vas ist das feer may 
shtraassav ? 

Vo feert see hin ? 

Shcenay laden. 

Shlec/ites pilaster. 

Sind dees proyssishay 
soldaaten? 

Vo ist dee kceni^straas- 
say ? 

Fore eenen. 

Linker hand—links. 

Rec/iter hand—recAts. 

Ist das dorf vite fun 
here ? 

Oongayfare inay milay. 

Inay gootay shtoonday. 

Kowm inay milay. 

Inay halbay milay. 


PERSONAL INQUIRIES. 

Do you know Mr. F.? ttennen ©ie fjerm g* ? Kennen see hairn F? 

I do not know any- 3$ teitne UZietnanb bie = I ch kennay neemaand 
body of that name. fe3 fUamenS. deeses nahmens. 

Docs he live here? SEofint er bier ? Vohnt air here? 


ENGLISH. 

He lives in this house. 

Where ? 

On the first floor. 

I know him. 

Intimately. 

I am very intimate 
with him. 

He is my friend. 

I have known him a 
long time. 

Where does he live 5 

He lives in Broad 
street, No. 3. 


GERMAN. 

Gr moljnt in biefem 
©aufe. 

SEo ? 

3nt erften ©tod. 

3d) tenne iljn. 

®cnau. 

3d) bin mit i$.m fef)r in= 
tint. 

Gr ift mein $reunb. 

3dj t)abe iljn lange ges 
tannt. 

SEo moljnt er ? 

Gr rcotynt in ber breiten 
©trafje, fftumero brei. 


When is he at home? SBann ift er 5U ijaufe ? 


In the morning. 

In the evening. 

He lives close by. 

Is it far? 

Can you direct me to 
his house? 

I will show you where 
he lives. 

That is the market. 
This is the street. 

The square. 

This is his house. 
Here he lives. 


®e8 9JJorgen8. 

®e3 9lbenb3. 

Gr moljnt nafye bet. 

3ft eS meit ? 
fbonnen ©ie mir fein 
®au8 jeigen ? 

3d) merbe 3$ ncn jeigen 
mo er moljnt. 

$a§ ift ber SDfarft. 

®ie3 tft bie ©trafie. 
®er spiafe. 

®ie3 ift fein fjauS. 

£>ier moljnt er. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Air vohnt in deesem 
hows ay. 

Vo? 

Im airsten shtuck. 

I ch kennay een. 

Gaynow. 

I ch bin mit eem sair 
inteem. 

Air ist mine froind. 

I ch haabay een laangay 
gekant. 

Vo vohnt air? 

Air vohnt in dair bry- 
ten shtraassay noo- 
mero dry. 

Van ist air tsoo how- 
say? 

Des morgens. 

Des ahbends. 

Air vohnt nahay by. 

Ist es vite? 

Koennen see meer sine 
house tsigen? 

lek vairday eenen tsi- 
^en vo air vohnt. 

Das ist dair markt. 

Dees ist dee shtraassay. 

Dair plats. 

Dees ist sine house. 

Heer vohnt air. 


THE TALK OF TRAVEL. 


Are you going to Ger¬ 
many ? 

I intend to go to the 
Rhine. 

When do you think of 
going? 

How long shall you 
stay? 

About a month. 

I set out to-morrow. 

Have you made all 
your preparations? 

Everything is ready. 

I shall go by railway 
to Dover. 

The train starts in ten 
minutes. 

I want a ticket for Co¬ 
logne. 

First-class. 

The express train. 

The ordinary train. 


®eljen ©ie nadj ®eutfdj= 
lanb ? 

3$ gebenfe an ben 
SRljetn ju geljen. 

ilBann gebenfen ©ie ju 
reifen ? 

SBie lange merben ©ie 
fid) aufljaltcn ? 

Ungefaljr einen 2Konat. 

3$ reife morgen ab. 

jjaben ©ie atle 3^ re 
23orfef)rungen getrof= 
fen ? 

9lllc3 ift fertig. 

3<f) merbe mit ber Gifen* 
baljn nadj ®o»er faf)= 
ren. 

®er 3 U 8 in 5 ct l n 
Skinuten ab. 

3d) rcunfd)e ein SBitlet 
nad) ffoln. 

Grfte Staffe. 

®cr ©djnetljug. 

®er gemobnIid)e 3ug* 


Where is your bag- 2Eo ift 3§r ®cpad ? 


Gayen see na ch doytsh- 
land ? 

I ch gaydenkay an den 
Rhine tsoo gayen. 

Van gedenken see 
tsoo risen ? 

Vee langay vairden see 
si ch owfhalten ? 

Oongayfair inen moh- 
nat. 

I ch risay morgen ap. 

Haaben see allay eeray 
forkayrungen getruf- 
fen? 

Alles ist fairtbn 

I ch vairday mit dair 
isenbahn na ch Dover 
fahren. 

Dair tsoo^gaytintsane 
minooten ab. 

I ch vinshay ine bilyet 
na ch Kceln. 

Airstay kl assay. 

Dair shneltsoo^. 

Dair gevoehnlic/iay 
tsoog. 

Vo ist eer geoeck? 


gage? 

Here it is. 

The train is just going 
to start. 

It does not go very 
fast. 

Not so fast as in En¬ 
gland. 


§ier ift e3. Heer ist es. 

®er 3 U 8 mirb fogteid) Dair tsoog veert so- 
abgefyen. gli che. abgaycn. 

G3 gcl)t nrdjt fel)t fcfynell. Es gate nic/itsairshnel. 

SRtdjt fo f^nell al8 in Nic/;t so shnel als in 
Gngtanb. England. 





























88 


THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. GERMAN. 

Here is a station. jjier ift cine (Station. 

Do we stop here? fjalten ii'tr Ijier an ? 
They stop at every sta- 3Ran t)filt auf jeber Sta = 
f* 011 - tion an. 

It is a long- journey. gg ift eine lange SReife. 

Yes, from ten to twelve 3a, oon jeljn biS jroblf 


hours. 

Very pretty country. 
Arrived at last. 

The steamer. 

When do you start? 
With the tide. 


©tunben. 

©et)r fd)6ne ©egenb. 
Gnbtidj angefommen. 
®a3 ®ainpfboot. 
SBann gcfmn Sie ab ? 
SKit ber ^Tut^. 


Let us go down into Saffeit Sie unS Ijinab in 
the cabin. bie $ajute gefjen. 

The tide is strong. ®te glutl) ift ftarf. 

The sea is rough. ®ie See ift fturmifd). 

The wind is against us. ®er 2Binb ift gegen un§. 

So much the worse. Itm fo fdjltmmer. 

We shall have a long 2Eir merben eine lange 
passage. Ueberfaljrt Ijaben. 


I feel sea-sick. 


3<f) fuljle mid) feefrant. 


is getting ®a8 SDZeer mirb rufnger. 


The sea 
calmer. 

I see land. 3 $ fefje Sanb. 

It is the harbor of Ost-E 8 ift ber £afen 
en( f. SDftenbe. 

We have arrived. 2Bir finb angefommen. 


non 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Heer is inay shtatsione. 

Halten veer heer an? 

Man helt owf yaydair 
shtatsione an. 

Es ist inay langay 
risay. 

Yah, fun tsane bis 
tsvelf shtoonden. 

Sair shcenay gaygend. 

Endlic// angekummen. 

Das dampfboat. 

Van gayen see ab? 

Mit dair floot. 

Lassen see oons hinab 
in dee kahyeetay 
gayen. 

Dee floot ist shtark. 

Dee say ist shteermish. 

Dair vind ist gaygen 
oons. 

Oom so shlimmer. 

Veer vairden inay lan¬ 
gay eeberfahrt haa- 
ben. 

Ich feelay mi ch say- 
krank. 

Das mair veert rooiger. 

I ch sayay lant. 

Es ist dair haafen fun 
Ustenday. 

Veer sind angekum- 


DISCUSSING THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 


Can you read German? Sfonnen ©te ®eutfdj Ie= 
fen ? 

A little. Ein menig. 

I read it very well, but 3 d) lefe c 3 ganj gut, aber 
I cannot speak it. id) fann e 8 ntd)t fpre= 
djen. 

Do you speak Ger- ©predjen ©ie ®eutfd) ? 
man? 

I do not understand it. 3 d) Berftelje e 3 nid)t. 

People speak so fast. ©can fpridjt fo fdjnetl. 

You have had but lit- ©ic I)aben nur menig 
tie practice. Uebung geljabt. 

You have a good pro- ©ic I)aben eine gute 
nunciation. 2 tu 8 fpradje. 

Your sister speaks it 31>re ©dpoefter fpri^t 
perfectly. e 8 geldufig. 

It is a difficult lan- ES ift eine fdjmere ©pro: 

guage. (fye. 

You will learn it soon, ©ie toerben e3 balb Ier= 
nen. 

Where do they speak 2Bo fpridjt man bag be= 
the best German? fte ®eutfd) ? 

In the North of Ger- 3n 91orbbeutfd)lanb. 
m any. 

I find the pronuncia- 3d) finbe bie Slugfprad)e 
tion easy. Ieid)t. 

It is very much like E 8 ift bem Englifd)en 
English. fel)r a^nltdj. 

Yes, the German lan- 3a, bie beutfd)e ©pra = 
guage is the mother d)e ift bie SlRutter ber 
of the English. Englifd)en. 


Koennen see doytsh 
laysen ? 

Ine vani^. 

I ch laysay es gants 
goot, aber i ch kann 
es nic//t shprecAen. 

Shprec/cen see doytsh? 

Ich fershtayay es nic//t. 

Man shpric/ct so shnel. 

See haaben noor vaynfo' 
eeboong gehaabt. 

See haaben inay gootay 
owsshpraac/cay. 

Eeray shvester shpric//t 
es geloyfio-. 

Es ist inay shvayray 
shpraar/cay. 

See vairden es bald 
lairnen. 

Vo shpric/ct man das 
bestay doytsh ? 

In norddoytshland. 

Ich finday dee ows- 
shpraac/cay liec//t. 

Es ist daim englishen 
sair ainli ch. 

Yah, dee doytshay 
shpraac/cay ist dee 
mootter dair en¬ 
glishen. 


ENGLISH. GERMAN. PRONUNCIATION. 

It is the most useful S3 ift bie nu&lidjjte unb Es ist dee nitslic/cstay 
and interesting lan- intereffantefte ©pradje oont interessantestay 

guage for an Ameri- bie ein SStmertfaner shpraac/iay dee ine 

can to learn. lenten faun. Amayrikahner lair¬ 

nen kann. 


THE WEATHER AND THE SEASONS. 


Spring has come. 

Spring begins well. 

It is rather mild. 

It is spring-weather. 

The trees are begin¬ 
ning to bud. 

The season is very for¬ 
ward. 

It is so pleasant. 

The sun is so warm. 

There are some flow¬ 
ers. 

Snowdrops. 

Tulips. 

Hyacinths. 

Gather some. 

As many as you please. 

The season is very 
backward. 

Summer is coming. 

It is becoming warm. 

It is too warm. 

It is almost hot. 

It is a splendid day. 

The heat is great. 

The heat is unbeara¬ 
ble. 

It is very close. 

I think we shall have 
a storm. 

The clouds are gather¬ 
ing. 

I hear thunder. 

It thunders fearfully. 

It lightens. 

How it rains! 

The sky begins to 
clear. 

The rain ceases. 

There is a rainbow. 

The sun breaks out. 

Summer is over. 

The heat is past. 

The leaves are begin¬ 
ning to fall. 

The days are still fine. 

The days are closing. 

Autumn is interesting 
on the Rhine. 

It is the time of the 
vintage. 

How happy the peo¬ 
ple are. 

We must soon begin 
fires. 


®er griil)ttng ift ba. 

®er grilling fdngt gut 
an. 

E3 ift jtemltd) gelinbe. 

E8 ift gniljltngSroetter. 
®ie ©dume fangen an 
au3jufd)lagen. 

®ie 3 a ^te3jeit ift fel)t 
oorgerudt. 

ES ift fo angeneljm. 

®te ©onne ift fo marm. 
E8 giebt etnige ©lumen. 

©d)neegtocfd)en. 

SEulpen. 

fjnacintfyen. 

©fluden ©ie roeldje. 

©0 oiel 3f)uen beltebt. 
®ie 3 a f>te3jeit ift feljr 
juriicf. 

®er ©ommer fommt. 

E3 mirb marm. 

E3 ift ju marm. 

E8 ift faft Ijetfj. 

E3 ift ein munberfdjoner 
Sag. 

®ie §i§e ift grog. 

®ie §ifce ift unertraglid). 

E3 ift fefyr brudenb. 

3$ gtaube mir merben 
einen ©turra §aben. 

®ie ©Solfen jieljen fid) 
jufammen. 

3$ I)ore ®onner. 

E8 bonnert fdjredltd). 

E8 bltfct. 

2Bie e8 regnet! 

®er £tmmel Clart fid) 
auf. 

®er Biegen fiort auf. 

®a ift ein SRegenbogen. 
®ie ©onne brid)t burd). 

®er ©ommer ift ooriu 
ber. 

®ie §i^e ift sorbet. 

®ie ©latter fangen an 
abjufatfen. 

®ie Sage finb nod) fd)6n. 

®ie Sage nebrnen ab. 
®er £erbfl iftintereffant 
am SRljein. 

E3 ift bie 3eit bet SBeins 
lefe. 

SDBie gliidlidj bte Scute 
finb. 

2Btr muffen balb bie 
Cefen fyeifjen. 


Dair freeling ist dah. 

D air freeling fengt goot 
an. 

Es ist tseemlic/i gelin- 
day. 

Es ist freelingsvetter. 

Dee boymay fangen an 
owstsooshlaagen. 

Dee yahrestsite ist sair 
forgayrickt. 

Es ist so angenaym. 

Dee sunnay ist so varm. 

Es geebt inigay bloo- 
men. 

ShnayglceckcAen. 

Toolpen. 

Heeahtsinten. 

Pflicken see velc/cay. 

So feel eenen beleebt. 

Dee yahrestsite ist sair 
tsoorick. 

Dair summer kumt. 

Es veert varm. 

Es ist tsoo varm. 

Es ist fast hice. 

Es is ine voondershce- 
ner ta^v 

Dee hitsay ist gross. 

Dee hitsay ist ooner- 
t rayed ic/ 2 . 

Es ist saire drickend. 

I ch glowbay veer vair¬ 
den inen shtoorm haa¬ 
ben. 

Dee vulken tsee-ensic/c 
tsoosammen. 

I ch hoeray dunner. 

Es dunnert shrecklie/c. 

Es blitst. 

Vee es rayonet. 

Dair liimmel klairt si ch 
owf. 

Dair raygen hcert owf. 

D a ist ine raygenbogen. 

Dee sunnay bric/ct 
doorc/i. 

Dair summer ist foree- 
ber. 

Dee hitsay is forbye. 

Dee bletter fangen an 
abtsoofallen. 

Dee tahgay sind nu ch 
shoen. 

Dee tahgay naymen ab. 

Dair hairbst ist interes- 
sant am Rhine. 

Es ist dee tsite dair 
vinelaysay. 

Vee glicklic/c deeloytay 
sind. 

Veer missen bald dee 
cefen hitesen. 










































G) 


ENGLISH. 

We have had a fire al¬ 
ready. 

It is soon dark. 

It is a fine night. 

Is it moonlight? 

It is full moon. 

New moon. 

Do you think it will 
rain ? 

I am afraid so. 

It hails. 

It rains. 

It is very windy. 

It is winter. 

The days are so short. 

It is very cold. 

There is a cold wind. 
It is bad weather. 

It is foggy. 

The sky is overcast. 

It will snow. 

It freezes very hard. 
Can you skate? 

The ice does not hear. 
The ice is thick 
enough. 

It is healthy weather. 


GERMAN. 

SBir Ijaben fdfon ein 
gcuer gcfyabt. 

68 ift bait bunfet. 

63 ift eine fdjone 92ad)t. 

3ft c8 9D [ ?onbfd)ein ? 

63 ift SSoilmonb. 
SRcumonb. 

®Iauben ©ie bajj e3reg= 
nen tcitb ? 

3d) befurctjte c3. 

63 t)agelt. 

63 rcgnct. 

63 ift fe£)r rcinbig. 

63 ift SBintcr. 

®ie ®age finb fo Iurj. 

63 ift fe^r lalt. 

63 geljt ein falter SSittb. 
63 ift fd)Icd)tc3 SBcttcr. 
63 ift nebclig. 

®er iginunel ift bcbedt. 

68 lvirb fcfyneien. 

68 fvicrt ftarf. 

Bennett ©ie ©djlittfdjul) 
laufen ? 

®a3 6i3 tragi nidjt. 

®a3 6i3 ift bief gcitug. 

63 ift gefunbed SBettcr. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Veer haaben shone ine 
foyer gehaabt. 

Es istbald doonkel. 

Es ist inay shaenay 
nac7/t. 

Ist es mohntshine? 

Es ist fulmohnt. 

Noymohnt. 

Glowben see das es 
raygnen veert? 

I ch befeercAtay es. 

Es hahgelt. 

Es rayonet. 

Es ist sair vindi^. 

Es ist vinter. 

Dee tahgay sind so 
koorts. 

Es ist sair kalt. 

Es gayt ine kaltervind. 

Es ist shlecAtes vetter. 

Es is naybelijg. 

Dair himmel ist be- 
deckt. 

Es vird shnyen. 

Es freert shtark. 

Kcennen see shlitshoo 
lowfen? 

Das ice trayg't nieAt. 

Das ice ist dick genoo^. 

Es ist gesoondes vet¬ 
ter. 


ENGLISH. GERMAN. 

It thaws. 63 tfjaut. 

It is slippery. 63 ift fdjlupfrig. 

The ice is thawing. ®a3 6t8 ge^t auf. 

The streets are very ®ie ©trafjen finb fef)r 
wet and dirty. naff unb fdjmufeig. 

Christmas. 2Bcif)nad)ten. 

New Year. UJeujatyr. 

New Year’s day. 9Jeujaf)r8tag. 

A new year. 6in neue8 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Es towt. 

Es ist shlipfri^ - . 

Das ice gayt owf. 
Deeshtraassen sind sair 
nass oont shmootsi^g. 
VynacAten. 

Noiyahr. 

Noiyahrstag. 

Ine noyes yahr. 


RELATING TO CORRESPONDENCE. 


Ink. 

Pens. 

Have you any envel¬ 
opes? 

Postage stamps. 

I want a sheet of writ¬ 
ing-paper. 

Blotting-paper. 

I have a letter to write. 

A pen-knife. 

Now I will write. 

What is the day of the 
month? 

It is the sixteenth. 

Where is the post-of¬ 
fice? 

Close by. 

Take care of the letter. 


2inte. 

gebern. 

fjaben ©ie 6ou»ert3 ? 

ipoflmarfen. 

3d) braudje einen ©ogen 
©djtcibpapier. 

Ci>fd)papter. 

3d) Ifabe einen ©rief ju 
fdjreibcn. 

6in gebertneffer. 

3e^t mill id) fd)reiben. 

®en rciecielften Ijaben 
rctr fycute ? 

63 ift ber fed)3jeljnte. 

2Bo ift bie ifJoft ? 


Tintay. 

Faydern. 

Haaben see coovairts? 

Postmarken. 

I ch browcAay inen bo- 
gen shribepapeer. 

Lceshpahpeer. 

I ch haabay inen breef 
tsoo shrvben. 

Ine faydermesser. 

Yetst vill \ch shryben. 

Den veefeelsten haaben 
veer hoytay ? 

Es ist dair sextsanetay. 

Vo ist dee pust? 


iftalfe bci. Nahay by. 

ifteljmen ©ie ben ©rief Naymcn see den breef 
in 2td)t. in acAt. 




























Q 


rs 


Tf 


9 o 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



*?Oj\i 




FRENCH WITHOUT A M flSTER 


-- 5 - 


*tf-°-*- 0, t§H£2= 



A Simple System of Self-Instruction in the French Language. 




MATTER of vital impor¬ 
tance to all is the study 
of the French language. 
Not to mention the rich¬ 
ness of French literature 
' and the vast pleasures 
which arise from an in¬ 
telligent perusal of the pages of 
the great authors who have built 
it up, the practical advantages to 
be derived from a knowledge of 
the language of diplomacy ” are 
too patent to require explanation. 
No one can be a perfect master of 
the English language who does 
not possess a certain amount of familiarity with 
the French tongue, through which so many 
of our strongest expressions have been filtered 
after leaving the more ancient parent stock. 
The traveller making the tour of the conti¬ 
nent of Europe will find a knowledge of the 
French language indispensable. In all parts of 
that continent this language provides the com¬ 
mon ground upon which men of all tongues 
meet in conversation, and the traveller, having 
simply made himself sufficiently familiar with 
the language to ask for what he wants, will have 
done much towards making his trip thoroughly 
enjoyable and instructive. The following sys¬ 
tem of self-instruction has been formulated with 
a view to providing a simple yet thorough means 


of studying French. The student who masters its 
details with care will, within the space of a very 
few days, find himself able to converse in that 
language, and begin to enjoy thoroughly the 
beauties of its literature. 

ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. 


FRENCH 

ALPHABET. 

NAME. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

A 

ah 

like a in the English word arm. 

B 

bay 

as in English. 

C 

say 

before e and /, is pronounced like s; before 
a, 0, u and before a consonant c sounds 
like k; is soft before a, 0, u in certain 
instances, when a mark beneath it called 
a cedilla is used, thus: <;. 

D 

day 

as in English. 

E 

ai 

e, e , ai, ei, are pronounced like a in the 
English word care. 

F 

eff 

as in English. 

G 

jay 

before e and i sounds like j. 

H 

aash 

is generally silent. 

I 

ee 

like e in the English word we. 

7 

jee 

like .v in the English word measure. 

K 

kah 

as in English. 

L 

el 

as in English. 

M 

em 

as in English. 

N 

en 

as in English. 

O 

0 

0, in slock; an, eati, are pron. like 0 in no. 

P 

pay 

like the English, but is often mute at the end 
of words. 

Q 

ku 

like k. 

R 

air 

like the English r in run. 

S 

ess 

like the English s, sometimes like z. 

T 

tay 

like / in the English word tent. 

U 

eeyu 

like u in the English word suite. 

V 

vay 

like the English v. 

X 

eeks 

as in English. 

r 

egrec 

like e in the English word we. 

z 

zed 

like a soft 


There are combinations of letters which are sometimes called 
compound vowels, viz.: an, in, on, eu, ou, which are pro¬ 
nounced as follows: 


/ 

































































THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


■\ 


9 1 


71 


The compound vowel an as an in the word want. 

“ “ in as an “ “ anchor. 

“ “ on as on “ “ wrong. 

“ “ un has no correspondent in English. 

“ “ eu as i in the word bird. 

“ “ ou as on “ “ you. 

Ch is pronounced generally as sh in the word share. 

Gn like ni in the word minion. 

Gu is pronounced generally like gin gel. 

Ph as ph in philosophy. 

Qu is generally pronounced like k in king. 

Tli like th in Thames. 


ACCENTS AND OTHER MARKS. 

The French make a frequent use of certain signs called ortho¬ 
graphic signs. They are the accents, the apostrophe, the trait d'un¬ 
ion (hyphen),the treina (diaeresis), the cedille (cedilla), the parenthf.se 
(parenthesis), and the different marks of punctuation. 

There are three accents, the accent aigit (acute '), which is never 
used except over the vowels; the accent grave (* ), which is used over 
the vowels a, e, u, and the accent circonflexe ('), which is used with any 
of the vowels but_y. 

The apostrophe (') is used to point out the elision of a vowel at the 
end of a word before another word beginning with a vowel or an h 
mute, as in Pdme, the soul; I'homme, the man, instead of la dme, 
le homme. 

A, e, i, are the only vowels liable to be thus cut off, and this last one 
in the single word si before il; s’il for si il. 

The trait d’ union (-) is used principally to connect compound words, 
as in arc-en-ciel (rainbow), or to join the pronoun to the verb, in the 
interrogative conjugation. 

The trema ( ”) is the same sign as the diceresis and used for the same 
purpose in French as in English. 

The cidille is a little mark put under the c (5) whenever it is required 
to give to that letter the articulation produced by the letter s, before 
the letters a, o, u; as, Franqais, garqon, requ. 

NUMBER AND GENDER. 

There are two numbers in French as in English, the singular and 
the plural. 

The French language has only two genders, the masculine and the 
feminine. The gender of animate objects is the same as in English; 
but practice, close attention to the harmony of the language, and very 
often derivation, can alone teach the gender of inanimate objects. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

These are ten in number: article, noun, adjective, pronoun, 
verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, interjection. 

THE ARTICLE. 

There are two articles, the definite and the indefinite. The definite 
article is rendered by “le ” before a masculine noun, and by “la ” before 
a feminine noun; as, le pire, the father; la mire, the mother. The 
plural for both genders is “les ;” as, lespares, the fathers; les mires, 
the mothers. 

The articles are declined as follows: 



Masculine. 





Singular. 



Plural 


Nom. 

le (leh) pare, the father 

les 

(lay 

) pires. 

the fathers 

Gen. 

du (du) pare, of the father 

des 

(day) pares. 

of the fathers 

Dat. 

au (0) pire, to the father 

aux 

(0) pires. 

to the fathers 

Acc. 

le (leh) pire, the father 

les 

(lay) pires. 

the fathers 


Feminine. 




Nom. 

la mire, the mother 

les mires, 

the mothers 

Gen. 

de la mire, of the mother 

des 

meres 

of the mothers 

Dat. 

ci la mire, to the mother 

aux meres 

, to the mothers 

Acc. 

la mire, the mother 

les meres , 

the mothers 



DECLENSION 


Of a word beginning with a vowel or 

a silent “h.” 

Singular. 


Plural. 

Nom. I'homme, 

the man 

les^'hommes, the men 

Gen. de I'homme, 

of the man 

des'~'hommes, of the men 

Dat. a I’homme, 

to the man 

aux^'hommes, to the men 

Acc. I'homme, 

the man 

les'''homines, the men 


INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

Masculine. 


Feminine. 

Nom. niljardin. 

a garden 

une ville. 

a town 

Gen. d’un jardin. 

of a garden 

d'une ville, of a town 

Dat. a un jardin. 

to a garden 

a une ville, to a town 

Acc. un jardin, 

a garden 

une ville, 

a town 

DECLENSION OE 

PROPER 

NAMES. 

Nom. Paris, 

Paris 

Louise, 

Louisa 

Gen. de Paris, 

of Paris 

de Louise 

of Louisa 

Dat. d Paris, 

to Paris 

a Louise, 

to Louisa 

Acc. Paris, 

Paris 

Louise, 

Louisa 

EXERCISES IN THE USE OF THE ARTICLE. 

Having mastered the declensions, the student will thoroughly 

familiarize himself with the use of the articles by memorizing 

the following vocabulary: 




THE UNIVERSE. 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

God 

Dieu 


Deeyu 

the world 

le monde 


leh maund 

the sky 

le del 


leh seeyel 

the sun 

le soldi 


leh sohleyl 

the moon 

la lime 


lah lune 

a star 

une itoile 


une aitoahl 

the air 

Pair 


Pair 

the earth 

la terre 


lah tayr 

the water 

I’eau 


l’o 

the fire 

le feu 


leh feuh 

the sea 

la vter 


lah mare 

an island 

une He 


une eel 

a lake 

un lac 


ung lahe 

a stream 

un jleuve 


ung fleuhv 

a river 

une riviere 


une reeveeare 

the animals 

les animaux 

laiz aneemo 

the metals 

les metaux 


lai maito 

the gold 

Por 


l’orr 

the silver 

I'argent 


l’arjang 

the iron 

le fer 


leh fayr 

the steel 

Pacier 


l’asseay 

the copper 

le cuivre 


leh eweevr 

the tin 

I'itain 


l’aitang 


THE HUMAN BEING. 

Man 

I’homme 


l’omm 

the body 

le corps 


leh cor 

the head 

la tite 


lah tait 

the face 

le visage 


leh veesaje 

the forehead 

le front 


leh frong 

the eye 

Vceil 


Pile 

the eyes 

les'~'yeux 


laiz eeyeu 

the nose 

le nez 


leh nay 

the ears 

les oreilles 


laiz ohraill 

the chin 

le menton 


leh mauntong 

the beard 

la barbe 


lah barb 

the mouth 

la bouche 


lah boosh 

the lips 

les livres 


lailayvr 

the tooth 

la dent 


lah dong 

the tongue 

la longue 


lah laungh 

the neck 

le cou 


leh coo 

































7 ! 


9 2 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

the shoulders 

les^ipaules 

laiz aipole 

the arm 

le bras 

leh brah 

the hand 

la main 

lah mang 

the fingers 

les doigts 

lai douah 

the nails 

les^'ongles 

laiz aungl 

the chest 

la poitrine 

lah pouahtreen 

the heart 

le coeur 

leh keuhr 

the knee 

le genou 

leh jenoo 

the leg 

la jambe 

lah jahmb 

the foot 

le pied 

leh peeay 

the bones 

les^os 

FOOD. 

laiz o 

Bread 

le pain 

leh pang 

flour 

la farine 

lah fareen 

meat 

de la viande 

de la veeaund 

roast meat 

du roti 

du rotee 

beef 

du bceuf 

du beuhf 

veal 

du veau 

du vo 

mutton 

du mouton 

du mootong 

lamb 

de Vagneau 

deh l’anyo 

pork 

du pore 

du pork 

bacon 

du lard 

du lar 

ham 

diljambon 

du jahmbong 

soup 

la soupe 

lah soup 

rice 

du riz 

du ree 

eggs 

des^ceitfs 

daiz euh 

salad 

de la salade 

deh lah salade 

mustard 

de la moutarde 

deh lah mootard 

salt 

du sel 

du sel 

oil 

de I'huile 

deh l’weel 

vinegar 

du vinaigre 

du veenaigr 

pepper 

du poivre 

du pouahvr 

butter 

du beurre 

du bcuhr 

cheese 

du frontage 

du fro'mahje 

breakfast 

le dejeuner 

leh dayjcuhnai 

dinner 

le diner 

leh deenai 

supper 

le souper 

leh soopai 

hunger 

la faint 

lah fahng 

thirst 

la soif 

lah souaf 

water 

de r eau 

deh I’o 

wine 

du Tin 

du vang 

beer 

de la biere 

deh lah beeair 

milk 

du tail 

du lay 

tea 

du thi 

du tay 

gin 

du genievre 

du jenyavr 

brandy 

de I’eau de vie 

DRESS. 

deh lo deh vee 

A coat 

un surtout 

ung syuretoo 

a cloak 

un manteau 

ung maunto 

a waistcoat 

un gilet 

ung jeelay 

the trowsers 

la culotte 

lah kyulot 

the braces 

les bretelles 

lai bretell 

the cap 

le bonnet 

leh bonnay 

the hat 

le chapeau 

leh shapo 

the comb 

le peigne 

leh paine 

gloves 

desgants 

dai gang 

a ring 

une bague 

une bnag 

a watch 

une montre 

une mongtre 

the stocking 

le bas 

leh bah 

the boots 

les bottes 

lai bot 

the bootjack 

le tire-botte 

leh teer-bot 

the slippers 

les pantoufles 

lai pauntoofl 

the shoes 

les souliers 

lai soolyai 

a shirt 

une chemise 

une shemeeze 

the necktie 

la cravate 

lah cravaht 

a pocket-handkerchief un mouchoir 

ung mooshouah 

the clothes-brush 

la brosse 

lah bross 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

the umbrella 

le parapluie 

leh paraplwee 

the parasol 

le parasol 

THE HOME. 

leh parasol 

The house 

la tnaison 

lah maysong 

the door 

la porte 

lah port 

the key 

la clef 

lah clay 

the bell 

la sonnette 

lah sonnet 

the staircase 

I’escalier 

l’escallyai 

the drawing-room 

la salle 

lah sal 

the dining-room 

la salle- d - manger 

lah sal-ah-maunjai 

the room 

la chambre 

lah shauinbr 

the bed-room 

la chambre-a-coucher 

lah shaumbr-ah-cushai 

the window 

la fenetre 

lah fennaitr 

the wall 

la paroi 

lah pahrouah 

the kitchen 

la cuisine 

lah eweezeen 

the roof 

le toit 

leh touah 

the cellar 

la cave 

lah caav 

the garden 

le jardin 

leh jardang 

a table 

une table 

une tahbl 

a chair 

une chaise 

une shayse 

an arm-chair 

un fattleuil 

ung fotayle 

a looking-glass 

un miroir 

ung meerouahr 

a clock 

une h orloge 

une orloje 

a trunk 

un coffre 

ung cofr 

a box 

une boite 

une bouaht 

the bed 

le lit 

leh lee 

the counterpane 

la couverlure 

lah coovairtyure 

a pillow 

un oreiller 

un oraylyai 

the sheets 

les drops de lit 

lai drah deh lee 

the mattress 

le malelas 

leh matlah 

the plate 

I’assietle 

l’assyet 

a candlestick 

un chandelier 

ung shaundelyai 

the lamp 

une larnpe 

une laump 

a spoon 

une cuiller 

une eweelyai 

a fork 

une fourchette 

une foorshet 

a knife 

un couteau 

ung cooto 

a cup 

une tasse 

une tass 

the saucer 

la soucoupe 

lah sooccoop 

the tablecloth 

la nappe 

lah nap 

the towel 

un essuie-main 

ung esswee-mang 

a glass 

un verre 

ung vair 

the tea-pot 

la theiere 

TRADES. 

lah taiyare 

An occupation 

un metier 

ung maytyai 

a workman 

un artisan 

ung arteesong 

a baker 

un boulanger 

ung boolonjai 

a miller 

un meunier 

ung meuhnyai 

a butcher 

un bouchcr 

ung booshai 

a brewer 

un brasseur 

ung brasscuhr 

a tailor 

un tailleur 

ung talyeur 

a shoemaker 

un cordonnier 

ung cordonyai 

a smith 

un forgeron 

ung forjehrong 

a saddler 

un sellier 

ung selyai 

a carpenter 

un menuisier 

ung menweesyai 

a mason 

un matron 

ung massong 

a bookbinder 

un relieur 

THE TOWN. 

ung rellyeuhr 

The town 

la ville 

lah veel 

the bridge 

le pont 

leh pong 

the tower 

la tour 

lah toor 

the gate 

la porte 

lah port 

the street 

la rue 

lah ru 

the market 

le marche 

leh marshay 

the building 

le bailment 

leh bahleemong 

the town-house 

1 'hotel de ville 

l’otel deh veel 

the theatre 

le thidtre 

leh tayahtr 

the post-office 

la poste 

lah post 


\ 



































THE FRENCH LANGUAGE 


93 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

the church 

Veglise 

l’aygleeze 

the cathedral 

la cathidrale 

lah cataydral 

the school 

Vic ole 

l’aycol 

the prison 

la prison 

lah preesong 

the exchange 

la bourse 

lah boorse 

the palace 

le palais 

leh p allay 

the hotel 

V hotel 

l’otel 

the inn 

Vauberge 

l’obayrje 

the public house 

le cabaret 

leh cabbaray 

the coffee-room 

le cafe. 

leh caffay 

BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, ETC. 

An animal 

tin animal 

ung aneemal 

a horse 

un cheval 

ung sheval 

a donkey 

un ane 

ung ahn 

the dog 

le chien 

leh sheeang 

the cat 

le chat 

leh shah 

the rat 

le rat 

leh rah 

the mouse 

la souris 

lah sooree 

an ox 

un baeuf 

ung beuh 

a cow 

une vache 

une vash 

a calf 

un veau 

ung vo 

a sheep 

une brebis 

une brebbee 

a lamb 

un agneau 

un anyo 

a pig 

un cochon 

un coshong 

the hare 

le lievre 

leh leeayvr 

a monkey 

un singe 

ungsangj 

a wolf 

un loup 

ung loo 

a bear 

un ours 

ung oor 

a lion 

un lion 

ung leeong 

an elephant 

un lliphant 

un aylayfong 

a tiger 

un tigre 

ung teegr 

a bird 

un oiseau 

un woiso 

a cock 

un coq 

un cock 

a hen 

une poule 

une pool 

a chicken 

un poulet 

ung poolay 

a swan 

un eigne 

ung seen 

a goose 

une oie 

une ouah 

a duck 

un canard 

ung canar 

a lark 

une alouette 

une allooet 

a nightingale 

un rossignol 

ung rosseenyol 

the swallow 

Vhirondelle 

l’eenrongdel 

the sparrow 

lemoineau 

leh mouano 

the raven 

le corbeau 

leh corbo 

the crow 

la corneille 

lah cornayl 

the parrot 

le perroquet 

leh perokay 

the eagle 

Vaigle 

l’aygl 

a fish 

un poisson 

ung pouassong 

a pike 

un b rochet 

ung broshay 

a salmon 

un sautnon 

ung somong 

a carp 

une carpe 

une carp 

an cel 

une anguille 

une ongghee 

a trout 

une truite 

une trweet 

a herring 

un hareng 

ung harrong 

oysters 

des huitres 

daiz weetr 

a crab 

une icrevisse 

une aycreveece 

a whale 

une baleine 

une ballayn 

a serpent 

un serpent 

ung sairpong 

a frog 

une grenouille 

une grenooeel 

a worm 

un ver 

un vair 

an insect 

un insecte 

un angsect 

a spider 

une araignee 

une arraynyai 

a moth 

une teigne 

ung tame 

a fly 

une mouche 

une moosh 

a gnat 

un moucheron 

ung moosherong 

a bee 

une abeille 

une abbail 

the honey 

le mi el 

leh meeyel 

a wasp 

uneguipe 

une gape 

a butterfly 

une papillon 

ung pappillyong 


TREES, FRUITS, FLOWERS AND VEGETABLES. 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

A tree 

un arbre 

ung arbr 

a branch 

une branche 

une braungsh 

a leaf 

une feuille 

une file 

an apple 

une pomme 

une pomm 

a pear 

une poire 

une pouar 

a plum 

une prune 

une pryun 

a cherry 

une cerise 

une serreeze 

a nut 

une noix 

une nouah 

a currant 

de la groseille 

de lah grozale 

a gooseberry 

de la groseille verte 

deh lah grozale verte 

a strawberry 

une fraise 

une fraize 

a chestnut 

un marron 

ung marrong 

the oak-tree 

le chine 

leh shane 

the fir-tree 

le pin 

leh pang 

the birch 

le bouleau 

leh boolo 

the willow 

le saule 

leh sole 

a flower 

une fleur 

une fleuhr 

a rose 

une rose 

une rose 

a pink 

un oeillet 

un ileyai 

a tulip 

une iulipe 

une tyuleep 

a lily 

un lis 

ung lee 

a violet 

une violette 

une veeolet 

a bouquet 

un bouquet 

ung bookay 

beans 

des fives 

dai faive 

peas 

des pot's 

daipouah 

cabbage 

des choux 

dai shoo 

cauliflower 

des choux-fleurs 

dai shoo-fleuhr 

carrots 

des betteraves 

dai betrahve 

asparagus 

des asperges 

daiz aspairj 

spinach 

des dpinards 

daiz aipeenar 

radishes 

des radis 

dai raddee 

celery 

du celeri 

du selree 

a melon 

un melon 

ung mellong 

cucumber 

des concombres 

dai congcongbr 


THE SCHOOL 

. 

A school 

Vdcole 

l’aycol 

the teacher 

le maxlre 

leh maytr 

the book 

le livre 

leh leevr 

the paper 

le papier 

leh papyai 

a pen 

une plume 

une plyume 

an inkstand 

un encrier 

un ongcreeai 

the ink 

Vencre 

l’ongkr 

the pencil 

le crayon 

leh crayong 

a letter 

une lettre 

une lettr 

an envelope 

une enveloppe 

une ongvellope 


TIME AND SEASONS. 

The time 

le temps 

leh tong 

a minute 

une minute 

une meenyute 

an hour 

une heure 

une eur 

a quarter of an hour 

un quart-d’heure 

ung kar d’eur 

half an hour 

une demie-heure 

une demi eur 

the day 

lejour 

leh joor 

the morning 

le matin 

leh mattang 

noon 

le midi 

leh meedee 

the afternoon 

Vapres-midi 

l’apray meedee 

the evening 

le soir 

leh souahr 

the night 

la nuit 

lah nwee 

a year 

un an 

un ong 

a month 

un mois 

ung mouah 

J an u ary 

"Janvier 

J ongveeay 

February 

Fivrier 

favvreeay 

March 

Mars 

marse 

April 

Avril 

avreel 

May 

Mai 

may 

June 

Juin 

jyuang 

July 

Juillet 

jweelyai 

























Q 


IV 


94 


7 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


August 

Aout 

00 

September 

Seplembre 

septaumbr 

October 

Octobre 

octobr 

November 

Novembre 

novaumbr 

December 

Dicembre 

daysaumbr 

a week 

une semaine 

une seminane 

a fortnight 

quinze jours 

kanze joor 

Monday 

Lundi 

lungdee 

Tuesday 

Mardi 

mardee 

Wednesday 

Mercredi 

mayreredee 

Thursday 

jeudi 

jeuhdee 

Friday 

Vendredi 

vondredee 

Saturday 

Samedi 

samdee 

Sunday 

Dimanclie 

deemaunshe 

spring 

le printemps 

leh prangtong 

summer 

rile 

l’aytay 

autumn 

Pautomne 

l’otonn 

winter 

Vhiver 

THE COUNTRY. 

l’eevare 

The country 

la campagne 

lah caumpahne 

the village 

le village 

leh veelaj 

the hut 

la cabane 

lah caban 

the soil 

le sol 

leh sol 

the meadow 

le pri 

lah pray 

the barn 

la grange 

leh graunj 

the mill 

le moulin 

leh moolang 

the cattle 

le bitail 

leh baytale 

the herd 

le troupeau 

leh troopo 

the shepherd 

le berger 

leh bayrjay 

the mountain 

la montagne 

lah montaine 

the hill 

la colline 

lah colleen 

the dale 

la vallie 

lah vallay 

the wood 

le bois 

leh bouah 

the forest 

la forit 

lah forray 

the road 

le chemin 

leh shemmang 

the high-road 

le grand-chem in 

leh grong shemmang 

the railroad 

le chemin deper 

leh shemmang deh fare 

a mile 

une rnille 

une ineel 

the waterfall 

la cascade 

lah cascad 

the fisherman 

le picheur 

leh paysheur 

the huntsman 

le chasseur 

THE FAMILY. 

leh shasseuhr 

The family 

la famille 

lah fameel 

the husband 

le mart 

leh rharee 

the wife 

la femme 

lah fam 

the father 

le pere 

leh pare 

the mother 

la mire 

lah mare 

the child 

V enfant 

l’ongfong 

the son 

le pis 

leh feess 

the daughter 

la pile 

lah feel 

the brother 

le frere 

leh frare 

the sister 

la sceur 

lah scuhr 

the uncle 

V onele 

I’oncle 

the aunt 

la tante 

lah taunte 

the cousin 

le cousin 

leh coosang 

the marriage 

le mariage 

NATIONALITIES. 

leh mareeahje 

An American 

un Amiricain 

un amayreecang 

a German 

un Allemand 

un almaung 

Germany 

PAllemagne f. 

l’almaine 

a Dutchman 

un Ilollandais 

ung hollaunday 

Holland 

la Ilollande 

lah hollaund 

a Belgian 

un Beige 

une belj 

Belgium 

la Belgique 

lah beljeek 

a Swiss 

un Suisse 

ung sweess 

Switzerland 

la Suisse 

lah sweess 

a Hungarian 

un Hongrois 

ung hongrwah 


Hungary 

la Hongrie 

lah hongree 

an Englishman 

un Anglais 

un aunglay 

England 

PAngleterre f. 

l’aungltare 

an Irishman 

un Irlandais 

un eerlaunday 

Ireland 

PIrlande f. 

l’eerlaund 

a Scotchman 

un Ecossais 

un aycossay 

Scotland 

PEcosse f. 

l’aycoss 

a Dane 

un Danois 

ung danouah 

Denmark 

le Danemarc 

leh danmark 

a Swede 

un Suedois 

ung swaydwah 

Sweden 

la Suede 

lah swayde 

a Russian 

un Busse 

ung russe 

Russia 

la Russie 

lah russee 

a Spaniard 

un Espagnol 

un espanyol 

Spain 

PEspagne f. 

l’espaine 

a Frenchman 

un Franqais 

ung fraungsay 

F ranee 

la France 

lah fraungse 

an Italian 

un ltalien 

un eetalyang 

Italy 

PItalie f. 

l’eetalee 


THE NOUN. 

To form the plural of French nouns, add s to the singular; 
as pere, father, peres, fathers. 

Nouns ending in s, x or z, in the singular, do not vary in the plural; 
as ,pls, son; pis, sons. 

Nouns ending in au or eu add x to form the plural; as, eau, water; 
eaux, waters. 

Nouns in on form their plural regularly, by the addition of s. 

But the following nouns in ou take x to the plural, viz.: bijou , caillou, 
chou, genou, hibou, joujou, pou. 

Nouns ending in al change this termination into aux to form the 
plural; as, cheval, horse ; chevaux, horses. 

But bal, carnaval, regal, and a few others, form their plural reg¬ 
ularly, by the addition of .« to the singular. 

Nouns in ail form their plural regularly, by adding s to the singular. 

The following seven nouns in ail form their plural by changing ail 
into aux, viz.: bail, lease; email, enamel; corail, coral; soupirail, 
air-hole; travail, work; vantail, leaf of the folding-door; ventail, the 
part of a helmet which admits air; vitrail, glass-window. 

Ciel, heaven, has cieux in the plural. CEil, eye, has yeux. A'ieul, 
ancestor, has a'ieux. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

The French adjectives are placed either before or after the 

nouns;as: 

le bon pere, the good father la bonne mere, the good mother 

un bongarqon, a good boy unejeunepile, a young girl 

une table ronde, a round table du last chaad, warm milk. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 


Grand, great plus grand, greater 

petit, small plus petit, smaller 

bon, good mcilleur, better 

mauvais, bad pire, worse 

petit, little moindre, less 

“ Than ” following the comparative is'ahvays translated by “ que: ” 
II est plus poli que son frere —he is more polite than his brother. 


le plus grand, the greatest 
le plus petit, the smallest 
le mcilleur, the best 
le pire, the worst 
le moindre, the least 


NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 


1 un 

2 deux 

3 trois 

4 quatre 

5 cinq 

6 six 

7 sept 

8 knit 
g neuf 

io dix 


ung 

deuh 

trouah 

kahtr 

sahnk 

seece 

set 

wheet 

neuf 

deece 


11 onze 

12 douze 

13 treize 

14 quatorze 

15 quinze 

16 seize 

17 dix-sept 
iS dix-knit 

19 dix-neuf 

20 vingt 


ongz 

dooze 

trayz 

katorz 

kangz 

sayz 

dee-set 

deez-wheet 

deez-neuf 

vahng 


Al 


(d 


CJ 






















\ 




THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 





/ 

95 


21 

vingt-un 

vahnt-ung 

88 quatre-vingt-huit 

clever 


prudent 


prudong 




22 

vingt-deux 


S9 quatre-vingt-neuf 

stupid 


stupide 


stupeed 




23 

vingt-trois 

90 quatre-vingt-dix 

sharp 


aigu 


aygu 




24 

vingt-quatre 

91 quatre-vingt-onze 

blunt 


obtus 


obtu 




25 

vingt-cinq 


92 quatre-vingt-douze 

clean 


propre 


propr 




26 

vingt-six 


93 quatre-vingt-treize 

dirty 


sale 


saal 




27 

vingt-sept 


94 quatre-vingt-quatorze 

hard 


dur 


dure 




28 

vingt-huit 


95 quatre-vingt-quinze 

soft 


mou 


moo 




29 

vingt-neuf 


96 quatre-vingt-seize 

strong 


fort 


fore 




30 

trente 

traunt 

97 quatre-vingt-dix-sept 

weak 


faible 


fabl 




40 

quarante 

karaunt 

9S quatre-vingt-dix-huit 

well 


sain 


sang 




50 

cinquante 

sahnkaunt 

99 quatre-vingt-dix-neuf 

ill 


malade 


malahd 




60 

soixante 

soassaunt 

100 cent saung 

lean 


maigre 


maygr 




70 

soixante-dix 

101 cent-un saunt-ung 

thick 


gros 


gro 




71 

soixante-ome 

no cent dix saung-deece 

fat 


gras 


gra 




72 

soixante-douze 

120 cent vingt saung-vahng 

thin 


mince 


mangce 




73 

soixante-treize 

130 cent trente 

polite 


poll 


polee 




74 

soixante-quatorze 

200 deux cents 

impolite 


malhonnete 


mallonnate 




75 

soixante-quinze 

300 trois cents 

false 


faux 


fo 




76 

soixante-seize 

400 quatre cents 

deep 


profond 


profong 




77 

soixante-dix - sept 

500 cinq cents 

wide 


large 


larj 




73 

soixante - dix-h uit 

600 six cents 

narrow 


itroit 


aytrouah 




79 

soixante - dix -neuf 

700 sept cents 

round 


rond 


rong 




So 

quatre-vingt katr-vahng 

800 hit it cents 

square 


carri 


c array 




Si 

quatre-vingt - un 

900 neuf cents 

short 


court 


coor 






katr-vahnt-ung 

1,000 mille meel 

long 


long 


long 




S2 

quatre- vingt - deux 

2,000 deux mille 

flat 


plat 


pla 




33 

quatre • vingt - trois 

3,000 trois mille 

warm 


chaud 


sho 




34 

quatre-vingt -quatre 

10,000 dix mille 

cold 


froid 


frouah 




ss 

quatre-vingt - cinq 

20,000 vingt mille 

fresh 


frais 


fray 




S6 

quatre-vingt-six 

a million, un million, ung mellyong 

ripe 


mur 


mure 




S 7 

quatre - vingt-sept 


dry 


sec 


sec 








sour 


aigre 


aygr 






ORDINAL 

NUMBERS. 

sweet 


doux 


doo 




The first, 

le premier 

leh premyai 

bitter 


amer 


am are 




44 

second 

le second 

leh zeggong 

hungry 


ajfami 


affammay 




(< 

third 

le troisieme 

leh trouazzeeame 

thirsty 


all ire. 


altayray 




44 

fourth 

le quatrieme 

leh kattreeame 

heavy 


pesant 


pczong 




(1 

5 th 

le cinquieme 

leh sahnkeeame 

light 


liger 


layjai 




M 

6th 

le sixieme 

leh seeceeame 

Wet 


humide 


umeed 




44 

7th 

le septieme 

leh seetteeame 

content 


content 


congtong 




<1 

Sth 

le huitieme 

leh wheeteeame 

happy 


heureux 


eureu 




<< 

9th 

le neuvieme 

leh neuveeame 

gay 


gai 


gay 




44 

10th 

le dixieme 

leh deezeeame 

sad 


triste 


treest 




44 

nth 

I'onzieme 

leh ongzeeame 

useful 


utile 


uteel 




(1 

nth 

le douzieme 

leh doozeeame 

strange 


itrange 


aytraunj 




44 

13th 

le treizibne 

leh traj'zeeame 

pretty 


joli 


jolee 




44 

14 th 

le quatorzieme 

leh kattorzeeame 

ugly 


laid 


lay 




44 

15th 

le quinzieme 

leh kahngzeeame 

dark 


sombre 


sombr 




44 

16th 

le veizieme 

leh sayzeeame 

open 


ouvert 


oovare 




44 

17 th 

le dix-septieme 

leh deessettiame 

disagreeable 


disagreable 


daysagrayabl 



44 

1 Sth 

le dix-huitieme 

leh deez-wheeteeame 

proud 


fier 


feeare 




44 

19th 

le dix• neuvieme 

leh deez-neuvceame 

arrogant 


arrogant 


arrogong 




44 

20th 

le vingtieme 

leh vahnteeame 

cowardly 


lache 


lahsh 




4 ' 

21 St 

le vingt-unieme 

leh vahnt-uneeame 

courageous 


conrageux 


coorrajeu 




44 

30th 

le trentieme 

leh traunteeame 

faithless 


perfide 


pairfced 




44 

40th 

le quarantieme 

leh karaunteeame 

innocent 


innocent 


innosong 




44 

50th 

le cinquantieme 

leh sahnkaunteeame 









44 

60th 

le soixantibne 

leh souahssaunteeame 



tu c Dominiim 





44 

70th 

le soixante-dixieme 

leh souahssaunt-deezeeavne 



1 rlt r HU IM U U IMc 





44 

Soth 

le quatre- vingt it m 

leh kattr-vahnteeame 









44 

90th 

le quatre-vingt-dix 

leh kattr-vahnt-deezeeame 

1 he personal pronouns are as 

follows 







i&me 










44 

1 ooth 

le cenliente 

leh saunteeame 

Je 

(Jeh) 

1 

Nous 

(noo) 

we 



44 

1,000th 

le millieme 

leh milleeame 

tu 

(tu) 

th 0 U 

vous 

(voo) 

you 



the last 

le dernier 

leh dareneeay 

te 

(teh) 

thee 

V011S 

(voo) 

you 







u 

(eel) 

he 

tls 

(eel) 

they 





VOCABULARY 

OE ADJECTIVES. 

elle 

(el) 

she 

elles 

(el) 

they 



Poor 

pauvre 

pohvr 

mot 

(mouah) me 

nous 

(noo) 

us 



rich 

riche 

reesh 

toi 

(touah) 

thee 

lui 

(lwee) 

him 


s 




---- 







\ 


<5 






















a 


S> 



POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 


tno?t 

via 

(mong) 

(mah) 

mv ) 

my ) 

Plural: 

vies 

(may) 

my 

ton 

ta 

(tong) 

(tah) 

thy , 
thy ( 

«( 

tes 

(tay) 

thy 

son 

(song) 

(sah) 

( his j 




his, her, 

sa 

i h„ i 

It 

ses 

(say) 

not re 

(notr) 

our 

ii 

nos 

(no) 

our 

voire 

(votr) 

your 

a 

vos 

(vo) 

your 

leur 

(leur) 

their 

a 

lenrs 

(leur) 

their 


RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 


$>tii 

(kee) 

quoi 

(couah) 

quel 

(kel), le quel ? 


who, which, that 
what, that 

which? que (keh) what? 


THE VERB. 

Before proceeding to study the conjugations of the regular 
verbs, the student must ground himself thoroughly in the irreg¬ 
ular verbs avoir, to have, and Itre, to be, which are designated 
auxiliary verbs because they assist in the conjugation of the 
others. 

THE AUXILIARY VERB “AVOIR”—TO HAVE. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
Avoir, to have. 

Ayant, having. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Past. 

Avoir eu, to have had. 
Eu, had 

Ayant eit, having had. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 


I have 

Present. 

jai 

jay 

thou hast 

lit as 

tu ah 

he has 

il a 

eel ah 

she has 

elle a 

el ah 

we have 

nous az’ons 

nooz avong 

you have 

vous avez 

vooz avai 

they have 

ils (elles) out 

eels ong 

I had 

Imperfect, 
f avals 

javay 

thou hadst 

lit avais 

tu avay 

he had 

il avait 

eel avay 

we had 

nous avions 

vooz aveeong 

you had 

vous aviez 

nooz aveeay 

t hey had 

ils avaient 

eels avay 

I had 

Past Definite. 

j'eus 

jew 

thou hadst 

lu eits 

tu ew 

he had 

il eut 

eel ew 

we had 

nous eumes 

nooz eum 

you had 

vous elites 

vooz eut 

they had 

ils eurent 

eels eur 

I have had 

Perfect, 
j'ai eu 

j ay ew 

thou hast had 

lu as eu 

tu ahz ew 

he has had 

il a eu 

eel ah ew 

she has had 

elle a eu 

el ah ew 

we have had 

nous avons eu 

nooz avongz ew 

you have had 

vous avez eu 

vooz avayz ew 

they have had 

ils ont eu 

eels ont ew 

I had had 

Pluperfect, 
f avais eu 

javayz ew 

thou hast had 

til avais eu 

tu avayz ew 


he had had 

il avait eu 

eel avait ew 

we had had 

nous avions eu 

nooz aveeohngz ew 

you had had 

vous aviez eu 

vooz aveeayz ew 

they had had 

ils avaient eu 

Past Anterior. 

eels avait ew 

I had had 

feuseu 

jeus ew 

thou hadst had 

tu etts eu 

tu eus ew 

he had had 

il eut eu 

eel eut ew 

we had had 

nous eumes eu 

nooz eums ew 

you had had 

vous eules eu 

vooz euts ew 

they had had 

i/s eurent eu 

Future. 

eels eurt ew 

I shall have 

j'aurai 

joray 

thou shalt have 

tu auras 

tu orah 

he shall have 

il aura 

eel orah 

we shall have 

nous aurons 

nooz orong 

you shall have 

vous aitrez 

vooz oray 

they shall have 

ils auront 

Future Anterior. 

eels orong 

I shall have had 

j'aurai eu 

joray ew 

thou shalt have had 

tu auras eu 

tu orahs ew 

he shall have had 

il aura eu 

eel orah ew 

we shall have had 

nous aurons eu 

noos orongz ew 

you shall have had 

vous aurez eu 

vooz orayz ew 

they shall have had ils auront eu 

Conditional Present. 

eels oront ew 

I should have 

j'aura is 

joray 

thou shouldst have 

tu aurais 

tu oray 

he should have 

il aurait 

eel oray 

we should have 

nous aurions 

nooz oreeong 

you should have 

vous auriez 

vooz oreeay 

they should have ils auraient 

Conditional Past. 

eels oray 

I should have had 

f aurais eu 

jorays ew 

thou shouldst have had 

tu aurais eu 

tu orays ew 

he should have had 

il aurait eu 

eel orait ew 

we should have had 

nous aurions eu 

nooz areeongz ew 

you should have had 

vous auriez eu 

vooz oreeayz ew 

they should have had 

ils auraient eu 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

eels orait ew 

Have 

aie 

ay 

let us have 

ayons 

avong 

have (ye) 

ayez 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present . 

ayay 

That I may have 

que f aie 

keh jai 

that thou mayest have 

que tu aies 

keh tu ai 

that he may have 

qu'il ait 

keel ai 

that we may have 

que nous ayons 

keh nooz avong 

that you may have 

que vous ayez 

keh vooz ayay 

that they may have 

qu'ils aient 

Imperfect . 

keels ai 

That I might have 

que f cuss e 

keh jeuss 

that thou migh test have que in eusses 

keh tu euss 

that he might have 

qu'il eut 

keel eu 

that we might have 

que nous eussions 

keh nooz eussvong 

that you might have 

que vous eussiez 

keh vooz eussyay 

that they might have 

qu'ils eussent 

Perfect. 

keels euss 

That I may have had 

que j'aie eu 

keh jai ew 

that thou mayest have 
had 

que tu aies eu 

keh tu aiz ew 


Y- 


\ 


< 5 " 


<£> 



























THE FRENCH LANGUAGE 


97 


that he may have had qu'il ait eu 
that we may have had que nous ayons eu 
that you may have had que vous ayez eu 
thatthey may have had qu’i/s aient eu 


keel ait ew 
keh nooz ayongz ew 
keh vooz ayavz ew 
keels ait ew 


Pluperfect. 

1 hat I might have had que j'eusse ett 
thatthou mightest have que tu eusses eu 
had 

that he might have had qu'il eut eu 
that we might have que nous eussions eu 
had 

that you might have que vous eussiez eu 
had 

that they might have qn'ils eussent eu 
had 


keh jeuss ew 
keh tu euss ew 

keel eut ew 
keh nooz eussvongs 
ew 

keh vooz eussvaz ew 
keels eusst ew 


THE AUXILIARY VERB “EIRE”-TO BE. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Past. 


we had been 
you had been 
they had been 

I shall be 
thou shalt be 
he shall be 
we shall be 
you shall be 
they shall be 

I shall have been 
thou shalt have been 
he shall have been 
we shall have been 
you shall have been 
they shall have been 


nous cumes Hi 
vous elites iti 
il eurent lie 

Future. 

je serai 
tu seras 
il sera 
nous serous 
vous serez 
i/s seront 

Future Anterior, 
faurai Hi 
tu auras Hi 
il aura He 
nous attrons Hi 
vous aurez Hi 
i/s auront He 

Conditional Present. 


Eire (e ttr), to be! Avoir He (avoahr ettav), to have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Etant (ettaung), being. Eli (ettay), been. 

Ayantete (ayaunt ettay) having been. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 


I should be 
thou shouldst be 
he should be 
we should be 
you should be 
they should be 


je serais 
tu serais 
il serait 
nous serious 
vous seriez 
i/s seraient 

Conditional Past. 


I am 

je suis 

jeh swee 

I should have been 

j’aurais Hi 

thou art 

tu es 

tu ay 

thou shouldst have 

tu aitrais iti 

he is 

il est 

eel ay 

been 


she is 

el/e est 

el ay 

he should have been 

il aurait iti 

we are 

nous sommes 

noo som 

we should have been 

nous attrious iti 

you are 

vous Hes 

vooz ait 

you should have been 

vous auriez Hi 

they are 

i/s (dies) son/ 

eel song 

they should have been 

ils auraient iti 


Imperfect. 








IMPERATIVE MOOD 

I was 

j’etais 

j ettay 



thou wert 

tu Hals 

tu ettay 

Re 

soi 

he was 

il Hail 

il ettay 

let us be 

soyons 

we were 

nous itions 

nooz ettyong 

be (ye) 

soyez 

you were 

vous iliez 

vooz ettyay 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

they were 

i/s e/aient 

eels ettay 


Present. 


Past Definite. 


That I may be 

que je sois 

I was 

je fus 

je fu 

that thou mayest be 

que tu sois 

thou wert 

tu fus 

tu fu 

that he may be 

qu’il soil 

he was 

ilfut 

eel fu 

that we may be 

que nous soyons 

we were 

nous fumes 

noo fume 

that you may be 

que vous soyez 

you were 

vous fates 

voo fute 

that they maybe 

qu’i/s soient 

they were 

ils furent 

eel fure 


Imperfect. 


Perfect. 


That I might be 

que je fusse 

I have been 

j'ai ite 

jai ettay 

that thou mightest be 

que tu fusses 

thou hast been 

tu as He 

tu ah ettay 

that he might be 

qu'il Jut 

he has been 

il a iti 

eel ah ettay 

that we might be 

que nous fussions 

she has been 

elle a He 

el ah ettay 

that you might be 

que vous fussiez 

we have been 

nous avons He 

nooz avongz ettay 

that they might be 

qu’i/sfussent 

you have been 

vous avez Hi 

vooz avayz ettay 


Perfect. 

they have been 

ils (el/es) out Hi 

eels ont ettay 






That I may have been 

que j'aie iti 


Pluperfect. 


that chou mayest have 

que tu aies Hi 

I had been 

j'avais ite 

j avayz ettay 

been 


thou hadst been 

tu avais iti 

tu avayz ettay 

that he may have been 

qu'il ait Hi , 

he had been 

il avait iti 

eel avait ettay 

that we may have been 

que nous ayons Hi 

we had been 

nous avions iti 

nooz avyons ettay 

that you may have 

que vous ayez He 

you had been 

vous aviez iti 

vooz avyayz ettay 

been 


they had been 

ils avaient He 

eels avait ettay 

that they may have 

qu'ils aient iti 


Past Anterior. 

been 


I had been 

j'eus iti 

jeuz ettay 


Pluperfect. 

thou hadst been 

tu eus iti 

tu euz ettay 

That I might have 

que j’eusse iti 

he had been 

il eut iti 

eel eut ettav 

been 



nooz eums ettay 
vooz euts ettay 
eels eurt ettay 

je serray 
tu serrah 
eel serrah 
noo serrong 
voo serray 
eel serong 

joray ettay 
tu orahs ettay 
eel orah ettay 
nooz orongz ettay 
vooz orayz ettay 
eels oront ettay 

je serray 
tu serray 
eel serray 
noo serreeong 
voo serreeay 
eel serray 

jorays ettay 
tu orays ettay 

eel orait ettay 
nooz oreeongz ettay 
vooz oreeayz ettay 
eels orait ettay 

souah 

swoiyong 

swoiyay 


keh jeh souah 
keh tu souah 
keel souah 
keh noo swoiyong 
keh voo swoiyay 
keel souah 

I 

keh jeh fusse 
keh tu fusse 
keel fu 

keh noofussvong 
keh voo fussvay 
keelfusse 

keh jai ettay 
keh tu aiz ettay 

keel ait ettay 

keh nooz ayongz ettay 

keh vooz avavz ettay 

keels ait ettav 


keh jeuss ettay 






































9 8 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


que tu eusses did 
qu'il eut dtd 
que nous eussions eld 
que vous eussiez did 
qu'ils eussent die 


keh tu euss ettay 

keel eut ettay 

keh nooz eussyongs 
ettay 

keh vooz eussyaze et¬ 
tay 

keels eusst ettay 


that thou mightest 
have been 

that he might have 
been 

that we might have 
been 

that you might have 
been 

that they might have 
been 

REGULAR VERBS. 

The infinitives of verbs in the French language have the four fol¬ 
lowing terminations: 

er, as in parley, to speak, 

ir, in in Jinir, to finish, 

oir, as in re<;evoir, to receive, 

re, as in vendre, to sell. 

All that precedes this infinitive termination is called the “ root " of 
the verb. 

Verbs which only change their terminations and not their roots are 
called “ Regular Verbs; ” those which change their roots, “ Irregular 
Verbs.” 

Theverbs ending in“o;>” are all irregular, and the French lan guage 
therefore, has in reality only three regular conjugations. 

The First Conjugation ends in "er.” 

The Second Conjugation ends in "ir.” 

The Third Conjugation ends in "oir.” 

The Fourth Conjugation ends in "re.” 

The past participle is formed by adding to the root of the First Con¬ 
jugation an "e,” to that of the second an to the fourth a 

as: 

Parl-er, to speak; parle, spoken 

Fin-ir, to finish; fini, finished. 

Vend-re, to sell; vendu , sold. 

The student may now proceed to the mastery of 

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Past. 

Parley (parlay), to speak. Avoir parld, to have spoken. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Parlant (parlong), speaking. Parld, spoken. 

Ayant parld, having spoken. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


SIMPLE TENSES. 

Absolu. 

I speak. 

Je parle 
tu paries 
il parle 
nous parlous 
vous parlez 
its parlent 

Imperfect. 

I spoke. 

Je par la is 
tu parlais 
il parlait 
nous portions 
vous parliez 
i/s parlaient 


Present. 


jeh pari 
tu pari 
eel pari 
noo parlong 
voo parlay 
eel pari 


Descriptive. 


jeh parlay 
tu parlay 
eel parlay 
noo parlyong 
voo parly ay 
eel parlay 


COMPOUND TENSES. 
Antdrieur. 

I have spoken. 

J’ai parld 
tu as parld 
il a parld 
nous avons parld 
vous avez parld 
ils ontparld 

Pluperfect. 

I had spoken. 

J'avais par/d 
tu avaisparld 
il avail parld 
nous avions parld 
vous aviez parld 
ils avaient parld 


Past Definite. 

I spoke. 

Je parlai 
tu parlas 
ilparla 
nous parlames 
vous parldtes 
ils parldrent 

Future. 

I shall speak. 

Je parlerai 
tu parleras 
il parlera 
nous parlerons 
vous parlerez 
ils parleront 

Present. 

I should speak. 

Je parlcrais 
tu parlerais 
il parlerait 
nous parlerions 
vous parleriez 
ils parleraient 

Present. 

That I may speak. 
§>ueje parle 
que tu paries 
qu’il parle 
que nous parlions 
que vous parliez 
qu'ils parlent 

Imperfect. 

That I might speak. 
£>ueje parlasse 
que tu par/asses 
qu’il parldt 
que nous parlassions 
que vous par/assiez 
qu'ils parlassent 


Narrative. 


jeh parlay 
tu parla 
eel parla 
noo parlahme 
voo parlahte 
eel parlaire 

Future. 


jeh parlerai 
tu parlera 
eel parlera 
noo parlerong 
voo parleray 
eel parlerong 

Conditional. 


jeh parleray 
tu parleray 
eel parleray 
noo parlereeong 
voo parlereeay 
eel parleray 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 


Past Anterior. 

I had spoken. 

J’eus parld 
tu eus parld 
il eut parld 
nous eumesparld 
vous eutes parld 
ils eurent parld 

Future Anterior. 

I shall have spoken. 
J'aurai parld 
tu auras parld 
il aura parld 
nous auronsparld 
vous aurezparld 
ils aurontparle 

Past. 

I should have spoken. 
J’aurais parld 
tu aurais parld 
il aurait parld 
nous aurions parld 
vous auriezparld 
ils auraientparld 


keh jeh pari 
keh tu pari 
keel pari 

keh noo parlyong 
keh voo parly ay 
keel pari 


keh jeh parlass 
keh tu parlass 
keel pariah 
keh noo parlassyong 
keh voo parlassyay 
keel parlass 


Past. 

That I may have spoken. 
uej'aie parld 
que tu aies parld 
qu'il ait parld 
que nous ayons parld 
que vous ayez parld 
qu'ils aient parld 
Pluperfect. 

That I might have spoken. 

Quefeusse parld 
que tu eusses parld 
qui'l eut parld 
que nous eussions parle 
que vous eussiez parld 
qu'ils eussent parld 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Parle (pari), speak thou 

qu'il parle (keel pari), let him speak 


parlous (parlong), let us speak 
parlez (parlay), speak ye 
qu’ils parlent (keel pari), let 
them speak. 


SECOND CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Past. 

Finir (feeneer), to finish. Avoir fini (feenee), to have finished. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Finissant (feeneesong), finishing. Fini, finished. 

Ayant fini, having fin ished. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 


SIMPLE TENSES. 

Absolu . 

I finish. 


Je finis 
tu finis 


jeh feenee 
tu feenee 


COMPOUND TENSES. 

Antdrieur. 

I have finished. 

J’ai fini 
tu as fini 



























THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


99 


ilfinit 

nous Jinis sorts 
vous finissez 
ils finissent 

Imperfect. 

I finished. 
fe finissais 
tu finissais 
il finissait 
nous finissiorts 
vous finissiez 
i/s finissaient 


Past Definite. 

I finished. 
fefinis 
tu finis 
ilfinit 

nous fini tries 
vous finltes 
ils finirent 

Future. 

I shall finish. 
fe finirai 
tu finiras 
ilfinira 
nous finirons 
vousfinirez 
ils finiront 

Present. 

I should finish. 
fe finirais 
tu finirais 
ilfinirait 
nous finirions 
vous finiriez 
ils finiraient 


eel feenee 
noo feeneessong 
voo feeneessay 
eel feeneess 
Descriptive. 


jeh feeneessay 
tu feeneessay 
eel feeneessay 
noo feeneessyong 
voo feeneessyay 
eel feeneessay 

Narrative. 


jeh feenee 
tu feenee 
eel feenee 
noo feeneem 
voo feeneet 
eel feeneer 
Future. 


jeh feeneeray 
tu feeneera 
eel feeneera 
noo feeneerong 
voo feeneeray 
eel feeneerong 

Conditional. 


jeh feeneeray 
tu feeneeray . 
eel feeneeray 
noo feeneereeong 
voo feeneereeay 
eel feeneeray 


il a fini 

nous avons fini 
vous aviezfini 
ils on t fini 

Pluperfect. 

I had finished. 

f’avais fini 
tu avais fini 
il az’ait fini 
nous aviorts fini 
vous aviez fini 
ils avaient fini 

Past Anterior. 

I had finished. 
feus fini 
tu eusfini 
il eut fini 
nous eumesfini 
vous elites fini 
ils eurentfini 

Future Anterior. 

I shall have finished. 

fauraifini 
tu auras fini 
il aura fini 
nous auronsfini 
vous aurez fini 
ils auront fini 

Past. 

I should have finished. 

fauraisfini 
tu aurais fin i 
il aurait fini 
nous aurions fini 
vous auriez fini 
ils auraient fini 


Present. 

That I may finish. 
finite jefinisse 
que tu fittisses 
qu'ilfinisse 
que nous finissiorts 

que vous finissiez 
q’uilfinissent 

Imperfect. 
That I might finish. 

fine je finisse 
que tu finisses 
qu'ilfinit 

que nous finissions 

que vous finissiez 
qu’ils finissent 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Past. 

That I may have finished. 

keh jeh feeneess Slue j'aiefini 

keh tu feeneess que tu aiesfini 

keel feeneess qu'il ait fini 

keh noo feeneessee-y«e nous ayonsfini 
ong 

keh voo feeneesseeay que vous ayezfini 
keel feeneess qu’ils ayentfini 


Pluperfect. 

That I might have finished. 


keh jeh feeneess 
keh tu feeneess 
keel feenee 
keh noo feeneess¬ 
yong 

keh voo feeneessyay 
keel feeneess 


Slue j'eusse fini 
que tu eusse fini 
qu’il eut fini 
que nous eussions fini 

que vous eussiez fini 
qu'ils eussent fini 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Finis (feenee), finish 

qu'il finisse (keel feeneess), 

let him finish 


finissons (feeneessong),let us 
finish 

finissez (feeneessay), finish ye 
qu’ils finissent (keel feeneess), 
let them finish 


THIRD CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Past. 

Recevoir (ressevouahr), to receive. Avoir requ, to have received. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Recevant (ressevong), receiving. Requ( ressu), received. 

Ay ant requ, having received. 


SIMPLE TENSES. 

Absolu. 

I receive. 
fe reqois 
tu reqois 
il reqoit 
nous recevons 
vous recevez 
ils reqoivent 

Imperfect. 

I received. 
fe recevais 
tu recevais 
il recevait 
nous recevions 
vous receviez 
ils recevaient 

Past Definite. 

I received. 
fe requs 
tu requs 
il requt 
nous r eqilmes 
vous requtes 
ils requrent 

Future. 

I shall receive. 
fe recevrai 
tu recevras 
il recevra 
nous recevrons 
vous recez’rez 
ils recez'ront 

Present. 

I should receive. 
fe recevrais 
tu recevrais 
il recevrait 
nous recevrions 
vous recevriez 
ils recevraient 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 


jeh ressouah 
tu ressouah 
eel ressouah 
noo ressevong 
voo ressevay 
eel ressouahve 

Descriptive. 


jeh ressevay 
tu ressevay 
eel ressevay 
noo ressevyong 
voo ressevyav 
eel ressevay 

Narrative. 


jeh ressu 
tu ressu 
eel ressu 
noo ressume 
voo ressute 
eel ressure 

Future. 


jeh ressvray 
tu ressvrah 
eelressvrah 
noo ressvrong 
voo ressvray 
eel ressvrong 

Conditional. 


jeh ressvray 
tu ressvray 
eelressvray 
noo ressvreeong 
voo ressvreeay 
eelressvray 


COMPOUND TENSES. 

Antlrieur. 

I have received. 

f'ai requ 
tu as requ 
it a requ 
nous avons requ 
vous avez requ 
i/s out requ 

Pluperfect. 

I had received. 
f’az’ais requ 
tu avais requ 
il az’ait requ 
nous avions requ 
vous azdez requ 
i/s avaient requ 

Past Anterior. 

I had received. 
feus requ 
tu eus requ 
il eut requ 
nous eumes requ 
vous elites requ 
ils eurent requ 

Future Anterior. 

I shall have received. 

faurai requ 
tu auras recu 
il aura requ 
nous aurons requ 
vous aurez requ 
ils auront requ 

Past. 

I should have received. 

faurais requ 
tu aurais requ 
il aurait requ 
nous aurions requ 
vous auriez requ 
ils auraient requ 


Present. 

That I may receive. 
j |fie je reqoive 
que tu reqoives 
qu’il reqoiz’e 
que nous recezdotts 
que vous receviez 
qu'ils reqoivent 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Past. 

That I may have received. 


keh jeh ressouahve 
keh tu ressouahve 
keel ressouahve 
keh noo ressvyong 
keh voo ressvyav 
keel ressouahve 


j |\ue jaie requ 
que tu aies requ 
qu'il ait requ 
que nous ayons requ 
que oils ayez requ 
qu'ils aient requ 































\ 






IOO 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


Q) 


Imperfect. 

That I might receive. 
S^ue je requsse 
quetu requsses 
qu'il requt 
que nous remissions 
que vous requssiez 
qu’ils requssent 


keh jeh ressuce 
keh tu ressuce 
keelressu 

keh noo ressussyong 
keh voo ressussyay 
keelressusse 


Pluperfect. 

That I might have received. 
fuejeusse requ 
que tu eusses requ 
qu’il eut requ 
que nous eussions requ 
que vous eussiez requ 
qu'ils eussent requ 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Reqois (ressouah), receive thou recevons (ressevong), let us receive 

recevez (ressevay), receive ye 

qu’il reqoive (keel ressouahve), qu'ils reqoivent (keel ressouahve), 
let him receive let them receive 


FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Past. 

Vendre (vaundr), to sell. Avoir vendu, to have sold. 

Participles. 

Vendant (vaundong), selling. Vendu (vaundu), sold. 

Ayant vendu , having sold. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 


SIMPLE TENSES. 

Absolu. 

I sell. 

Je vends 
tu vends 
il vend 
nous vendons 
vous vendez 
ils vendent 

Imperfect. 

I sold. 

Je vendais 
tu vendais 
il vendait 
nous vendions 
vous vendiez 
ils vendaient 

Past Definite. 

I sold. 

Je vendis 
tu vendis 
il vendit 
nous vendimes 
vous vendites 
ils vendirent 

Future. 

I shall sell. 

Je vendrai 
tu vendras 
il vendra 
nous vendrons 
vous vendrez 
ils vendront 


je vong 
tu vong 
eel vong 
noo vaundong 
voo vaunday 
eel vaund 

Descriptive. 


jeh vaunday 
tu vaunday 
eel vaunday 
noo vaundyong 
voo vaundyai 
eel vaunday 

Narrative. 


jeh vaundee 
tu vaundee 
eel vaundee 
noo vaundeem 
voo vaundeet 
eel vaundeer 

Future. 


jeh vaundray 
tu vaundrah 
eel vaundrah 
noo vaundrong 
voo vaundray 
eel vaundrong 


COMPOUND TENSES. 

Antirieur. 

I have sold. 

J’ai vendu 
tu as vendu 
il a vendu 
nous avons vendu 
vous avez vendu 
ils ont vendu 

Pluperfect. 

I had sold. 

J’avais vendu 
tu avals vendu 
il avait vendu 
nous avions vendu 
vous aviez vendu 
ils avaient vendu 

Past Anterior. 

I had sold. 
J'etts vendu 
tu eus vendu 
il eut vendu 
nous eumes vendu 
vous elites vendu 
ils eurent vendu 

Past. 

I shall have sold. 

J'aurai vendu 
tu auras vendu 
il aura vendu 
nous aurons vendu 
vous aurez vendu 
ils auront vendu 


Present. 

I should sell. 

Je vendrais 
tu vendrais 
il vendrait 
nous vendrions 
vons vendriez 
ils vendraient 

Present. 
That I may sell. 

flue je vende 
que tu vendes 
qu’il vende 
que nous vendions 
que vous vendiez 
qu'ils vendent 

Imperfect. 
That I might sell. 
fue je vendisse 
que tu vendisses 
qu’il vendit 
que nous vendissions 

que vous vendissiez 
qu'ils vendissent 


Conditional. 


jeh vaundray 
tu vaundray 
eel vaundray 
noo vaundreeong 
voo vaundreeay 
eel vaundray 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 


keh jeh vaund 
keh tu vaund 
keel vaund 
keh noo vaundyong 
keh voo vaundyay 
keel vaund 


Past. 

I should have sold. 
J’aurais vendu 
tu aurais vendu 
il aurait vendu 
nous aurions vendu 
vous auriez vendu 
ils auraient vendu 

Past. 

That I may have sold. 

f \ue j'aie vendu 
que tu aies vendu 
qu'il ait vendu 
que nous ayons vendu 
que vous ayez vendu 
qu'ils aient vendu 
Pluperfect. 

That I might have sold 

fue j’eusse vendu 
que tu eusses vendu 
qu’il exit vendu 


keh jeh vaundeess 
keh tu vaundeess 
keel vaundee 
keh noo vaundeess- que nous eussions ven - 


yong 


dll 


keh voo vaundeessyay que vous eussiez vendu 
qu'ils eussent vendu 


keel vaundeess 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Vends (vong), sell thou 

qu'il vende (keel vaunde), 

let him sell 


vendons (vaundong), let us sell 
vendez (vaunday), sell ye 
qu’ils vendent (keel vaund), 

let them sell 


VOCABULARY OF VERBS. 


To eat 

manger 

maunj ay 

to drink 

boire 

bouahr 

to be thirsty 

avoir soif 

avouahr souaf 

to be hungry 

avoir faint 

avouahr fang 

to breakfast 

dejeuner 

dayjeunai 

to dine 

diner 

deenai 

to sup 

souper 

soopai 

to serve 

servir 

sareveer 

to carve 

trancher 

traunshai 

to smoke 

fumer 

fumai 

to sneeze 

iternuer 

aytairnuai 

to cough 

tousser 

toossai 

to think 

penser 

paungsai 

to reflect 

rcflechir 

rayflaysheer 

to speak 

farler 

parlai 

to say 

dire 

deer 

to repeat 

rep iter 

raypaytai 

to explain 

diclarer 

dayclarrai 

to be quiet 

se taire 

seh tare 

to chat 

causer 

cosay 

to tell 

raconter 

raccongtai 

to ask 

demander 

demaundai 

to answer 

ripondre 

raypongdr 

to reply 

ripliquer 

rayplcekai 

to be mistaken 

se tromper 

seh trompai 

to object 

objecler 

objectai 

to doubt 

douter 

dootai 

to affirm 

affirmer 

affeermai 

to prove 

prouver 

proovai 

to assure 

assurer 

assurai 

to deny 

nier 

neeai 

to maintain 

soutenir 

sooteneer 

to dispute 

disputcr 

disputai 


V- 


























THE FRENCH LANGUAGE 


7 


IOI 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIATION 

to consent 

consentir 

congsaunteer 

to dress 

s’habiller 

s’abbeelyai 

to approve 

approuver 

approovai 

to draw 

tirer 

teerai 

to praise 

loner 

looai 

to show 

montrer 

mongtrai 

to admire 

admirer 

admeerai 

to present 

presenter 

praysauntai 

to blame 

bldmer 

blahmai 

to take 

prendre 

praundr 

to believe 

croire 

crouahr 

to accept 

accepter 

acceptai 

to know 

savoir 

savouahr 

to refuse 

refuser 

reffusai 

not to know 

ignorer 

eenyorai 

to receive 

recevoir 

ressevouahr 

to imagine 

imaginer 

eemajeenai 

to spoil 

gater 

gahtai 

to compare 

comparer 

compahrai 

to throw 

Jeter 

jettai 

to imitate 

imiter 

eemeetai 

to lose 

perdre 

pairdr 

to forget 

oublier 

oobleeai 

to look for 

chercher 

shairshai 

to remember 

se souvenir 

seh soovenneer 

to find 

trouver 

troovai 

to wish, to will 

vouloir 

voulouahr 

to hide 

cacher 

cashai 

to desire 

dcsirer 

dayseerai 

to cover 

couvrir 

coovreer 

to wish 

souhaiter 

sooaytai 

to uncover 

decouvrir 

daycoovreer 

to love 

aimer 

aimai 

to roast 

rotir 

roteer 

to flatter 

flatter 

flattai 

to boil 

bouillir 

booeelyeer 

to embrace 

embrasser 

aumbrassai 

to weigh 

peser 

pezai 

to hope 

espirer 

espayrai 

to build 

batir 

bahteer 

to rejoice 

rejouir 

rayjooeer 

to sow 

semer 

semmai 

to give 

donner 

donnai 

to pluck 

cueillir 

kileyeer 

to thank 

r entercier 

remmairceeai 

to plant 

planter 

plauntai 

to esteem 

to honor 

estimer 

honorer 

esteemai 

onorai 

to reap 

moissonner 

' mouahssonnai 

to despise 

mepriser 

maypreezai 

VOCABULARY OF 

ADVERBS. 

to hate 

hair 

haeer 

At first 

d’abord 

d’abor 

to offend 

offenser 

offongsai 

previously 

auparavant 

oparravang 

to insult 

insulter 

angsuhltai 

afterwards 

ensuite 

aunsweet 

to quarrel 

quereller 

kerrellai 

together 

ensemble 

aunsaumbl 

to swear 

purer 

jurai 

at last 

enfin 

aunfang 

to punish 

punir 

puneer 

where 

oil 

oo 

to beat 

battre 

batre 

here 

ici 

eesee 

to weep 

pleurer 

pleuhrai 

there 

Id 

lah 

to sigh 

soupirer 

sooperai 

elsewhere 

ailleurs 

aeellyure 

to regret 

regretter 

regrettai 

above 

dessus 

dessu 

to repent 

se repentir 

seh repaunteer 

below 

dessous 

dessoo 

to excuse 

excuser 

excusai 

within 

dedans 

deddong 

to pardon 

pardonner 

pardonnai 

without 

dehors 

dehor 

to revenge 

venger 

vaungjai 

everywhere 

partout 

partoo 

to joke 

railler 

raeelyai 

nowhere 

nulle part 

nule par 

to laugh 

rire 

reer 

up 

en haut 

aung ho 

to live 

vivre 

veevr 

down 

en bas 

aung bah 

to feel 

sentir 

saunteer 

anywhere 

quelque part 

kelkeh par 

to touch 

toucher 

tooshai 

already 

deja 

dayjah 

to taste 

gouter 

gootai 

often 

sou vent 

souvong 

to see 

voir 

vouahr 

sometimes 

quelqucfois 

kelcahfouah 

to hear 

entendre 

auntaundr 

in future 

a I’avenir 

ah l’avneer 

to grow 

croitre 

crouahtr 

always 

toujours 

toojoor 

to go 

aller 

allai 

never 

jamais 

jammay 

to go out 

sortir 

sorteer 

soon 

bientot 

beeangto 

to return 

retourner 

retoornai 

immediately 

aussitot 

osito 

to meet 

renconlrer 

rauncongtrai 

late 

tard 

tar 

to follow 

suivre 

sweevr 

early 

tot 

to 

to run 

courir 

cooreer 

at present 

a present 

ah praysong 

to jump 

sauter 

sotai 

quickly 

vile 

veet 

to fall 

tomber 

tombai 

at once 

tout de suite 

too deh sweet 

to dance 

dattser 

daungsai 

afterwards 

puis 

pwee 

to play 

jouer 

jooai 

yesterday 

hier 

yare 

to ascend 

monter 

mongtai 

yesterday evening 

hier au soir 

yare o souahr 

to descend 

descendre 

dessaundr 

to-day 

aujourd'hui 

ojoordwee 

to sit down 

s'asseoir 

sassouabr 

to-morrow 

demain 

demmang 

to lie down 

secoucher 

seh cooshai 

to-morrow morning 

demain matin 

demmang mattang 

to rest 

se reposer 

seh repozai 

to-morrow evening 

demain soir 

demmang souahr 

to sleep 

dormir 

dormeeer 

day after to-morrow 

ap res -demain 

appray demmang 

to dream 

river 

rayvai 

enough 

asset 

assay 

to awake 

s'eveiller 

sayvailyai 

too much 

trap 

tro 

to get up 

se lever 

seh levvai 

little 

peu 

peuh 
























A 


Tv 


7 


© 


102 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

PRONUNCIA1 

much 

beaucoup 

bocoo 

very 

ires,fort 

tray, fore 

more 

plus 

plu 

less 

moins 

mouang 

at least 

au moins 

o mouang 

thus 

si 

see 

nearly 

presque 

pressk 

about 

environ 

aungveerong 

all 

tout 

too 

altogether 

tout-a-fait 

toot-ah - fay 

only 

settlement 

seuhlmong 

well 

bien 

beeang 

better 

mieux 

meyew 

so much the better 

tant-mieux 

tong meyew 

bad 

mat 

mal 

worse 

pis 

pee 

rather 

plutot 

pluto 

without doubt 

sans doute 

song doot 

indeed 

en effet 

aim effay 

on the contrary 

au contraire 

o congtrare 

scarcely 

a peine 

ah pane 

perhaps 

petit-ttre 

put-aitr 

all at once 

tout-a-coup 

toot-ah-coo 

not at all 

point du tout 

pouangdit too 

not yet 

pas encore 

paz auncore 

nothing 

rien 

reeang 

nothing at all 

riett du tout 

reeang du too 

VOCABULARY OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Or 

OH 

oo 

with, near 

c/tez, attpres 

shay, opray 

near 

pres 

pray 

in, within 

dans, en 

dong, aung 

before 

avanl 

avvong 

behind 

derrie.re 

derreeare 

below 

sous 

soo 

over 

sur 

su re 

against 

vers 

vare 

far from 

loin de 

louang deh 

on the side of 

d cote de 

ah cotay deh 

opposite 

vis-a-vis 

veez-ah-vee 

round about 

aulour de 

otoor deh 

instead of 

au lieu de 

oleeyu deh 

in the midst of 

au milieu de 

o millyu deh 

on this side 

en-deqd de 

aung-dessah de 

on the opposite side 

au-dela de 

o-dellah-deh 

out of 

hors 

hor 

after 

apres 

appray 

with 

avec 

avvec 

since 

depuis 

deppwee 

between 

entre—parmi 

aungtr—p armee 

without 

sans 

song 

for 

pour 

poor 

through, by 

par 

par 

against 

contre 

congtr 

during 

pendant 

paundong 

VOCABULARY OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

either, .or 

OU . . Oil 

oo..oo 

neither, .nor 

ni . .iii 

nee..nee 

also 

aussi 

ossi 

but 

metis 

may 

however 

cependant 

seppaundong 

yet 

pourtant 

poortong 

if 

si 

see 

if not 

si non 

see nong 

if only 

pourvu que 

poorvu keh 

even if 

quand menu r 

kaung meym 


although 

quoique 

couak 

that is 

c* est- a- dire 

sait-ah-deer 

as 

co mine 

comm 

except that 

outre que 

ootr keh 

for 

car 

car 

because 

pareeque 

parsk 

why 

pour quoi 

poorkouah 

and 

et 

ai 

therefore 

ainsi 

angsee 

consequently 

par consequent 

par congsaycong 


ENGLISH. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


CONVERSATION IN FRENCH. 


H AVING by study of the foregoing made himself 
familiar with the salient features of the French gram¬ 
mar, the student will require to learn those niceties 
and elegancies of expression which make the French 
language the most graceful of all spoken tongues. These can 
be largely acquired by learning by heart the following vacabu- 
lary of phrases, which have been collated under different heads 
and thus will be the more readily memorized and more certainly 
retained. 

CONSTANTLY OCCURRING EXPRESSIONS. 


Tell me. 

If you please. 

Have the goodness. 
Yes, sir. 

Yes,Madam. 

Yes, Miss. 

No, sir. 

Will you tell me? 

I thank you. 


Bites-moi. 

S’il vous plait. 

Ayez la bonle. 

Out, Monsieur. 

Oui, Madame. 

Oui, Mademoiselle. 
Mon, Monsieur. 
Voulez vous me dire f 


Deet mouah. 

Seel voo play. 

Aiyai lah bongtai. 
Wee, mosseeu. 

Wee, madamm. 

Wee, madmouazel. 
Nong, mosseeu. 
Voolai voo meh deer. 
Jeh voo remmairsee. 
Parlai-voo aunglai? 
fraunsai? 


fe vous remercte. 

Do you speak English? Parlez z’ous anglais ? 

French? franqais t 

I do not speak French, ye tie parle pasfran - Jeh neh pari pah 

fraunsai. 

Jeh comprong. 

Jeh neh comprongpah. 
Comp rennai -voo. 
Donnai mouah du pang. 

du 


I understand. 

I do not understand. 
Do you understand? 
Give me some bread. 
Bring me some coffee 


Thank you. 

Good morning. 

How do you do? 

Very well. 

I am very well. 

How is your father? 


How is your mother? 

She is not well. 

She is ill. 

He is very ill. 

She has a cold. 

I must go. 

Good-by. 

Farewell. 


qais? 

ye comprends. 

ye ne comprends pas. 

Comprenez-vous ? 

Dotinez moi du pain. 

Apportez-moi du cafe.. Apportai-mouah 
caff ay. 

Merci. Mairsee. 

Bon jour. Bongjoor. 

Comment vous portez Commong voo por* 
vous ? tai voo ? 

Tres-bien. Tray beeang. 

je meporte fort bien. Jeh meh port fore bee¬ 
ang. 

Comment se porte Commong seh port 
monsieur votrepere f mosseeu votr pare? 

Comment se porte Commong seh port 
madame votre mere? maddain votr mare? 

Elle ne se porte pas El neh seh port pah 


bien. 

Elle est mala.de. 

II est bien malade. 
Elle est enrhumie. 
Ilfaut partir. 

Au plaisir. 

Adieu. 


beeang. 

El ai mallad. 

Eel ai beeang mallad. 
El ait aunreemav. 

Eel fo parteer. 

O playzeer. 

Adieu. 












































FT 


■7f 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


103 


ENGLISH. 

Your servant. 

I wish you a good 
morning. 

Good evening. 

Good night. 

I wish you good night. 

My compliments to 
your father. 

I will not fail. 


What! 

Is it possible? 

Who would have be¬ 
lieved it! 

Indeed! 

It is impossible. 

That cannot be. 

I am astonished at it. 

It is incredible. 

I am sorry for it. 

It is a great pit)'. 

It is a great misfor¬ 
tune. 

I am very glad. 

I am very glad of it. 

It gives me great joy. 

I wish you joy. 

I congratulate you 
on it. 


FRENCH. 

Votre serviteur. 
je vous souhaite le 
bon jour. 

Bon soir. 

Bonne nuit. 
ye vous souhaite une 
bonne nuit. 

Saluez monsieur vo¬ 
tre pare de tna part, 
ye n'y manquerai pas. 

SPECULATORY. 

Comment l 
Serait-il possible! 
Qui Vaurait cru! 

En verite! 

Cela est impossible. 
Cela tie se petit pas. 
ye' suis bien itonni. 

C’esl incroyable. 
y'en suisfdchi. 

C'est bien dommage. 
C'est un grand mal- 
heur. 

ye suis bien aise. 
y'en suis fort aise. 
y’en ai bien de la 
joie. 

ye vous felicile. 
ye vous en fais mon 
compliment. 

AGE. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Votr sairveetur. 

Jeh voo sooate leh 
bong joor. 

Bong souar. 

Bon nwee. 

Jeh voo sooate une bon 
nwee. 

Salluai inossieu votr 
pare deh mah par. 

Jeh nee maunkrai pah. 


Commong! 

Serrait-eel posseebl? 
Kee loray cru! 

Ong vereetay. 

Slah ait amposseebl. 
Slah neh seh peu pah. 
Jong swee beean ai- 
tonnai. 

Sait angcrwoyable. 
Jong swee fashai. 

Say beeang dommaje. 
Sait ung grong mal- 
leur. 

Jeh swee beean aze. 

J ong swee fort aze. 

Jon ay beeang deh 
lah jouah. 

Jeh voo faileeseet. 

Jeh vooze ong fay 
mong compleemong. 


How old are you? 

I am twenty-two. 

I shall soon be thirty. 

He looks older. 


Quel age. avez-vous ? Kel ahje avai voo? 
y’ai vingt-deux atis. Jay vang-deuh ong. 
y’ai bientot trente Jay beeangto traunt 
ans. ong. 

IIparaitplus agi. Eel paray pluze ahjai. 

I did not think you ye ne vous croyaispas Jeh neh voo crwoyai 
were so old. si age. pah see ahjai. 


TO ASK QUESTIONS. 


What do you say? 

Do you hear me? 

I don’t speak to you 


Do you 
me? 
Listen. 
Come here. 


Que dites-vous ? Keh deet voo? 

M'entendez-vous ? Mauntaundai-voo? 

Ce n'est pas a vous Snay paz ah voo keh 
que jeparle. jeh pari, 

understand Me comprenez-vous ? Meh comprennay voo? 


What is that? 

Why don’tyou answer? 

What do you mean? 
Don’t you speak 
French? 

Very little, sir. 

Do you know Mr. H.? 

I know him by sight. 

I know him by name. 


Ecoutez. 

Approchez—venez ici. 

Qu'est-ceque cela ? 

Pourquoi ne repondez- 
vouspas? 

Que votilez-vous dire? 

Ne parlez - vous pas 
francais ? 

Bien peu, Monsieur. 

Connaissez-vous Mon¬ 
sieur H. ? 

ye le connais de vue. 

ye le connais de notn. 


What doyoucall that? Commentappelez-vous 
cela ? 


Aicootai. 

Aproshai — Vennaiz 
eessee. 

Case keh sla? 

Poorcouah neh raipon- 
dai voo pah? 

Keh voolai-voo deer? 

Neh parlai voo pah 
fraunsay ? 

Beeang peuh, mossieu. 

Connaissai voo mos¬ 
sieu H.? 

Jeh leh connay deh vu. 

Jeh leh connay deh 
nong. 

Comment applai voo 
sla? 


ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. 

What does that mean ? Qu'est-ce que cela vent Case keh sla veuh deer? 
dire ? 

What is that good for? A quoicela esl-il bon? Ah couah sla ait eel 

bong? 


What o’clock is it? 

It is near eight. 

Light the fire. 

I am going to get up. 
Get me some hot 
water. 

Make haste. 

How have you slept? 

Did you sleep well? 

Very well, thank you. 

Not very well. 

I never woke all night. 


MORNING CHAT. 

Quelle heure esl-il? 

II est pres de huit 
heures. 

Faites du feu. 

fe vais me lever. 

Allez me chercher de 
I’eatt chaude. 

Ne soyez pas long- 
temps. 

Comment avez - vous 
dor mi ? 

Avez-vous bien dormi? 

Tres-bien, je vous re¬ 
nter cie. 

Pas tres-bien. 

y’ai dormit tout d'un 
somme. 

ye n'aipas pu dormir. 


I could not sleep. 

I never closed my eyes, ye n'ai pas fermi I ceil. 


I have been up this 
hour. 

You are an early riser. 
I generally rise early. 


Breakfast is ready. 

Is breakfast ready? 

Come to breakfast. 
That is enough. 

Some rolls. 

Do you drink tea or 
coffee? 

This cream is sour. 
Will you take an egg? 

These eggs are hard. 
Pass me the butter. 

Is the coffee strong 
enough? 

We want more cups. 

Take some more sugar. 

A piece of toast. 

Cold meat. 

The table-cloth. 

The sugar-bowl. 
Chocolate. 

A knife. 

This knife is blunt. 

We have done break¬ 
fast. 

AT 

Show me the bill of 
fare. 

What soup will you 
have? 


Kel eur ait-eel? 

Eel ai pray deh weet 
eur. 

Fate du feuh. 

Jeh vay meh levvai. 

Allai meh shairshai 
deh lo shode. 

Neh swoyai pah long- 
tong. 

Commont avai - voo 
dormee? 

Avai-voo beeang dor¬ 
mee? 

Tray beeang, jeh voo 
remmairsee. 

Pah tray beeang. 

Jay dormee too dung 
som. 

Jeh nai pah pu dor- 
meer. 

Jeh nai pah fairmay 
lile. 

Eel ee ah une eur keh 
jeh meh swee levai. 

Vooz ait matteenal. 

Jeh meh lave ordee- 
naremong deh bon 
eur. 

Leh daijeunay ai pray. 

Leh daijeunay ait eel 
pray? 

Vennay daijeunay. 

Sla ait assay. 

Day pettee pang. 

Prennay-voo du tay 00 
du caffay? 

Set crame sait agree. 

Voolay - voo maunjay 
un uf? 

Saze euf son dure. 

Passay mouah leh beur. 

Leh caffay ait eel assay 
fore? 

Eel noo maunk day 
tass. 

Prenaze auncore du 
suer. 

Une rotee. 

De lah veeaund frouad. 

Lah nap. 

Leh sucreeay. 

Du shocolah. 

Ung cooto. 

Seh cooto neh coop pas. 

Nooz avong feenee deh 
daijeunay. 


II y a une heure que je 
me suis leve. 

Vous eles matinal. 

ye me leve ordinaire- 
ment de bonne heure. 

Le dejeuner est pret. 

Le dejeuner esl-il pret ? 

Venez dejeuner. 

Cela est assez. 

Des pHits pains. 

Prenez-vous du the on 
du cafe ? 

Cette creme s'est agrie. 

Voulez • vous manger 
un ceuf ? 

Ces ceufs son durs. 

Passez-moi le beurre. 

Le cafi est - il assez 
fort ? 

II nous manque des 
lasses. 

Prenez encore du sucre. 

Une rblie. 

De la viande froide. 

La nappe. 

Le sucrier. 

Du chocolat. 

Un couteau. 

Ce couteau ne coupe 
pas. 

Nous avonsfnide de¬ 
jeuner. 

THE DINNER-TABLE. 

Montrez-moila carte. Mongtray mouah lah 
carte. 

Quelle soupe vousser- Kel soup voo sairvee- 
virai-je ? raije. 























104 


THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


ENGLISH. 
Maccaroni soup. 

Have you any roast- 
beef? 

Not to-day. 

We have very fine fish. 

What wines will you 
have? 

Let us see. 

Here is the list. 

We shall d ine at six 
o’clock. 

Be punctual. 

What shall I help you 
to? 

Will you take some 
soup ? 

No, thank you. 
Willingly. 

Help yourself. 

Do you take pepper? 

Potatoes. 

The mustard pot. 

Give me a clean fork. 

Are you hungry? 

I am hungry. 

You don’t eat. 

Are you thirsty? 

I am very thirsty. 

I am dying of thirst. 
Take a glass of wine. 

Give me something to 
drink. 

A cork-screw. 


FRENCH. PRONUNCIATION. 

De la soupe au maca- Deh lah soup o mac¬ 
ro;//. aroni. 

Avez - vous du baeuf Avay-voo du beuf ro- 
roti f tee ? 

Pas aujourd'hui. Paz ojoordwee. 

JVotis avons de tres-bon Nooz avong deh tray- 

poisson. bong pouahssong. 

Quels vins Monsieur Kel vang mossieu day- 
desire-t-il ? zeer-t-eel? 

Voyons. Vwoiyong. 

E)t void la lisle. Ong vwovsee lah leest. 

JVous diner oils a six Noo dcenerons ah 
heures. scece eur. 

Soyez exacte. Swoyaiz exact. 

Que votes serviraije T Keh vos sairveeraije? 


Vonlez- votes ten fete de 
sotepe t 
Merci bien. 

Tres - volontiers. 
Servez-voits. 
Mangez-vous lepoivre? 

Des pommes de terre. 
Le motilardier. 
Donnez-moi tine four- 
chette propre. 
Avez-vousfaint T 
J'aifaim. 

Votes ne rnangez pas. 
Avez-vous soif. 

J’ai bien soif. 

Je meurs de soif. 
Prenez tin verre de viit. 

Donnez-moi a boire. 

Un tire-bouchon. 


Yoolai-vooz ung peu 
deh soup ? 

Mairsee beeang. 

Tray volontyai. 

Sairvai voo. 

Maunjai voo leh pou- 
ahvr. 

Day pom deh tare. 

Leh mootardyai. 

Donnay mouah une 
foorshet propr. 

Avay-voo fang? 

Jay fang. 

Voo neh maunjay pah. 

Avay voo souaf? 

J ay beeang souaf. 

Je meur deh souaf. 

Prennaze ung vair de 
vang. 

Donnay mouah 
bouahr. 

Ung teer booshong 


ah 


TALK AT THE TEA-TABLE. 


Tea is quite ready. Le the est toutprit. 
They are waiting for On votes attend. 
you. 

I am coming. 

Pour out the tea. 

Bring a saucer. 


Me void. 

Versez le the. 

Apportez une soucotepe. 


Ring, if you please. 

A little more milk. 

What will you take? 

A slice of bread and 
butter. 

Hand the plate. 

Will you take some 
cake? 

A small piece. 

Make some toast. 

Make haste. 

This is excellent tea. 
The tea-tray. 

The milk jug. 

A set of tea-things. 
Brown bread. 

White bread. 

Stale bread. 

New bread. 


Sonnez, s’il votes plait. 
Encore un peu de lait. 

£hie prendrez-vous ? 
Une beurree—une tar- 
tine lie beterre. 
Passez V assiette. 
Voulez - vous du ga¬ 
teau ? 

Un petit morceau. 

Pa ties encore des ro- 
ties. 

Depichez-vous. 

Voila d’ excellent the. 
Le cabaret. 

Le pot au tail. 

Un service. 

Du pain bis. 

Du pain b/anc. 

Dti pain rassis. 

Du pain frais. 


Leh tay ai too pray. 
Ong vooz attong. 

Meh vwovsee. 

Vairsay leh tay. 
Apportaze une soo- 
coop. 

Sonnay seel voo play. 
Auncore ung peu deh 
lay. 

Keh praundray voo? 
Une beurray—une tar- 
teen deh beur. 
Passav lassvett. 

Voolay voo du gahto? 

Ung pettee morso. 
Fates auncore day ro- 
tee. 

Daypayshay voo. 
Vwoyla dexcellong tay. 
Leh cabbaray. 

Leh pote o lay. 

Ung sairveece. 

Du pang bee. 

Du pang blong. 

Du pang rassee. 

Du pang fray. 


BED-TIME. 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Eel ai tar. 

Eel nay pah tar. 


ENGLISH. FRENCH. 

It is late. II est tard. 

It is not late. II n'estpas tard. 

It is still early. II est encore de bonne Eel ait auncore deh 

heure. bon eur. 

Are you tired? Etes-vous fatigue. Ait voofateegay? 

Not at all. Point du tout. Pouang du too. 

Not much. Pas beaucoup. Pa bocoo. 

It is only ten. II n’est que dix heures. Eel nay keh deeze eur. 

It is time to go to bed. II est l'heure de secou- Eel ai leur deh sell 

cher. cooshay. 

Ma chambre est - elle M a shaumbr ait e 
prttet prate? 

Allez voir. Allay vouahr. 

Une convert ure de Une coovairture deh 
laine. lane. 

Bon soir. Bong souahr. 

ood Je vous souhaite »»/ Jeh-voo sooate une bon 
bonne tiuit. nwee. 

J’aisommeil. Jay sommail. 

Avez-vous sommeilT Avay-voo sommail? 


Is my room ready? 

Go and see. 

A blanket. 


Good night. 

I wish you a j 
night. 

I am sleepy. 

Are you sleepy? 


THE TIME OF DAY. 

What o’clock is it by Quelle heure est-il a Kel eur ait-eel a votr 
your watch? votre montre f mauntr? 

It has stopped. Elle s'est arretie. El sait arraytai. 

I forgot to wind it up. J’ai oublie de la man- J ay oobleeay deh la 
ter. mauntay. 

Ma montre est en M a mauntr ait an 
avance. avaunce. 

Elleavance. El avaunce. 

Elle est en retard. El ait ong retard. 


My watch is too fast. 

It gains. 

It is too slow. 


It is a quarter of an Elle retarde d'un quart El retard dung kar 


hour too slow. 

It goes right. 

A quarter to eight. 

Midnight. 

Noon. 

A quarter past one. 
Half past four. 


d’heure. deur. 

Elle va bien. El va beeang. 

Unit heures inoins un Wheet eur mouans ung 
quart. kar. 

Minuit. Meenwee. 

Midi. Meedee. 

Une heure et quart. Une eur ai kar. 

Quatre heures et demie. Katr eur ai demmee. 
Twenty minutes to six. Six heures moinsvingt. S e e c e eur mouang 

vang. 

It has just struck nine. Neuf heures viennent Neuv eur veeyen deh 
de sonner. sonnay. 

Ten minutes past Sept heures dix mi- Set eur dee meenute. 
seven. metes. 

Exactly three o’clock. Trois heures justs. Trouaz eur juste. 

The clock is striking. Voila, I'horloge qui Vwoyla lorloje kee son. 
sonne. 

THE PROMENADE. 

Shall we take a little Irons - nous faire ten Eerong noo fare ung 
walk? petit tour ? pettee toor? 

Willingly. De tout mon carter. Deh too mong keur. 

Where shall we go? Par oil irons-nousf Par oo eerong noo? 

On the highroad. Stir la grande route. Sure la graunde root. 

There is a good deal II y fait beaucoiep de Eel ee fay bocoo deh 


of dust. potessiere. 

Into the fields. Dans la campagne. 

They are reaping. On moissonne. 

They are making hay. On fattche I'herbe. 

What a pleasant scent! Quelle odeur dili- 
• dense! 

An abundant harvest. Une moisson (une re- Une mwovssong (une 
colte) abondante. raicolt) abaundaunte. 

Let us cross this field. Traversons ce champ. Travairsong seh shong. 
Which is the way to A. ?Quel est le cheminpour Kel ai leh shemmang 
alter a A. T pour allay ah A? 


poossyare. 

Dong la caumpaine. 
Ong mwoysson. 

On foshe lairbe. 

Kel odeur daileesee- 
yeuse. 


































THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 


io 5 


ENGLISH. 


FRENCH. 


PRONUNCIATION. 


Where does this road Oil conduit Cette route ? Oo condwee set root? 
lead? 

Which way am I to go? De quel cote faut-il que Deh kel cotay fot eel 
f a HU? keh j’aeel? 

Straight before you. Allez droit devant Allay drouah devong 


To the left. 

To the right. 
About a mile. 
Hardly a mile. 
Let us go in. 


vous. 

A gauche. 

A droite. 

Environ un mill,’. 
A peine un mille. 
Rentrons. 


voo. 

Ah goshe. 

Ah drouate. 
Ongveerong ung meel. 
Ah pane ung meel. 
Rauntrong. 


PERSONAL ENQUIRIES. 

Do you know Mr. F.? 


voo mos- 


Connaissez-vous Mott- Connassay 
sieur F.? sieu F.? 

I don’t know anybody yeneconnaispersonne Jeh neh connay pairson 
of that name. de ce nom. deh seh nong. 

I know him. ye le connais. Jeh leh connay. 

Intimately. Intimement. Angteememong. 

I am very intimate ye suis ires-lie avec Jeh swee tray leeay 
with him. lui. avec lwee. 

He is a friend of mine. II esl un de >nes amis. Eel ait ung deh maze 

amee. 

I have known him a ye le connais depuis Jeh leh connay depwee 
long time. longtemps. longtong. 

He is my brother-in- C’est /non beau-frere. Sai mong bo-frare. 
law. 

Do you know him ? Le connaissez-vous ? Leh connaissay-voo. 

I know him very well, ye le connaisparfaite- Jeh leh connay parfate- 


ment. 

Where does he live? Oil demeure-t-il ? 

Close by. Icipres. 

A step or two from A deux pas d'ici. 
here. 

Is it far? Est-ce loin ? 

Can you direct me to Pouvez • vous m’indi- Poovay-voo mandee - 
his house? quer sa maison ? kav sah maisong? 

I will show you where ye vous montrerai oil Jeh voo mauntrerai oo 
he lives. il demeure. eel demmeur. 


mong. 

Oo demmeur-t-eel? 
Eessee pray. 

Ah deu pa deessee. 

Ai-ce louang. 


Spring has come. 

It is still cool. 

The trees are begin¬ 
ning to bud. 

The season is very for¬ 
ward . 

The season is very 
backward. 

Summer is coming. 

It is becoming warm. 

I am very warm. 

It is very warm. 

It is a tine day. 

The heat is unbearable. 

Let us go into the 
shade. 

I think we are going 
to have a storm. 

Summer is over. 

The leaves are begin¬ 
ning to fall. 

The days are still fine. 


THE SEASONS. 

Voilci leprintemps ar¬ 
rive. 

II fait toujours un peu 
frais. 

Les arbres commencent 
a boutonner. 

La saison est bien 
avancee. 

La saison est bien re¬ 
tar dee. 

L'ete approche. 

II commence a, faire 
chaud. 

y'ai bien chaud. 

IIfait tres ■ chaud. 

C’est un beau jour. 

La chaleur est insup¬ 
portable. 

Allons dans l'ombre. 


Vwoila leh prangtongs 
arreevay. 

Eel fay toojoors ung 
peu fray. 

Laiz arbr commaunse 
ah bootonnnay. 

Lah saizon ai beeang 
avaunsay. 

Lah saizon ai beeang 
retarday. 

Lettay approshe. 

Eel commaunse a fare 
sho. 

Jay beeangsho. 

Eel fay tray sho. 

Sait ung bo joor. 

Lah shalleur ait ang- 
supportabl. 

Allong dong lombr. 


fe crois que nous Jeh croah keh nooz 
aurons de I’orage. orong de lorahje. 
Voila l'ete passe. Vwoila lettay passav. 
Lesfeuilles commencent Lay file commaunst a 
atomber. taumbay. 

Les jours sont encore Lay joor sont auncore 
fort beaux. fore bo. 


ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

pronunciation. 

We must soon begin 

II faudra que nous 

Eel fodrah keh nooz 

fires. 

ayons dit feu sous peu. 

ayong du feu soo peu. 

We have had a fire al¬ 

Nous avons deja fait Nooz avong dayjali fay 

ready. 

du feu. 

du feu. 

It is soon dark. 

IIfail bien tot unit. 

Eel fay beeangto nwee. 

It is a fine night. 

11 fait tine belle iiuil. 

Eel fait une bel nwee. 

A dark night. 

Une nuit obscure. 

Une nwee obscure. 

Is it moonlight? 

Fail-il clair de lane ? 

Fait-eel clare dehlune. 

Do you think it will Croyez - vous q u ’ /’/ Crwoiyai - voo keel 

rain ? 

pleuve ? 

pleuv? 

I am afraid so. 

y’en aipeur. 

Jon ai peur. 

It rains. 

II pleut. 

Eel pleu. 

It drizzles. 

II bruine. 

Eel brueene. 

It pours. 

II pleut a, verse. 

Eel pleut a vairse. 

It is very windy. 

IIfait bien du vent. 

Eel fay beeang du vong. 

It is winter. 

No us voilci dans 

Noo vwoila dong lee- 


I’hiver. 

vair. 

It is very cold. 

II fait excessivement 

Eel fait excesseevmong 


froid. 

frouah. 

It is bad weather. 

IIfait mauvais temps. 

Eel fay movay tong. 

Cloudy weather. 

Un temps {pris. 

Ung tong gree. 

It is foggy. 

IIfait du brouillard. 

Eel faj r du brooillar. 

The sky is overcast. 

Le del est pris de tons 

Leh seeyel ai pree deh 


coles. 

too cotay. 

It snows. 

II neige. 

Eel naje. 

It freezes. 

II g'ele. 

Eel jale. 

Can you skate? 

Savez-vous patiner. 

Savay voo pateenay? 

It thaws. 

11 degele. 

Eel daijale. 

Christmas. 

Noel. 

Noel. 

New Year’s day. 

Le jour de Van. 

Le joor deh long. 

Light the fire. 

Allumez le feu. 

Allumay leh feu. 

I am looking for the 

ye cherche les pin¬ 

Jeshairshe lay pangset. 

tongs. 

cettes. 


Are there any coals? 

Y-a-l-il du charbon ? 

Ee at eel du sharbong. 

Tell the servant to Dites a la servante 

Deets ah lah sairvaun 

bring some. 

d’en apporter. 

don opportay. 


GENERAL CONVERSATION 

Can you readl'rench? Foawz-was lire le 


You read very well. 

Do you speak French ? 
I speak it a little. 

I do not understand it. 

How long have you 
learned? 

A short time only, 

You pronounce very 
well. 

You have a very good 
accent. 

Do you understand? 

It is no matter. 

I am come to tell you. 
I don’t think much of 

it. 

No sooner said than 
done. 

I can bear it no longer. 
She took it in bad part. 

I like being here. 

I have been told. 

As much as I can. 

So much the more. 

I value it very much. 


Pouvez-vous lire 
francais ? 

Vous lisez tres-bien. 

Parlez-vous franqais ? 

fe le parle un peu. 

ye ne le comp rends pas. 

Depuis quand I'ap- 
prenez vous ? 

Depuis peu de temps. 

Vous prononcez tres 
bien. 

Vous avez Vaccent 
tr'es-pur. 

Comprenez-vous? 

Ce it’est rien. 

ye viens vous dire. 

ye n'en fat's pas grand 
cas. 

Aussitot dit, aussilot 
fait. 

fe n’en puis plus. 

Elle Va pris en mau- 
vaise part. 

ye me plat's ici. 

On m’a dit. 

Autant qu’ilesl en mot. 

A plus forte raison. 

y’y liens beaucoup. 


Poovay voo leer leh 
fraunsay ? 

Voo leesay tray beeang. 

Parlay voo fraunsay? 

Jeh leh pari ung peu. 

Jeh neh leh comprong 
pah 

Depwee kong lappre- 
nay voo? 

Depwee peu deh tong. 

Voo pronongsay tray 
beeang. 

Vooz avay lacsong tray 
pure. 

Comprenay voo? 

Snay reeang. 

Jeh veeang voo deer. 

Jeh nong fay pah grong 
cah. 

Osseeto dee, osseeto 
fay. 

Jeh nong pwee plu. 

El lah preez on movaze 
par. 

Jeh me plaze eessee. 

Ong mah dee. 

Otong keel ait ong 
mouah. 

Ah plu fort raisong. 

Jee teeang bocoo. 



































o »- -S> 



Io6 SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 



Y)ow to Require emb Fj)oip to practice tfyese ^irts. 


HORT-HAND is the general term applied to 
all styles of brief or rapid writing, as dis¬ 
tinguished from the ordinary writing, or 
long-hand. Numerous systems of abbre¬ 
viated writing under various names, the 
principal of which were “Short-hand” and “Sten¬ 
ography,” have been used and recommended by 
prominent men from the times of Socrates and 
Cicero down to the present day. It is commonly 
conceded that we are indebted for the first system of 
short-hand which has been preserved to the invention 
of Tiro, a freedman of Cicero, in the year 65 B.C., 
although it is recorded that Xenophon, the Greek 
philosopher and historian, used abbreviated charac¬ 
ters for noting down the sayings of Socrates, and 
that these characters were adopted by the Romans 
and reduced by Ennius to a methodical scheme, 
about 150 B.C. Herodotus also informs us that 
traces of abbreviated writing were found among the 
Persians 480 B.C., at the time of the expedition of 
Xerxes into Greece. The Tironian characters were 
used for the preservation of speeches as delivered in 
the Roman Senate. Plutarch says that the oration 
of young Cato of Utica, delivered in the Roman 
Senate on December 5th, 63 B.C., was reported at 
Cicero’s request. In the year 52 B.C., professional 
short-hand writers in Rome are mentioned for the 
first time. 

Besides the use of short-hand by Tiro and his 
pupils in the Roman Senate, Cicero was accompanied 


by Tiro, as short-hand writer, in many of his travels, 
and many of his letters were written from dictation. 
Pliny is represented as never being abroad without 
a short-hand writer at his elbow; and St. Paul dic¬ 
tated to Tychicus, his amanuensis, some of his 
epistles. Under the Emperor Constantine, imperial 
or official reporters were among the court attaches. 
Mention is also made of them in other courts, and 
references to the quality of their work and the inci¬ 
dents connected with it, such as severe punishments 
for betrayal of professional secrets, and misreporting. 
All the facts collected from history clearly indicate 
the practical uses of short-hand as at the present 
time. From the verses of the Latin poet Ausonius, 
written about the year 380, we learn something 
of the manner of writing, in the following words: 
“Fly, young and famous reporter; prepare the 
tablets on which you express, with small dots, whole 
speeches as rapidly as others would trace one single 
word.” 

These early characters were called iiotce non 
liter<2, and the short-hand writers were called notarii. 

1 

They were a numerous and respectable profession, 
including many of the well known names of history, 
such as Cicero, Augustus, Vespasian, Julius Caesar 
and Cassienus. 

Tracing short-hand from these earliest times, we 
find it under the titles of Brachygraphy, Characterie, 
Tachygraphy, Semigraphy, Criptography, Bodio- 
graphy, Zeiglography, Polygraphy, Zeitography, 



<O 
































SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 


Radiography, Thoography and Stenography. The 
last name is still applied to nearly all systems of 
short-hand writing in use on the continent of Eu¬ 
rope. 

By a careful study of the history and characters of 
the systems of short-hand, we find that they were based 
upon the common spelling, or ordinary alphabet, fol¬ 
lowing the ABC order, until 1837, when Isaac Pit¬ 
man, of Bath, England, invented a system of sound¬ 
writing based upon an analysis and philosophical 
arrangement of the different sounds of the English 
language, and in the year 1840 issued a small sheet 
entitled “Phonography; or, Writing by Sound: a 
New and Natural System of Short-hand,” which sold 
for a penny a copy. 

One of these original sheets is in the possession 
of Brown & Holland, of Chicago, who have had pho¬ 
tographic copies made of it. The system of Isaac 
Pitman has passed through many editions, undergone 
frequent changes and improvements, and is now used 
more than any other system in England, although 
several others have been invented and published 
there. 

In the United States, Mr. Pitman’s system was 
republished as early as 1845. I n 1853, Mr. Benn 
Pitman, a brother of Isaac Pitman, who had been 
teaching phonography in England for ten years, 
came to this country and commenced the publica¬ 
tion of phonographic works, which he has carried on 
ever since, at Cincinnati, Ohio. The early and 
continued dissemination of Pitman’s phonography in 
the United States has given to that system the 
advantage of having the largest number of practition¬ 
ers in this country, although many other systems of 
short-hand have been published. Those, however, 
having a phonetic basis have all been derived from, 
or, rather, are imitations of, Pitman’s system. The 
changes made by Isaac Pitman in the various edi¬ 
tions of his phonographic works in England, and by 
Benn Pitman in the various editions of his system in 
the United States, have caused these two systems to 
differ. Benn Pitman’s system, although the oldest 
phonographic system in this country, has kept pace 
with all the recent improvements in the art. In 
illustrating the principles of phonography and its 
uses, in this article, we have selected this system, 
the alphabet of which will be found on this page. 


107 


SHORT-HAND OR PHONOGRAPHIC 
ALPHABET. 


CHAR¬ 

ACTER. 


SOUND. 

CHAR¬ 

ACTER. 

SOUND. 


\ 

p as in 

up. 

)or 0 

s as in 

US. 

\ 

b 

a 

be. 

) or 0 

z 

it 

zone. 

1 

t 

a 

it. 

J 

sh 

it 

wish. 

1 

d 

tt 

do. 

J 

zh 

it 

azure. 

/ 

ch 

a 

each. 

r 

1 

it 

ale. 

/ 

3 

tt 

joy- 

r 

y 

• 

it 

ye. 

— 

k 

tt 

oak. 

*>v 

r 

tt 

row. 

— 

g 

tt 

g°- 


w 

a 

we. 

k. 

f 

tt 

if. 


m 

tt 

me. 

k 

V 

a 

vie. 

- 

n 

tt 

no. 

( 

th 

a 

oath. 

— 

n g 

a 

sing. 

t 

th 

tt 

thy. 


h 

tt 

he. 

1 

e 

a 

me. 

• J 

i 

tt 

it. 

i 

a 

tt 

day. 

• i 

e 

tt 

pet. 

1 

a 

u 

alms. 

«• 

a 

“ 

at. 


a 


all. 

"! 

0 

tt 

on. 

1 

1 

0 

a 

no. 

! 

u 

tt 

up- 

j 

■ 

00 

tt . 

boot. 

j 

00 

tt 

foot. 

V J 

1 

i 

a 

ice. 

a; 

ovv 

tt 

owl. 

1 

1 

oi 

tt 

oil. 

i 

*1 

u 

tt 

use. 


By a careful examination of this alphabet it will be 
seen that the forty sounds of the English language 
are represented in a philosophical arrangement, con¬ 
sisting of twenty-four consonants, twelve vowels and 
four diphthongs. The simplest geometric signs, a 
straight line and a curved line about one-sixth of an 
inch in length, written in four different directions, 
and made light and heavy, furnish sufficiently dis¬ 
tinct characters for the representation of all the 
consonants. A small dot and dash are used to rep¬ 
resent the vowels, being placed in three relative 

































r\ 


108 


SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 


positions to the consonant strokes, and, made light 
and heavy, are adequate for all practical purposes. 
A small angle placed in two positions to the conso¬ 
nants represents the diphthongs. The signs for the 

u, 

Cx 




^ ^ > f \> ^ ^ 






V' 


L 


vowels and diphthongs may be written on either side 
of the consonant stroke. For example, write the 
vertical shaded line d and make the second vowel, 
a heavy dot, on the left-hand side near the middle 
of the letter, for a, which will be read a-d, and 


represents the word aid. Make the same sign d 
and place the second-place vowel a on the opposite 
of right-hand side of the letter near the centre, 
and you have d-a, representing the word day. 
Write the horizontal consonant stroke ?i, and 
make a short dash above the centre of it, thus 
representing o-n , and spelling the word own. 
Write n and put the dash for the vowel o be¬ 
neath it, and you spell the word know. 
This illustrates one of the principal features of 
phonographic writing or sound-writing, repre¬ 
senting only the sounds in words as spoken. 
By the use of the above alphabet any word in 
the English language, and, indeed, in almost 
any other language, may be written much more 
briefly than in ordinary long-hand. By the 
combination of letters, writing all the conso¬ 
nants of a word without lifting the pen, and 
by the use of abbreviating principles, such as 
hooks and circles on the consonants and the 
combining of words into phrases, a speed in 
writing sufficient to keep pace with a rapid 
speaker may be attained. This is termed the 
“ reporting style ” of short-hand, in which the 
appended letter is written. 

TYPE-WRITING. 

It is not probable that any system of short¬ 
hand writing will ever be brought into common 
use and supplant the ordinary handwriting. 
The attainment of this end has been the fond 
delusion of many authors of short-hand systems, 
but years of labor and thought have as yet failed 
to produce such a system. The opinion held 
by some, that no short-hand writer can read 
the writing of another, is not a correct one, as 
there are, at the present time, hundreds of short¬ 
hand writers who read each other’s writing in 
correspondence and in actual work, so that it 
is altogether possible that short-hand may be 
so written by one person as to be read by 
* others. However, in the practical use of the 
art, this question is of little importance, as 
nearly all short-hand writing is transcribed, that 
is, written in ordinary long-hand, by the writer, 
in order to adapt it to the various uses now made 
of it. This transcribing has, in past years, been 
done by the tedious method of long-hand writing, 


kE 


(5 


C) 


























7 ? 


T\ 


SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 


IO9 


(Transcript of shorthand letter on opposite page.) 


Galveston,Texas,July 25,1883. 

Messrs* Brown & Holland, 

50 Dearborn St.,Chicago,Ill. 

Gentlemen, 

■We wish you. would be so kind as to send, 
at once, to R.B.Hawley & Co. Calves,ton, a first-class stenogra¬ 
pher and type-writer,as they have tried everywhere to get one, 
but-are unable to secure the man they want. They are will¬ 
ing to pay $100 . 00 per month,if he is a perfect machine. 

Their business is commission,and of course their correspond¬ 
ence is very large, and it requires a fine operator to take 
the head of the house,as he talks about 200, and sometimes 
above that. 

We have two letters written by young men under your sug¬ 
gest ion,but,from their own statements,we do not think they 
would suit this house. 

We also wish to get a good stenographer for the house of 
Chas.Heidenheimer & Co,,this city. They will pay $80. 00 to 
start on,and if the party suits they will also pay $100, 00 . 
They agree to pay one-half the fare out if the man is as rep¬ 
resented. 

There is a demand for good material here,but Inexperi¬ 
enced persons in either line of business will find nothing 
but disappointment in store for them. 

The latter party must be also an expert type-writer,able 
to write at least 70 words per minute. We have several 

here who do so,and as we have sold nearly every house in the 
trade a type-writer, the demand for first-class stenos and 
type-writers is increasing. 

Please wire at our expense what you will do for us,as 
the parties are waiting on us. 

Hoping you will let us have a prompt reply,we are 

Yours truly 

J. H. Hawley & Co. 


ki 


\ 




V 


c) 


cJl'V 

































no 


SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 


K 


at a speed averaging from twenty to thirty words 
per minute, and requiring five or six times as much 
time to be devoted to transcription as was occupied 
in the taking of a lecture, sermon or other report¬ 
ing. In the present day of rapid business trans¬ 
actions, this slow speed is not satisfactory, and 
necessity, the mother of invention, has urged un¬ 
tiring effort in the direction of improvement, re¬ 
sulting in the type-writer of the present day, which 
within the past ten years has come into extensive 
use for all writing purposes, and especially by the 
reporter in the transcription of his short-hand notes. 
On these machines expert operators have attained a 
speed of from fifty to seventy-five words a minute, 
thus trebling the capacity for work, and with really 
less fatiguing labor. The transcript of the short¬ 
hand letter, given on page 109, illustrates type¬ 
writing in one of its most common uses at the pres¬ 
ent day, that of letter-writing, hundreds of business 
houses, general offices, agencies, etc., having their 
letters written on the type-writer, and obtaining 
thereby a decided gain, in addition to that of the 
amount of work which can be done, in condensation 
of space, and in facility of reading. The hurry of 
business at the present day will not allow the promi¬ 
nent business man to spend hours over badly written 
letters, when he can read type-written letters with 
the facility of ordinary print. 

SHORT-HAND SYSTEMS. 

Every one whose interest has been awakened in 
short-hand, either in its literature or in the art as a 
study, becomes at once interested in short-hand sys¬ 
tems, and it is sometimes an apparently perplexing 
question to choose between the various systems 
claiming the attention of the student or embryo 
reporter. 

It would be difficult to give the number of short¬ 
hand systems which have been invented and pub¬ 
lished, to say nothing of the number which have been 
invented and not published. And it would require 
an extensive volume to give the titles and claims of 
the various systems. Some lately published re¬ 
searches into the history of the art contain very full 
information upon this subject, the extent of which 
is not of so much interest to the person who is about 
to enter upon the study as is a choice between the 

k 


different systems now in use. These may be 
referred to under two heads: the phonographic, or 
sound-writing, systems; and the alphabetic, or ordi¬ 
nary spelling, systems. The latter, which we will 
denominate under the general head of “Stenogra¬ 
phy,” can lay but little claim to the attention of the 
short-hand student of the present day. The choice 
is, therefore, among systems which have a phono¬ 
graphic basis. All of these trace their origin to the 
system of Isaac Pitman, to which reference has 
already been made. And among these we would 
mention as of equal merit the systems of Isaac Pit¬ 
man, Benn Pitman, A. J. Graham, Elias Longley 
and James Munson. 

A choice having been made of one of the above 
systems, and a given time devoted to study by any 
individual, the result in speed of writing attained 
will not vary ten words per minute; but the ease of 
reading what has been written will vary more than 
ten per cent among the writers of these different 
systems. Having selected the Benn Pitman system 
as the basis of illustration, we will give a further 
description of the principles of that system, and 
show the similarity of the systems above named. 

By examination of the consonants as given in the 
alphabet, they will be found to be written in four 
directions, namely: first , sloping obliquely from left 
to right at an angle of forty-five degrees (letters 
sloping in this direction are all written downward, 
and are six: p, b, f, v, r, w); second, in an upright 
or vertical direction, written downward, six : t, d, th, 
the, s, z ; third, sloping from right to left at an angle 
of forty-five degrees, eight letters, five of which are 
written downward, ch, j, sh, zh; and three written 
upward, /, upward r, and h; fourth, in a horizontal 
direction, five letters written from left to right: k, 
g, m, n, ng. These letters, or consonants, when 
joined together, are written in the same direction as 
when standing alone, except /, which, when joined, 
may also be written downward. Observing this rule, 
write t-k, and make the dot for a after the middle of 
the t, representing the word take; and with the same 
consonant outline, t-k, write the first place heavy 
dash, aw, and you spell the work talk. 

In the alphabet given you will notice a small circle 
representing .$• and 2. This circle may be made on 
the beginning or end of any of the consonant signs. 
It is made on the right-hand side of upright and 
































SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 


Ill 


sloping straight consonants. Making it on the right- 
hand side of the letter t, you have represented st, and 
by making the heavy dot for e before the beginning 
of the letter t you spell the word seat. This circle 
is joined on the inside of curved consonants either at 
the beginning or end. Writing the consonant stroke 
n, making the circle at the end, and writing be¬ 
neath the centre of n the dash vowel o you spell the 
words knows or ?iose. This circle is made double its 
usual size, or large, to represent the syllable ses. 
Writing the letter n and making the circle large, 
and writing the vowel o in the same position, under 
the middle of the letter, you spell the word noses. 

In many words of the English language we have 
what is commonly termed a consonantal diphthong 
formed by the letter l ox r immediately following 
one of the other consonants, as in the words play, 
plea , place. This double consonant is represented 
by making a small initial l hook on the right-hand 
side of the letter ; and in such words as pray, pry, 
price, the double-consonant principle is represented 
by making the initial r hook on the left-hand side of 
the letter. When this double consonant of the pr 
series is preceded by s, the hook is made into a 
circle on the left-hand side of upright and sloping 
straight letters, and beneath horizontal straight let¬ 
ters, representing spr, sir, skr, etc. In all other 
cases the circle s preceding double consonants 
should be slightly flattened and made inside of the 
initial hook. A small final hook on any consonant 
represents the letter n. By confining this hook to 
the left-hand side of upright and sloping straight let¬ 
ters, and beneath horizontal straight letters, we 
have the final hook on the right-hand side to 
represent f and v. By making the final hook large 
after any consonant we represent the ending tion. 
The circle s may be added after any one of these 
final hooks by writing the circle inside the hook, 
except with n hooks on straight letters, when the 
hook may be made into a complete circle, being on 
the opposite side from the circle s final. The small 
initial hook for / and r are not used on the letters /, 
upward r, m and n, on which letters a small initial 
hook represents the consonant w. 

Any consonant written half its usual length repre¬ 
sents the addition of t or d, called the halving prin¬ 
ciple, in connection with which all the other 
abbreviating principles may be used. 


By elongating the circle representing s into a loop, 
and making it about half the length of the consonant 
to which it is attached, we 'represent the couplet st 
either at the beginning or end of a word. There 
are a few other abbreviating principles contained in 
the system, but those given are the principal ones, 
and by their application to twenty-one of the single 
consonants we obtain a total of over fifteen hundred 
available derivatives, giving, as a result, a speed in 
writing ranging from one hundred to two hundred 
words per minute, and sufficient for reporting the 
most rapid speakers. 

To illustrate the similarity of the systems named, 
in Isaac Pitman’s the alphabet is like that of Benn 
Pitman’s, as given, except the last three consonants, 
w, y and h, and the reversed position of four of the 
vowels, making the long dot vowels read ah, a, e, 
and the short vowels a, e, i. The abbreviating princi¬ 
ples are the same with the exception of the initial 
hooks on the letters f, v, ith, the. In Graham’s sys¬ 
tem the alphabet is the same throughout as in Benn 
Pitman’s; the abbreviating principles the same ex¬ 
cept the large final hook, which is used on the right- 
hand side of sloping straight letters and above hori¬ 
zontal letters to represent tion, and on the left-hand 
side of upright and sloping straight letters, and be¬ 
low horizontal straight letters to represent tive. 
Some of the initial and final hook principles are also 
applied by Mr. Graham to his vowel word signs 
which are not so used by Benn Pitman. In Mun¬ 
son’s system the consonant alphabet is the same as in 
Benn Pitman’s with the exception of the letter h, 
which is represented by a shaded m. The vowel 
scale is inverted the same as that of Isaac Pitman. 
The abbreviating principles are the same as Benn 
Pitman’s with the exception of the initial hooks on 
the curved letters f v, ith and the, and a large final 
hook on the right-hand side of straight letters repre¬ 
senting the syllable ter. In Longley’s system the 
alphabet is the same as Benn Pitman’s with the ex¬ 
ception of the consonants w,y, h, and an inversion 
of the vowels similar to Isaac Pitman. 

This comparison will serve to prove that very little 
advantage can be claimed by any one of these stand¬ 
ard phonographic systems, in all of which we have 
in the United States many practical short-hand 
writers; and, in truth, there is but one system, that 
of Pitman’s phonography, the others being but slight 


























I I 2 


SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 


variations, or different methods of writing that sys¬ 
tem. Among those who make practical use of short¬ 
hand in the United States, the writers of the above 
systems represent 99-100, and of these the proportion 
using Benn Pitman’s phonography is 52 per cent, 
Graham 23 percent, Munson 10 per cent, Isaac Pit¬ 
man 9 per cent and Longley 6 per cent. 

Some surprise may be expressed as to these pro¬ 
portions, but it will be found upon examination 
that the increased proportion is the result of longer 
use of the system, Benn Pitman’s being the oldest in 
this country, and, being, in fact, Isaac Pitman’s sys¬ 
tem at the time of its introduction here, has the ad¬ 
vantage of old adherents and practitioners. Next in 
order, and without radical changes, is that of Gra¬ 
ham ; next Munson. In order of age Longley would 
come next; but the radical changes recently made 
by Mr. Longley in his system place it, as now used, 
among the younger systems. 

What conclusion will the student of phonography 
draw from the above statements, or in what way 
will they assist him in making a decision or choice 
of the systems to be learned ? Our intention is, 
first, to fortify him in his,choice against the much 
advertised, shorter and easier systems of phonog¬ 
raphy, to be learned, according to the advertise¬ 
ments, almost without effort, or, as one author says, 
“Short-hand written at sight.” We believe that 
such an advertisement bears falsehood upon its face. 
One of the distinctive merits of short-hand writing 
is the difficulty of learning it. If it were as easily 
learned as some authors of systems would have us be¬ 
lieve, according to their representations, a knowl¬ 
edge of the art would be reduced in value more 
than 50 per cent. In the second place, we have 
endeavored to anticipate the extravagant claims 
with which some of the practitioners of various 
systems mislead those who are about to enter upon 
the study; one of them being that one system is 
much briefer in its reporting style than another, 
and therefore can be more rapidly written. As an 
offset to this claim, the result of brevity in writing 
is increased difficulty in reading, and the loss by this 
difficulty more than counterbalances the gain in 
speed of writing; and the tendency of minute 
abbreviations is to put upon the head the work which 
is taken from the hand. 

We believe that in the above statement we have 


given due credit to the various systems in use. The 
further questions entering into the decision of sys¬ 
tem would be the opportunities of assistance in 
practical and long established schools, such as that 
of Brown & Holland, Chicago, or from persons 
using short-hand in a practical way. 

PRACTICAL SHORT-HAND. 

A few years ago, the use of short-hand was be¬ 
lieved to be confined to a favored few, who made 
reports of public speeches, lectures, sermons, etc. 
The reference which we have already made to the 
history of the art shows that its application to busi¬ 
ness is not new. In our own country short-hand has 
been practiced from the earliest times. Without 
referring more lengthily to the former uses of short¬ 
hand, we wish to call attention to its particular uses 
at the present time. The principal of these in the 
United States is reporting the proceedings of Con¬ 
gress. For many years, the speeches, both in the 
Senate and House of Representatives, have been re¬ 
ported by short-hand reporters employed for this pur¬ 
pose, and the daily record of the doings of Congress 
during its sessions is thus preserved complete. 
Each committee of the Senate and House of Repre¬ 
sentatives is allowed the service of a short-hand re¬ 
porter, who is also paid by the Government. In 
nearly all of the State Legislatures during the time 
they are in session, short-hand reporters are em¬ 
ployed, and paid by State appropriation, to report 
the proceedings, which are afterward published in 
pamphlet form. In the majority of the States of the 
Union, stenographic laws are enacted providing for 
the appointment of short-hand reporters in the various 
courts. The salaries earned in this way range 
from twelve hundred to three thousand dollars per 
year. The reporter is required to take in short-hand 
the oral testimony of witnesses and to give briefly 
all objections of counsel and rulings of the Court, in 
the transcript of his notes. In States where no steno¬ 
graphic law has been enacted, in many large cities 
and court districts, general reporters find a fair field 
and make good salaries; but the uncertainties in the 
collection of fees cause variations in the amount 
earned each year. In large cities like Chicago, inde¬ 
pendent or general reporters find plenty to do, court 
or legal work being the most remunerative. Besides 
the work done by official reporters, there are con- 


C) 























SHORT-HAND AND TYPE-WRITING. 




ventions, political and otherwise, that have their pro¬ 
ceedings reported and published. Short-hand re¬ 
porters used to be extensively employed on daily 
newspapers, but of late years there are very few 
papers that constantly employ experienced reporters; 
they prefer to depend upon general reporters in large 
cities when occasions require verbatim reports. 
Many lectures and sermons are thus reported and 
published. 

SHORT-HAND AMANUENSES. 

Not the least in their profession are the large 
army of short-hand amanuenses, whose number 
has increased so rapidly during the last five years, 
and is still growing. Formerly the doctor, the min¬ 
ister, the historian and the lecturer were the only 
persons making use of short-hand for composition; 
but now, in addition to these, short-hand is utilized 
in the correspondence of business houses. 

Since the introduction of short-hand for this 
purpose, the office of the old-time corresponding- 
clerk has almost ceased to exist, and the member of 
a firm who has charge of the correspondence is 
now relieved from the drudgery which used to be en¬ 
tailed upon him by this work, and is able, by the de¬ 
votion of one or two hours daily, to read and answer 
a larger mail than he could formerly by giving the 
greater portion of the day to writing letters in the 
old way. The mode of procedure is usually as fol¬ 
lows : The mail, being received and opened, is read, 
and memorandum of reply made on each letter. All 
letters requiring an immediate answer are attended 
to first, and from fifty to one hundred letters may be 
read and replies dictated in two or three hours. 
The business man, sitting at his desk, takes up a 
letter and talks to his correspondent, while his short¬ 
hand amanuensis takes down his words, indicating 
each letter on his note-book. The short-hand writer 
usually transcribes his short-hand notes rapidly upon 
the type-writer, and is able to write in this way many 
more letters in a day than any person could com¬ 
pose and at the same time write in long-hand. After 
the letters are written, they are usually examined and 
signed by one of the firm, and are then ready for 
mailing. It is scarcely necessary in these days to urge 


7 

“3 


upon any business man the advantage to be de¬ 
rived from the use of short-hand in his business, 
for there is scarcely a man doing any extensive 
business who is not daily in receipt of letters marked 
“ Short-hand Dictation,” and observation will readily 
show him that the firms who employ short-hand 
writers to take letters from dictation are the most 
prosperous in their line of business. A person who 
does not employ a short-hand writer, on going into 
a store or office and hearing the dictation of letters, 
contracts, or other papers, may conclude that such 
dictation is a very easy thing to do. Now, while it 
is easy compared with the writing of letters, it has 
its difficulties. Very few men are as careful in the 
choice of words in conversation as they are in 
written compositions, and a man who has been 
accustomed to writing his own letters may, at first, 
find it difficult to satisfactorily dictate them to a 
short-hand writer, and indeed, were the letters al¬ 
ways transcribed exactly as dictated, they would 
often be found faulty in construction, with gram¬ 
matical errors and verbose expression. In many 
instances the short-hand writer is not only respon¬ 
sible for taking the words exactly as they are 
dictated, but also for the grammar and proper ar¬ 
rangement of the letters when transcribed. But 
business men soon become accustomed to writing 
letters in this way, and dictate systematically and 
correctly. The daily correspondence then becomes 
a pleasant duty. 

The qualifications required of a short-hand reporter 
are varied. Hardly any branch of knowledge could 
be mentioned which would not be of benefit to him. 
The amanuensis must have, besides a general 
knowledge of composition and the grammatical 
construction of language, a thorough knowledge of 
the particular business in which he is employed as 
short-hand writer. A short-hand amanuensis in a 
railroad or other office soon becomes familiar with 
the particular duties of the department or office in 
which he works ; in the wholesale house he becomes 
familiar with the particular kind and importance of 
the business in which he is engaged, and obtains in 
a short time a knowledge of the business which could 
scarcely have been obtained by a clerk in any other 
capacity from years of experience. 




O 
























Q 



BOOK-KEEPING. 


The Two Systems Compared Side by Side. 


be 


may 


exactness 


OOK-KEEPING is the 
art of recording business 
transactions in a system¬ 
atic manner, so that the 
results will be readily ap¬ 
parent, and so that the con¬ 
dition of the business, as 
to its resources and liabil¬ 
ities, losses and gains, 
ascertained with ease and 
A knowledge of the 
science of accounts is necessary to 
all men, no matter in what business 
they may be engaged. It is especially 
valuable as it is demanded in every 
position in life. There are two sys¬ 
tems of Book-keeping, Single Entry 
and Double Entry. The former is 
mainly used where transactions are 
limited to the business of retail dealers, and 
where it is only necessary to record the details 
of purchases and sales for cash or credit. A 
single entry of the account in the Ledger is am¬ 
ple for the purpose of a record. But where 
business is done on a large scale, such as per¬ 
tains to a wholesale house, it becomes necessary 


to have recourse to the more satisfactory though 
more intricate system of Double Entry. Instead 
of making only one entry of a transaction, as 
in the simpler method, two are made—first on 
the Dr. or Cr. side of one account, and again on 
the contrary side of some other account. The 
advantage of this double entry is that the mer¬ 
chant can always inform himself of the exact 
state of each account, and not alone of the 
goods sold, but of what he has on hand, without 
the inconvenience of often taking an account of 
stock. Then again it is a check by which errors 
may be easily detected. 

Books Used in Single Entry. 

In Single Entry only three books are neces¬ 
sary—Cash-Book, Day-Book and Ledger. All 
moneys received or paid out are entered in the 
Cash-Book. If goods are purchased for cash, 
the money being paid away, the entry is made 
on the Cr. side, “ By Merchandise per Day- 
Book.” The cash should be balanced as soon 
after the last day of the month as possible. 

A record of the transactions of each and 
every day in the order in which they take place 
should be entered in the Day-Book. The name 


O 








































































































































































BOOK-KEEPING. 


of the customer is entered in full, with the term 
Dr. or Cr. annexed, according to the nature of 
the transaction—Dr. when goods are sold to 
him, and Cr. when goods are bought or received 
from him. The date of each entry must be in¬ 
serted, and the names and addresses of custom¬ 
ers written in full. Goods purchased or received 
on credit are entered under Cr., and the entry 
preceded by the w r ord “ By.” When goods are 
sold on credit add “Dr.” to the person’s name 
and residence, and begin the entry with the 
word “To.” When abatement for discount or 
short measure is allowed by you, enter the 
person Cr., and when similar allowance is 
made to you, enter the person Dr. 

Every transaction is entered in the Ledger 
from all other books, with certain references, 
indicating the sources from which the items are 
derived. Each customer’s name has a certain 
space allotted to it, in which the goods sold ap¬ 
pear on the Dr. side and the cash received on 
the Cr. side. 

Books Used in Double Entry. 

In Double Entry the principal books used are 
the Day-Book, Cash-Book, Journal and Ledger. 
The first-named book should contain the prin¬ 
cipal transactions occurring in the various stages 
of business. Entries should be fully intelligible, 
from the fact that it contains the greater portion 
of the matter from which the other books are 
made. All transactions in which cash has any 
part must be entered in the Cash-Book at the 
time they occur, in the same manner as other 
entries are made in the Day-Book. In the 
Journal are entered and methodically arranged 
the scattered items of the Cash-Book and Day- 
Book. 

The Ledger is the most important of all the 
books in the series, and into it are transferred 
the entries from the Journal, under their separ¬ 
ate heads. To facilitate the finding of particu¬ 
lar accounts, an index-book is used in connec¬ 
tion with the Ledger, in which the names are 
alphabetically arranged, with the number of the 


“5 


page of the Ledger opposite each. The very 
important fact must not be lost sight of that 
every item is entered twice, once on the Dr. 
side of one account, and once on the Cr. side of 
another account. 

How Entries are Made. 

If a person buys merchandise to the amount 
of $1,000, for which he pays cash, the entry 
would be made as follow's: 


Merchandise, Dr. 

$i,ooojoo 

| 

To Cash 

1 

$x,ooo!oo 


The first entry shows what the merchandise 
has cost him, and the second shows that he has 
paid away cash amounting to $1,000. Accounts 
are opened with Cash, Merchandise, Bills Paya¬ 
ble, Bills Receivable, Interest, Commission, etc., 
in the same manner as personal accounts are 
treated in the Single Entry Ledger, all items 
received or disbursed being debited and credit¬ 
ed to their account. To make it still plainer, 
suppose George Smith sells a quantity of goods 
to Peter Aylmer, and charges him $50 commis¬ 
sion ; the entry would be made in this fashion : 


Peter Aylmer, Dr. 

To Commission 


$50:00 


$50 00 


If the same party owed Aylmer the same sum 
of money and gave him a note for the amount 
with $5.00 interest added, it would be entered 
thus: 


Sundries To Bills Payable 

Peter Aylmer 
Interest 


$5000 

5i°° 


$ 551 °° 


There are two styles of accounts, Real and 
Representative. The latter class embraces such 
as Commission, Interest, etc., and should be deb¬ 
ited and credited for what they cost or pro¬ 
duce. By doing this, when the books are bal¬ 
anced a person can tell at once exactly what 
these representative accounts have cost or pro¬ 
duced. 

How to Detect Errors. 

It is customary among merchants to have a 
set time for the adjustment of their account 


O 





















































BOOK-KEEPING. 



-S' ^ 


~ 7 [ 


books, and for this it is necessary, before tak¬ 
ing a general balance, to prove the posting of 
the Ledger by taking a trial balance. To do 
this the accountant adds all the Dr. sides into 
one sum, and all the Cr. sides into another. 
When the Ledger has been correctly posted 
these two sums will be equal; but if they do 
not balance the cause of the difference must be 
looked up at once. Sometimes a sum is enter¬ 
ed to a different account than the one to which 
it belongs, but on the same side, and the sums 
will still agree. To find such an error as this, 
the Journal and Ledger should be compared by 
two persons, the one reading from the Journal, 
and the other scanning the accounts in the 
Ledger, and checking them when correct. 
W hen a Journal entry is omitted or twice en¬ 
tered in the Ledger, the summing up of the 
latter will not show the error. To find it, how¬ 
ever, it is necessary to foot up the Cash re¬ 
ceived, Cash paid, Bills Receivable, Bills Payable 
and Day-Book entries, and the sum will always 
agree with that side of the Ledger which is cor¬ 
rect, leading easily to the detection of the error. 

How Errors are Made. 

Very frequently errors are made in journal¬ 
izing the subsidiary books and in posting the 
Ledger, such as debiting or crediting one per¬ 
son or account in place of another; omitting 
entries; making the sum too large or too small, 
etc. Immediate attention should be paid to er¬ 
rors of this kind, not by an erasure or interlin¬ 
eation, but an explanatory entry in the Day- 
Book. That is then to be journalized like a 
regular transaction and posted in the Ledger. 
For instance, in the Ledger of May ioth, Rich¬ 
ard Klotz is debited to Bills Payable, but on the 
30th of May it is found that this entry should 
have been posted to John Dobbins’ account. 
John Dobbins is therefore debited to Richard 
Klotz in the Day-Book, and the mistake is 
thereby explained. If any account has been 
overposted, it must be either debited or credited 
for the excess ; and if it has been underposted, 

/ 


a new entry must be made upon the same side 
for the deficiency. When an entry has been 
entirely omitted, it must be made as soon as 
discovered, mentioning when omitted. When 
an entry has been posted twice, it may be cor¬ 
rected by entering the amount on the other side, 
noting the fact of its being twice posted. The 
greatest care should be exercised in mak¬ 
ing original entries, as they are the most 
dangerous of all. Balancing books should not 
be delayed beyond a specified time, for, the 
longer the time, the more difficult the correction 
of an error. Where an account has been under¬ 
paid for a year or so the person may have sub¬ 
sequently died, failed, retired from business, or 
otherwise become inaccessible. Thus a positive 
loss is sustained which might otherwise have 
been avoided. 

Subsidiary Books. 

Among the subsidiary books generally used 
is the Petty Cash-Book, in which a record is 
kept of the various charges incurred in trade, 
too trifling to be entered separately in the Cash- 
Book. This book is balanced monthly, and the 
total amount of expenditures transferred to the 
Cash-Book under the head of Petty Cash. The 
Bill-Book is used in the same manner in Single 
and Double Entry. A separate book should be 
kept for Bills Receivable and Bills Payable. 
When a note is received it should be imme¬ 
diately entered under the head of Bills Receiv¬ 
able and duly numbered; and when a draft is 
accepted, or note paid away, it should be en¬ 
tered as Bills Payable. 

In some cases merchants keep a Cash account 
and Bank account separately. Thus, if they 
have $5,000 on hand in cash and should deposit 
$1,000 of it in the First National Bank, they 
would debit or charge the bank with the amount 
and credit Cash for the amount paid away, and 
when they draw any portion from the bank they 
credit the bank with the amount and debit Cash 
with it; or, if it is paid away to any person, he is 
charged with it. In large establishments the 



























Q 


Bank account is frequently kept in a separ¬ 
ate book. 



THE TWO SYSTEMS. 



'S- 


In the following pages are given three sets of 
accounts, exemplifying thoroughly the theory 
and practice of Single Entry and Double Entry 
Book-keeping. 

Of the Double Entry sets, the first is a very 
simple one, and designed to prepare the student 
for a thorough understanding of the second, in 
which has been introduced the feature of com¬ 
bining the Journal and Day-Book, and which 
also presents two methods of closing the Led¬ 
ger, as will be explained further on. 

The Cash-Book, in Double as well as in Sin¬ 
gle Entry, shows on the debit side all cash re¬ 
ceived and on the credit side the cash paid out, 
and the excess of debit consequently shows the 
exact amount of cash on hand. The form used 
in both systems is the same, with this exception, 
that in Double Entry, where the posting is done 
direct from the Cash-Book, a column is ruled off 
next to the date column to show the folio of the 
Ledger. The balances may be brought down 
weekly, but when the entries are numerous it 
would be better to balance the Cash account 
daily. Money received or paid on account is 
entered in the Cash-Book as well as the Day- 
Book. 

The first and last thing to remember in study¬ 
ing Book-keeping is that 

The thing received is Dr. 

The thing delivered is Cr. 


Or, 


What you owe is Cr. 

What owes you is Dr. 

Debit what costs value. 
Credit what produces value. 


Book-Keeping by Single Entry. 

In the pages immediately following we pre¬ 
sent to the student a set of books kept by Single 
Entry. 

The Day-Book affords a regular daily history 
of every transaction, giving details and particu¬ 
lars. The entries in the book are direct 
and simple, first stating the name of the person 
to be debited or credited on the Ledger, ex¬ 
pressed, respectively, by “Dr.” and “ Cr.,” and 
giving the consideration and amount. These 
entries are transferred under the proper heads 
in the Ledger, which in Single Entry exhibits 
the relation in which persons with whom we 
deal stand to the business. An account in the 
Ledger should be transferred to a new folio be¬ 
fore it crowds upon the one below it. 

The Day-Book and Ledger contain only 
transactions relating to persons. A prudent 
business man, however, will feel the necessity of 
keeping a record of receipts and disbursements 
of cash, the issue and redemption of his own 
notes and the receipt and disposition of the 
notes of others, and for this purpose will keep a 
Cash-Book and a Bill-Book. The Cash-Book is 
here given in full. In view of the thorough ex¬ 
planations appended, the form of the auxiliary 
books is not given. 

The words and figures in italics would in 
practice be entered in red ink, as illustrated in 
the Double Entry sets. 


A TAAT 



kl 


(D 


O 












































S) 


\ 


118 


SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. 


71 


SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. 


Dr. Cash. 


1883. 





Nov. 

I 

To Charles Evans, invested by him 

? S° 

OO 

(( 

<< 

“ Thomas J effers, “ “ “ 

648 

oS 

<< 

3 

“ Edgar Hatch, on f 

60 

OO 




7 SS 

oS 

Nov. 

S 

To Balance on hand from 3d inst. 

674 

98 

<< 

K 

“ 1 Bureau, Mahogany Veneered 

22 

00 

<( 

9 

“ Bills Receivable, Martin Stevens* Note, Evans* favor. 

125 

00 

(< 

10 

“ John Roberts, Arm Chair for Office 

5 

00 



__---- ' 

826 

9s 

Nov. 

12 

To Balance on hand from 10th inst. 

648 

60 

(( 

«( 

“ 1 Pint of Varnish 


So 

<( 

14 

“ Standing Cupboard 


75 

C< 

l6 

“ 1 Reclining Chair 

25 

OO 

<« 

(( 

“ 2 Ottomans 

7 

OO 

U 

17 

“ 1 Walnut Bedstead. 

4 

5 ° 




6S6 

35 

Nov. 

19 

To Balance on hand from 17th inst. 

59 S 

23 

<< 

22 

“' Steamboat Vint Shinkle, part Bill of date 

-—•—' ^ ^ 

ISO 

OO 




748 

23 

Nov. 

26 

To Balance on hand from 24th inst. 

474 

S 3 ~ 

<< 

<< 

“ 2 Mahogany Rocking Chairs Walnut, @ $12.50 

2 S 

OO 

(< 

(« 

“ 2 Walnut Bedsteads, ® 4 - 5 ° 

9 

OO 

<< 

t( 

*« i Doz. Cane-Seat Walnut Chairs 24.00 



(« 

4i 

“ 1 Child’s High Chair 1.25 



it 

it 

“ “ Rocking “ 1.25 

26 

So 

K 

30 

“ Edgar Hatch, in full 

62 

7 S 

U 

ii 

“ Repairing Tables 

2 

38 

<( 

it 

“ “ Chairs 

I 

62 

1SS3. 

Dec. 



602 

08 

I 

To Balance from Nov. 30th, 1883 

471 

9 S 


* 



































































SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOOK. 


71 


119 


SINGLE ENTRY CASH-BOQK. 


Cash. Cr. 


ISS 3 . 


- " - - ■ --... - .' - 



Nov. 

2 

By C. R. George, Bill of Lumber 

$ 75, 60 

44 

3 

“ Bill of Coal 

7 

So 

44 

44 

“ Balance in Bank $650, in Safe $24.98 

674 98 

i 




75s 

oS 

Nov. 

S 

By Joseph Maynes, Bricklayer, Repairs to House 

s> 

So 

4 4 

44 

“ James Wright, Painting House 

22 

OO 

44 

8 

“ Samuel Hudson, in full of £ 

67 

OO 

44 

44 

“ One pair of Pinchers 


33 

44 

10 

“ Wages paid hands 

37 

So 

44 

44 

“ Balance in Bank $620, in Safe $28.60 

648 

do 




826 

9s 

Nov. 

16 

By Samuel Hudson, part Bill of Paints, etc. 

So 

00 

44 

17 

“ Wages paid hands 

35 

12 

44 

44 

“ Balance in Bank $'525.50, in Safe $72.73 

__—--- " ” ” ~ 

598 

23 




6 S 6 

35 

Nov. 

22 

By Bills Payable, Evans’ Note, Smith’s favor, $200.00 





Less Discount from date to Jan. 6th, 1SS3 1.50 

19S 

So 

44 

23 

“ Charles Evans on # 

10 

OO 

44 

44 

“ Bill of Varnish 

13 

So 

44 

44 

“ Gas Bill 

14 

25 

44 

24 

“ Drayage of Furniture 


So 

44 

4 4 

“ Wages paid hands 

36 

65 

44 

44 

“ Balance in Bank $470, in Safe $4.83 

479 

83 




74 S 

!L_ 

Nov. 

27 

By Bill of Veneering 

2 sj 6 o 

44 

29 

“ Thomas Jeffers, on f 

25 °o 

44 

44 

“ Glazing one Light of Glass 


25 

44 

30 

“ Rent of Shop,one month 

40 

00 

44 

44 

“ Wages paid hands 

39 , 2 S 

44 

44 

“ Balance in Bank $460.30 , in Safe $11.48 

47 i 

98 



_____ --- " 

602 

oS 





















































































\ 

120 


SINGLE 

ENTRY DAY-BOOK. 




/ 


SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. 






St. Louis, 

November ist, 1883. 






L.F. 

Charles Evans, Cabinet-Maker, associates with himself Thomas Jeffers—Evans transferring to 
of his resources and liabilities as is mutually agreed upon, and Jeffers investing their 
The parties are to share alike in gains and losses. 

the firm such portion 
equivalent in Cash. 




I 

Charles Evans, 

By Cash invested 

“ Sundry Notes he holds against others, per B.-B. 

“ Bal. of Edgar Hatch’s $ 

“ “ Maurice Perry’s f 

“ Materials and Unfinished work, as per Inventory 
“ Stock of Furniture, “ “ 

“ “ Tools, “ “ 

Cr. 

50.00 

350.00 

55-75 

37-40 

356-50 

210.43 

151.2° 

1,211 

23 


I 

To Sundry Notes he owes, per B.-B. 

“ Bal. due Samuel Hudson, on <f, 

“ “ Richard Kelso & Co., on f 

Dr. 


421.00 

67.00 

75.20 

563 

20 


I 

Thomas Jeffers, 

By Cash invested 


Cr. 


64S 

oS 


I 

Edgar Hatch, 

To Bal. of his due Charles Evans 

44 

Dr. 


55 

75 


I 

Maurice Perry, 

To Bal. of his jf due Charles Evans 

44 

Dr. 


37 

40 


I 

Samuel Hudson, 

By Bal. of Charles Evans’ jtf assumed by us 

44 

Cr. 


67 

00 


I 

Richard Kelso & Co., 

By Bal. of Charles Evans’ assumed by us 


Cr. 


75 

20 


I 

I 

Edgar Hatch, 

To i Hair Cloth Mahogany Sofa 

By Cash on 

3 U 

Cr. 

Dr. 


20 

60 

00 

OO 


I 

Peter Fowler, 

To 9 Mahogany Chairs, Cane-Seats, ® $1.25 
“ 6 “ “ Hair-Cloth Seats, ® 3.00 

“ 2 Cherry Dining Tables, ® 6.00 
“ i Maple French Bedstead 
“ 1 “ Low-Post Bedstead 

44 

Dr. 

11.25 

1S.00 

12.00 

4 - 2 S 

2-75 

4 3 

2 5 


2 

Osmond Ray, 

To 1 doz. Windsor Chairs 

44 I 44 44 44 

44 1 44 44 44 

2 

“ i Spring-Seat Black Walnut Sofa 

o*u 

Dr. 

® $15.00 
“ 10.00 

$12.00 

7 - 5 ° 

5.00 

21.00 

45 

5 ° 


I 

Samuel Hudson, 

To Cash in full 


Dr. 


67 

OO 


1 

Richard Kelso & Co., 

By Bill of Lumber 

To our Note ® 30 da3's in full of their 4 

Dr. 

44 

Cr. 


US 

210 

OO 

20 


I 

Edgar Hatch, 

To 1 Ash Footstool 

44 

Dr. 


1 

5 ° 


2 

Andrew Cummins, 

To 3 Patent Office Chairs ® 5.00 


Dr. 


15 

OO 

z 






• • 

^ 


9 












































































K" 


V. 


SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. 


SINGLE ENTRY DAY-BOOK. 

St. Louis , November 12 th, i88j. 


121 


L.F. 

1 

Edgar Hatch, 

To 1 Red Walnut Dining Table 


Dr. 


40 

2 

Francis Watkins, 

To 2 Children’s Low Chairs, ® $2.00 

13 th 

(( 

TNj. 


4 

2 

John A. Crowe, 

To 3 doz. Windsor Chairs, ® $11.00 
“ 1 Rocking Chair 


r * 

? 33 -oo 

9.00 

4 - 

I 

Edgar Hatch, 

To $ of Osmond Ray, assumed by him 

I5III 

it 

Dr. 


45 

2 

Osmond Ray, 

By transfer of £ to Edgar Hatch 


Cr. 


45 

1 

Samuel Hudson, 

By Bill of Paints, Varnish, etc. 

To Cash in part 

Dr. 

it 

Cr. 


17s 

50 

2 

Francis Watkins, 

To 1 Walnut Book-case 


Dr. 


iS 

2 

Edgar Hatch, 

To 1 Hat-stand, Mahogany Veneered 


Dr. 


IO 

2 

Francis Watkins, 

To Varnishing 1 Table 


Dr. 



2 

Steamboat Vint Shinkle, 

To 3 Mahogany Sofas, @ $15.00 

“ 2 “ Tete-a-Tetes, “ 16.00 

“ 1 “ Rocking Chair 

“ 4 “ Arm Chairs, “ 8.00 

“ 2 doz. “ Chairs, “ 30.00 

“ 14 Cherry Wash-stands, “ 2.00 

“ 14 Looking-glasses, “ 2.00 


Dr. 

$45.00 

32.00 

12.00 

32.00 

60.00 

2S.00 

2S.00 

237 

2 

By Cash in part payment 

Cr. 



150 

I 

Charles Evans, 

To Cash on f 

23d 

it 

Dr. 


10 

2 

A. E. Ford, 

By Bill of Lumber 


Cr. 


96 

2 

Edgar Hatch, 

To 1 Mahogany Bureau, with Glass 


Dr. 


25 

I 

Thomas Jeffers, 

To Cash on i 

it 

Dr. 


25 

2 

John A. Crowe, 

To 1 Mahogany Bureau 


Dr. 


iy 

2 

Francis Watkins, 

To 1 Black Walnut Centre Table 

it 

Dr. 


iS 

2 

John A. Crowe, 

By 1 Mahogany Bureau, returned because it was too large for the room 

it 

Cr. 


19 

2 

Edgar Hatch, 

By his Note (a) 60 days 
“ Cash to Bal. f 


Cr. 

$75.00 

62-75 

137 


So 

So 

26 

00 


So 


40 


75 


c. > 


<0 





































































































I 22 


SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER 


SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. 

Dr. Charles Evans. Cr. 


ISS3. 

Nov. 

<< 

I 

(( 

To Sundries 

“ Net Capital at starting 

I 

563 

048 

20 

08 

ISS3. 

Nov. 

1 

By Sundries 

I 

1,211 

28 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

(( 




1,211 

28 

1883. 

Nov. 

t< 


" 


1,211 

28 

23 

3 ° 

To Cash on f 
“ Net Cap. to New £ 

2 

10 

778 

00 

38 

1 

30 

By Net Cap. brought down 
“ 5 Net Gains 


648 

140 

08 

30 





7SS 

33 

1SS3. 

Dec. 




7S8 

3 S__ 







1 

By Net Cap. from old £ 


77 S 

33 

Dr. 



Thomas Jeffers. 



Cr 


xSS 3. 

Nov. 

<< 

29 

3 ° 

To Cash on £ 

“ Net Cap. to New f 

2 

25 

7 t >3 

00 

38 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

<< 

3 ° 

By Cash invested 
“ 3 Net Gains 

I 

64S 

140 

oS 

30 





7S8 

3S 

1SS3. 

Dec. 




7SS 

3 §_ 







1 

By Net Cap. from old f 


763 

3 S 


Dr. Edgar Hatch. Cr. 


1SS3. 






1SS3. 






Nov. 

I 

To Charles Evans 

I 

55 

75 

Nov. 

3 

By Cash 

I 

60 

00 


3 

“ Sofa 

I 

20 

00 







<< 

9 

“ Footstool 

I 

I 

5 ° 







<< 

12 

“ Dining Table 

2 

40 

00 







(( 

>5 

“ Osmond Ray 

2 

45 

5 ° 









Ain’t to folio 

2 

lt>2 

75 



.— - Ain't to folio 

2 

bo 

00 














Dr. Maurice Perry. Cr. 


iss 3 . 

Nov. 


To Charles Evans 



Dr. 


Samuel Hudson. 


Cr. 


iss 3 . 



' 



1SS3. 


. ... 


] 


Nov. 

S 

To Cash 

I 

67 

00 

Nov. 

1 

By Charles Evans 

I 

67 

OO 

1SS3. 






1SS3. 




1 


Nov. 

l6 

To Cash 

2 

So 

00 

Nov. 

l6 

By Bill of date 

2 

J 75 

26 

<< 

30 

“ Bal. to New $ 


’25 

2 b 



_ 








175 

26 



_______--- 


J 75 

26 







1SS3. 





— 







Dec. 

I 

By Bal. from Old f 


125 

26 


Dr. Richard Kelso & Co. Cr. 


1SS3. 

Nov. 

9 

To Bills Payable 

I 

210 

20 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

I 

9 

By Charles Evans 
“ Bill of date 


I 

I 

75 

135 

20 

00 



______--- 


210 

20 






210 

20 















Dr. Peter Fowler. Cr. 


1SS3. 



Nov. 

5 

To Sundries 


1 4S 25 

























































































































































































































































































3 


**y Q. 


\ 


<2> 


Dr. 


Dr. 


i 1883. 
Nov. 


To Office Chairs 


Dr. 


Dr. 


1SS3. 

Nov. 


IS 

19 

26 


To Am’t from folio 
“ Hat-stand 
“ Bureau 


Dr. 


Dr. 


/ 


SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. 


SINGLE ENTRY LEDGER. 

Osmond Ray. 


Andrew Cummins. 


Francis Watkins. 


Edgar Hatch. 


162 


75 


10 00 
25:00 
197 75 


ISS3. 

Nov. 


30 


By Am’t from folio 
“ Sundries 


Steamboat Vint Shinkle. 


Francis Watkins. 


123 


Cr. 


ISS3. 

Nov. 

5 

To Sundries 

1 45 5 ° 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

13 ^ By Edgar Hatch 

2 

45 

So 












Cr. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

Nov. 

(« 

ii 

13 

l6 

20 

To Children’s Chairs 
“ Book-case 
“ Varnishing 

2 

2 

2 

4 

15 

OO 

OO 

50 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

20 

By Bal. to folio 

2 

19 

50 

19 50 

19 

50 









Dr. 



John A 

. Crowe. 



Cr 


1SS3. 






iss 3 . 






Nov. 

13 

To Sundries 

2 

42 

OO 

Nov. 

30 

By Bureau 

2 

19 

OO 

<( 

29 

“ Bureau 

2 

19 

OO 

<< 

31 

“ Bal. to New f 


42 

OO 





6 l 

OO 





61 

OO 

Dec. 

I 

To Bal. from Old f 


4 2 

OO 








Cr. 


601 

OO 

i 37 j 

75 

197 

75 


Cr. 


iss 3 . 

Nov. 

22 

To Sundries 

2 

237 

00 

ISS3. 

Nov. 

<< 

22 

30 

By Cash 
“ Bal. to New f 

2 

150 

«7 

OO 

OO 

1SS3. 

Dec. 


_______—--- 


237 

OO 





237 00 

I 

To Bal. from Old f 


S7 

00 







Dr. 



A 

. E. 

Ford. 



Cr. 







1SS3. 

Nov. 

23 

By Bill of date 

2 

96 

40 


Cr. 


ISS3. 

Nov. 

(< 

Ck) (0 

O O 

To Bal. from folio 
“ Centre Table 

2 

2 

19^50 

15 °o 

1SS3. 

Nov. 

3 ° 

By Bal. to New f 


34 

SO 

1SS3. 

Dec. 




34 SO 



_______--' 


34 

SO 

I 

To Bal. from Old f 


34J50 









































































































































































































































































BOOK-KEEPING. 



124 


1 



DEDUCTIONS. 


UNSETTLED BALANCES ON THE LEDGER. 


DEBTS DUE THE FIRM. 


DEBTS THE FIRM OWE. 



Maurice Perry 

37 

40 


Samuel Hudson 

125 

26 

Peter Fowler 

4 S 

25 


A. E. Ford 

96 

40 

Andrew Cummins 

15 






John A. Crowe 

42 






Steamboat Vint Shinkle 

87 






Francis Watkins 

34 

So 






264 

iS 



221 

66 


The above Ledger balances, together with the auxiliary books, furnish the material for the following statement: 


ASSETS AND LIABILITIES. 


ASSETS. 

LIABILITIES. 

Cash on hand per C.-B. 

47 i 

9 S 

Debts the firm owe per Ledger 

22. 

66 

Debts due the firm per Ledger 

264 

iS 

Bills Payable per B.-B. 

431 

20 

Bills Receivable per B.-B. 

300 





Furniture per Invt. Book 

776 

75 




Materials, etc., per Invt. Book 

239 

79 




Tools, per Invt. Book 

141 

95 




Total assets 

2,194 

62 

Total liabilities 

652 

S6 

Deduct liabilities 

652 

86 




Firm’s net capital or present worth 

% 

1. 54 i 

76 





ASSETS, INCLUDING PARTNERS’ DEBITS. 


LIABILITIES, INCLUDING PARTNERS’ INVESTMENTS. 

Total assets per above statement 

2,194 

62 

Total liabilities per above statement 

652 

S6 

Cash paid Charles Evans 

10 


Charles Evans’ investment 

64S 

oS 

“ Thomas Jeffers 

25 


Thomas Jeffers’ investment 

64S 

oS 

Deduct 

Firm’s net gains 

Each partner’s >£ = $140.30. 

2,229 

i ,949 

2S0 

62 

02 

60 


1.949 

02 



V- 


\ 


—a 


































































































£ 

o 



Abbreviations are used to express facts definitely and clearly, 
and at the same time save labor and space. 

dwt.—Pennyweight. 


®.—At; to. 

Acct.—Account. 

Apr.—April. 

Asstd.—Assorted. 

Aug.—August. 

A. D.—The year of our Lord. 
Amt.—Amount. 

Ans.—Answer. 

B. B.—Bill-Book. 

Bal.—Balance. 

B. Kec.—Bills Receivable. 

B. Pay.—Bills Payable, 
brl. or bbl.—Barrel. 

Bo’t.—Bought. 

Bro’t. or brot.—Brought. 

bu.—Bushels. 

bgs.—Bags. 

bdls.—Bundles. 

bis.—Bales. 

B. O. or b.o.—Buyer’s option, 
bxs.—Boxes. 

—Cents. 

C. B.—Cash-Book. 

Cap.—Capital, 
chts.—Chests. 

cks.—Casks, checks. 

Chgd.—Charged. 

Co.—Company. 

C.O.D.—Collect on delivery. 
Com.—Commission. 

Cons’t.—Consignment. 

Cr.—Creditor, 
cs.—Cases. 

Cvvt.—Hundredweight, 
d.—Pence. 

Dec.—December, 
do.—The same (ditto). 

Dep.—Deposit. 

Dft.—Draft. 

Dis.—Discount, 
doz.—Dozen. 

Dr.—Debtor, 
d’s.—Days. 


ea.—Each. 

E.E.—Errors excepted. 

Exch.—Exchange. 

E.&O.E. —Errors and omis¬ 
sions excepted, 
emb’d.—Embroidered. 

Eng.—English. 

Ex.—Example. 

Exp.—Expense or expenses, 
fav.—Favor. 

Feb.—February, 
fig’d.—Figured. 

For’d.—Fonvard. 

fol.—Folio. 

frt.—Freight. 

fr.—Francs. 

ft.—Feet. 

gal.—Gallon. 

gr.—Grain or Gross. 

hf.—Half. 

hhd.—Hogshead. 

Ins.—Insurance. 

I.B.—Invoice-Book. 

inst.—Instant (present month). 

int.—Interest. 

inv.—Invoice, inventory. 

I. O.U.—I owe you. 

J. —Journal. 

J an.—J anuary. 
lbs.—Pounds. 

Led.—Ledger 

L. F.—Ledger Folio. 

M. —One thousand, 
m/a.—Month after date. 

Mar.—March. 

Mdse.—Merchandise 
mo.—Month. 

MS.—Manuscript. 

MSS.—Manuscripts. 

N. B.—Note-Book. Take par¬ 

ticular notice (Nola bene). 


No.—Number. 

Nov.—November. 

N. P.—Notary Public. 

Oct.—Oct. 

O. I.B.—Outward Invoice-Book, 
oz.—Ounce, ounces. 

p.—Page, 
pp.—Pages. 

P. B.—Pass-Book, 
pay’t.—Payment. 

Pd.—Paid. 

pr.—Pair, 
pcs.—Pieces, 
pun.—Puncheon, 
pts.—Pints, 
prem.—Premium, 
qr.—Quarter, 
qts.—Quarts. 

R.R.—Railroad. 

Rec’d or rec’d.—Received, 
rec’t.—Receipt. 

Sept.—September. 

Sh.—Ship. 

Sunds.—Sundries. 

Schr.—Schooner. 

Shpt.—Shipment. 


S.O. ors.o.—Seller’s option. 
Str.—Steamer. 

Treas.—Treasurer. 

Treas’y.—Treasury. 

tcs.—Tierces. 

ult.—ultimo (last month). 

U.S.—United States. 

yds.—Yards. 

yr.—Year. 

SIGNS. 

$ Dollars. 

<P Cent. 

“ Ditto (the same). 

£ Pound. 
t Per cent. 
f Account. 

)jf Number. 

-j- Sign of addition. 

— Sign of subtraction. 

X Sign of multiplication. 
-4- Sign of division. 

= Sign of equality. 
i 1 One and one-fourth, 
i’ One and two-fourths. 

1 3 One and three-fourths. 


Capital Letters. 

In beginning such words as the following it is customary to use 
capital letters: 

The names of articles of merchandise; such as Wheat, Rye, Silk, 
Cotton, Horses, Wagons, etc. 

Money: One Thousand Dollars. 

Periods of time: Five Days, Four Months. 

Names of all places of business: Store, Warehouse. 

“Four hundred dollars and fifty cents ” should be written on checks, 
drafts, notes, etc.: “Four Hundred and 50-100 Dollars.’’ Cents are 
always written as fractional parts of dollars, except when the price of 
an article is less than a dollar, when the number of cents is expressed 
and the character <p generally used. 



1 / 


JS 




(5 












































r t jJ, j HE distinguishing feature of Double Entry 
is in carrying out a mathematical principle 
of equilibrium, under the titles of debtor and cred¬ 
itor, or debits and credits. To preserve this 
equilibrium, every debit must have a credit or 
credits to balance the amount, and, vice-versa, 
every credit must be balanced equally by a 
debit or debits. In Single Entry a record is kept 
of resources and liabilities only; in Double En¬ 
try is added a record of gains and losses. 

The Day-Book is the original book of entry 
and should contain in a concise and unequivocal 
form a consecutive history of transactions, in 
the order and on the date of their occurrence. 

The purpose of the Journal is to decide upon 
the proper debits and credits in each transac¬ 
tion, preparatary to entering them- in the Led¬ 
ger. The process of thus classifying transac¬ 
tions by debits and credits is called journalizing. 
Very often the Day-Book and Journal are com¬ 
bined in a “Journal Day-Book,’’ as in Set II. 

The Ledger is the final book of entry, and in 
it are arranged, under the proper accounts, all 
facts necessary for a full statement of the busi¬ 
ness. Each of these accounts exhibits one 
of the four following results, viz.: A resource, 
a liability, a loss, or a gain. The process of 
transferring accounts from the Journal to the 
Ledger is called posting. 


To close an accou?it in the Ledger, add the 
debit and credit sides separately on a slip of 
paper, and, if the totals thus obtained are not 
equal, subtract the smaller from the greater. 
This difference is entered in red ink to make up 
the deficiency of the smaller side. Then rule 
with red ink and enter the totals in black. The 
red ink entry is then transferred in black to the 
opposite side of the account into which it is 
closed. When both columns are equal the to¬ 
tals are simply entered in black, and this indi¬ 
cates that the account is cancelled. When there 
are more entries on one side of an account than 
on the other, a line is drawn, after closing the 
account, obliquely across the vacant space. 
This line commences at a double rule opposite 
the double rule under the totals, and extends 
thence in the direction of the last figure in the 
column. 

The Key to Journalizing. 

Remember that the key to all journalizing is 
stated in the two old lines which the student 
would do well to memorize : 

“By Journal laws what you receive 
Is Dr. made to what you give.” 

By referring constantly to this rule and ex¬ 
amining each entry in the Journal or Journal 
Day-Book by its light, the whole mystery 
of Double Entry Book-keeping will become 
clear. 


Li 



































BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 


127 




THE PRINCIPLES. 


P 


An account is a statement of facts and figures 
relating to some person, property or cause, so 
arranged as to show a specific result. As stated 
on a preceding page, there are two classes of 
accounts, Real and Representative. In other 
terms, accounts showing resources and liabilities, 
and accounts showing losses and gains. The for¬ 
mer are closed “To Balance” or “By Balance,” 
and the latter “To Loss and Gain ” or “ By Loss 
and Gain.” Some accountants use the words 
“ Profit and Loss,” instead of “ Loss and Gain.” 

The following rules, embodying the principles 
of Double Entry Book-keeping, will be found 
to cover in a concise form all points which gen¬ 
erally confuse the student groping through a 
voluminous treatise: 

The proprietor or th & partners in a business should be cred¬ 
ited for all investments and for the gain or share of the gain, 
and debited for liabilities assumed, for all sums withdrawn from 
the business and for the loss or share of the loss incurred. 
Where there is only one proprietor he is represented on the 
books by Stock, but in a partnership business each partner’s ac¬ 
count is kept under his own name. The Stock account and 
partners’ accounts are closed “To Balance” or “ By Balance.” 

The Cash account is credited for all disbursements and 
debited for all receipts of cash. It always closes “By Balance.” 

A Bank account shows on the debit side the amount deposit¬ 
ed, and on the credit side the amount withdrawn, and closes 
“ By Balance,” unless the account is overdrawn. 

The Merchandise account is credited with the proceeds and 
debited with the cost of merchandise on hand at commencing 
and purchased in the course of business. When the merchan¬ 
dise has all been sold, as in Set I., the difference between the 
sides will show a gain if the credit side is the greater, and a loss 
if the debit side preponderates. Real estate, personal property 
and speculative accounts come under this rule. 

The Bills Receivable account is credited when the notes, 
acceptances or obligations of others are disposed of or paid, 
and debited when such obligations are acquired. This account 
always closes “ By Balance.” 

The Bills Payable account is credited when notes, etc., of 
the firm or business are issued, and debited when they are paid 
or redeemed. It always closes “To Balance.” 

Personal accounts, including the names of persons, banks 
and corporations or institutions competent to sue or be sued, 
are credited when we become indebted to them or they get out 
of our debt, and debited when they become indebted to us or 
we get out of their debt. These accounts are closed “ By Bal¬ 
ance” or “To Balance.” 


The Expense account is debited for liabilities incurred and 
cash paid out for which no direct return is expected — such as 
salaries, rent, etc. This account closes “ By Loss and Gain.” 

The Loss and Gain account is debited with losses and credit¬ 
ed with gains, and closes “To Stock” or “By Stock.” 

Under the head of Interest and Discount are debited and 
credited all allowances for the use of money on notes, drafts, 
etc. Credit the account when it produces value; debit the ac¬ 
count when it costs value. This account closes “ To Loss and 
Gain” or “ By Loss and Gain.” 

SET I. 

By way of initiation into the principles and 
practice of Double Entry Book-keeping we 
present in Set I. the record of simple business 
transactions. It will be observed that all trans¬ 
actions are first entered, in the order of their 
occurrence, in the Day-Book, from which they 
are transferred to the Journal, or journalized, 
and thence they are posted to the Ledger. The 
established form of Journal entries requires the 
debit expression to precede the credit. There¬ 
fore, in applying the preceding principles to the 
first entry in the Day-Book, using the word 
Stock to denote the proprietor, we have as our 
first Journal entry, “ Cash, Dr., to Stock, $2,- 
OOO.” When one person or account is indebted 
to another in a certain sum, the latter is the 
creditor of the former to the same amount. This 
is the foundation of Double Entry Book-keep¬ 
ing, the most important characteristic of which 
we now encounter in transferring the first trans¬ 
action to the Ledger, where it will be doubly 
entered, on the Dr. side of the Cash account, 
and on the Cr. side of the Stock account. 

The check-mark (p/) in the Day-Book is to 
indicate that the transaction has been carried to 
the Journal, and the figure in the first column of 
the Journal shows the page of the Ledger to 
which the account is posted. The number in 
the Ledger column immediately preceding the 
amount refers, in turn, to the Journal page. 

How to Close the Ledger. 

The purpose of closing the Ledger is to show 
the state of each account in a single amount, 
to do away with the unused accounts, and to 
ascertain clearly the general results of the busi- 









































© 






128 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 


ness. In this process all the losses and gains are 
gathered together in the Loss and Gain account, 
and there compared, the gains being placed upon 
the credit, and losses on the debit side. When 
the credit side is the greater the account is closed 
“To Stock” and shows a net gain. The oppo¬ 
site entry, “By Loss and Gain,” is made in the 
Stock account and increases the capital. When 
the debit side is the greater, the account shows a 
net loss and is closed “ By Stock,” and the op¬ 
posite entry in the Stock account, “To Loss 
and Gain,” indicates a decrease in capital. 

The first step in closing the Ledger is to take a Trial Balance, 
that is, to make a systematic arrangement of the Ledger accounts, 
with their proper debit and credit totals and differences. If the 
Ledger is correct, the total debits will equal the total credits. 

The next thing in order is to ascertain by an inventory the 
value of all goods and property unsold and credit the amounts 
in red ink to the proper accounts, “By Balance, Inventory.” 
The opposite entry is afterwards made on the debit side of the 
Balance account in black ink. Thus, if the Merchandise ac¬ 
count has in red ink the entry, “ By Balance, Inventory, $1,600,” 
the corresponding entry in black in the Balance account will 
read, “To Mdse., $1,600.” In Set I. the entire stock is sup¬ 
posed to have been sold, and consequently no entry of this kind 
will be found. 

Now a Loss and Gain account is opened, if this has 
not been done previously, and also a Balance account. 
In the first are to be entered in black ink all accounts closing 
“To Loss and Gain” or “By Loss and Gain,” showing the 
profit and loss on each account. In the second are to be enter¬ 
ed all accounts closing “To Balance” or “By Balance,” show¬ 
ing the resources and liabilities. 

Close first all accounts to which inventory balances have been 
carried. The differences between the sides of these accounts 
will show gain or loss, and the closing entry, in red ink, will 
express the difference—“By Loss and Gain” or “To Loss and 
Gain.” 

Having finished these accounts, the other accounts in the Led¬ 
ger, excepting Stock and partners’ accounts, are closed in red 
ink—“To” or “By Loss and Gain,” or “To ” or “By Bal¬ 
ance.” 

The “Loss and Gain” and “Balance ” red ink entries are 
now carried in black ink to the opposite sides of the Loss and 
Gain and Balance accounts. 

The Loss and Gain account is now closed, in red ink, “To 
Stock ” or “ By Stock.” In a partnership business each partner 
is credited or debited with his share. 

The process of closing the Ledger is now completed by tak¬ 
ing the difference between the sides of the Stock account and 
entering in red ink “To Balance ” or “ By Balance,” which is 
transferred in black to the Balance account. 


Balance Sheets. 

The balance sheet given for Set II. is the most condensed 
form for a partnership business. The style and symmetry 
will commend it to all accountants, while the fulness of the 
illustrations must satisfy all. The form has been used for a long 
time, but has never been adopted to any great extent by busi¬ 
ness men, the objection being its inadequacy to contain long 
lists of personal accounts. This objection can be overcome by 
using, instead of persons’ names, the general titles Accounts 
Receivable and Accounts Payable. In nearly all kinds of busi¬ 
ness this will reduce the number of accounts within the limits of 
this form. 

The following rules should be used in preparing this form: 
First rule the parallel head-lines, leaving space for the double 
captions. Then ascertain the number of Ledger accounts to be 
represented. This will, of course, embrace all the accounts in 
the Trial Balance that do not cancel. If the business is that of 
a single proprietor, rule in pencil as many lines as will contain 
all the accounts, and five additional. If it be a partnership busi¬ 
ness, with two or more partners, rule three additional lines for 
each partner. Next lay off proper spaces for debit and credit 
money columns : first, for the footings of Ledger accounts ; sec¬ 
ond, for Gains and Losses ; third, for Stock; and fourth, for Re¬ 
sources and Liabilities ; also, for a single money column for in¬ 
ventories, and for the Ledger titles and their Ledger folios. 
After denoting the proper space for each heading, commence to 
rule with red ink at the right hand and bring all the lines of the 
first two captions, Real accounts and Stock, or one of the part¬ 
ners, down to the lower pencil line. For the other partner drop 
two lines. For Losses and Gains drop two lines, for Stock 
business; and an additional line for each partner. Then rule 
the foot-lines as shown, and the schedule will be ready to receive 
the accounts. 

Auxiliary Books. 

All accountants, where the business is any way large, keep 
what are termed auxiliary books. Among these is the Inventory- 
Book. It is used to enumerate the different articles of unsold 
merchandise, at such times as may be deemed desirable. In¬ 
ventories are frequently copied into Invoice-Books. 

An Invoice is a statement in detail of goods sold, shipped 
abroad or consigned to another to be sold. The Invoice-Book 
is used for taking copies of the invoices which accompany 
goods purchased or received on consignment. Some houses, 
instead of copying, paste their invoices in a blank Invoice-Book 
prepared for this purpose. This book, while showing the entire 
cost of merchandise, will also exhibit the separate credits pro¬ 
ducing merchandise. If a lot or package is distinguished by 
a peculiar mark, that mark is transferred to the invoice, thus 
serving an important purpose in checking the articles, adjusting 
disputes, etc. 

Bills Receivable and Bills Payable are usually bound in op¬ 
posite ends of the same book, termed a Bill-Book. This book 
should never be omitted, and especially is it important to keep 
a record of the amount and condition of notes payable. 

The Sales-Book contains all the regular sales, either for cash 
or on time. In houses doing a mixed business the Sales-Book 
and Commission Sales-Book can with equal propriety be kept 
together or separate, as convenience may dictate. 




Ai 




























BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY 


12 


SET I. DAY-BOOK. (I.) 

Sf. Louis, December ist, 1883. 


I 

Commenced business this day with Cash to the amount of 

<< 

. 

2,000 

1 

Bought of Armstrong & Co., on f , 

1,000 brls. Flour, © $6.00, 



6,000 

1 

Sold Jesse Jameson, for Cash, 

300 brls. Flour, ® $6.50, 

3 


1,950 

1 

Sold John Williams, on f, 

250 brls. Flour, ® $7.00, 

5 

7 


1 . 75 ° 

1 

Sold Wm. Moore, on his Note ® 30 days, 

150 brls. Flour, ® $7.00, 


1,050 

1 

Bought of Joseph Wheelock, on our Note ® 60 days, 

500 bu. Wheat, ® $1.00, 



500 

1 

Sold Albert St. John, for Cash, 

100 bu. Wheat, ® $1.25, 

100 brls. Flour, ® $6.75, 

* 

H 

. $125.00 

. 675.00 

800 

1 

Paid Cash for Stationery and Books for use of Store, 


S° 

1 

Bought of Edwin Elierton, for Cash, 

300 brls. Flour, @ $5.00, 

17 

iS 


1,500 

1 

Sold Peter Potts, for Cash, 

100 brls. Flour, ® $6.00, 


600 

1 

Bought of W. L. George, on f , 

1,000 bu. Oats, ffi 75^, 



7 So 

1 

Sold Sellers & Bro., on their Note ® 5 days, 

500 bu. Oats, ® Soj t, 

100 bu. Wheat, ® $1.15. 


. 115.00 

SiS 

1 

Sold Bernard Blair, for Cash, 

400 brls. Flour, ® $6.00, 

300 bu. Wheat, ® $1.10, 


330.00 

2 , 73 ° 

1 

Bought of Howard Harrison, on f , 

1.<00 brls. Flour. @ $i;.co. 



8,250 

! 1 

Sold A. A. McHatton, on , 

1,000 brls. Flour, ® $6.00, 

28 


6,000 

1 

Received Cash in full for Sellers & Bro.’s Note, . 



S'S 

| 1 / 

Sold Patrick Connolly, for Cash, 

500 brls. Flour, ® $5.75, 

500 bu. Oats, ® 90^, 


$2,875.00 

3,325 

1 

Paid Clerk Hire, in Cash, . 

Paid Store Rent, . 



100 
































































130 


2 Expense, 
1 


1 Merchandise,, 
1 


1 Cash, 

1 

1 Merchandise, 

2 


2 Bills Receivable, 
1 


1 Cash, 
1 


1 Merchandise, 

2 


A. A. McHatton, 


Cash, 


/ 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 





SET 

1. JOURNAL (1.) 



• 

St. Louis , December 1, 1883. 

I 

Cash, 

Dr. 



I 




To Stock,. 

<< ......... - .. 

I 

Merchandise, 

Dr. 



I 




To Armstrong & Co.,. 





'• 3 

I 

Cash, 

Dr. 



I 




To Merchandise,. 

I 

John Williams, 

Dr. 


s 

I 




To Merchandise. 

2 

Bills Receivable, 

Dr. 


7 

I 




To Merchandise,. 






I 

Merchandise, 

Dr. 



I 




To Bills Payable, 

I 

Cash, 

Dr. 



I 




To Merchandise, 


Dr. Cr. 


Dr. 


To Cash, 

iS 


Dr. 


To Cash, 
i 7 


Dr. 


To Merchandise, 
iS 


Dr. 


ToW. L. George, 
20 


Dr. 


To Merchandise, 
22 


Dr. 


To Merchandise, 

— 26 - 


Dr. 


To Howard Harrison, 
27 


Dr. 


To Merchandise, 
2S 


Dr. 


To Bills Receivable, 
29 


Cash, 


Dr. 


Expense, 


To Merchandise, 

— 31 - 


Dr. 


To Cash, 


ki 


2,000 


6,000 


i. 9 S° 


1.75° 


1,050; 


500 


Soo 


5° 


1,500 


600 


75° 


5i5 


2 , 73 ° 


8,250 




8,250 ! 

1 

6,000 


6,000 

Si 5 


Si 5 

3,325 


3,325 

IOO 


IOO 

3 S. 3 S 5 


38,385 





2,000 


6,000 


i, 95 ° 


1, 75 ° 


i,°S° 


500 


Soo 


5° 


1,500 


600 


75° 


5i5 


2 , 73 °! 


\ 






<5 
























































































































\ © 


K" 


Dr. 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 

SET I. LEDGER. (I.) 

Stock. 


1883. 

Dec. 31 


Dr. 


Dr. 


To Balancr, 


Cash. 


Merchandise. 


13 1 


Cr. 



3-370 


1883. 

Dec. 

(1 

I 

31 

By Cash, 

“ Loss and Gain, 

I 

L2 

2,000 

i, 57 o 


3 , 57 ° 






3 , 57 ° 




1SS4. 

Jan. 

I 

By Balance, 


3 , 57 ° 


Cr. 


iS83. 






1SS3. 





Dec. 

I 

To Stock, 

I 

2,000 


Dec. 

H 

By Expense, 

I 

50 

<( 

3 

“ Mdse., 

I 

1 . 95 ° 


ft 

iS 

“ Mdse., 

I 

1,500 

<< 

12 

it ft 

I 

800 


If 

3 i 

“ Expense, 

I 

IOO 

ti 

17 

(( ft 

I 

600 


ft 

3i 

“ Balance , 

Li 

IQ,2'7(y, 

ft 

22 

ft if 

I 

2,730 







it 

28 

“ Bills Receivable, 

I 

5 >S 







ft 

29 

“ Mdse., 

I 

3,325 











11,920 






I I ,920 

<Z> 











Jan. 

I 

To Balance, 


10,270 








Cr. 


1883. 






1883. 




Dec. 

1 

To Armstrong & Co., 

I 

6,000 


Dec. 

3 

By Cash, 1 

1 , 95 ° 

if 

10 

“ Bills Payable, 

I 

500 


i f 

5 

“ John Williams, 1 

i, 7 So 

it 

15 

“ Cash, 

I 

i,S°o 


ft 

7 

“ Bills Receivable, 1 

1,050 

it 

18 

“ W. L. George, 

I 

7 So 


ft 

12 

“ Cash, 1 

800 

it 

26 

“ Howard Harrison, 

I 

8,250 


ti 

17 

ti it T 

600 

it 

31 

“ I.os a* and Gain, 

Li 

1.7M 


it 

20 

“ Bills Receivable, 1 

5 iS 







tt 

22 

“ Cash, 1 

2 , 73 ° 







it 

27 

“ A. A. McHatton, 1 

6,000 







ft 

29 

“ Cash, 1 

3,325 





18,720 





18,720 











Dr. 




Armstrong & Co. 


Cr 

m3. 






1SS3. 




Dec. 

3 ' 

To Balancr, 

Li 

b,ooo 


Dec. 

1 

By Mdse., 1 

6,000 







1SS4. 










Jan. 

1 

By Balance, 

6,000 

Dr. 




John Williams. 


Cr 

1SS3. 






,883. 




Dec. 

5 

To Mdse., 

I 

i, 7 S 


Dec. • 

3 ' 

By Balance, Li 

I , 7 S° 

CO 

CO 










Jan. 

I 

To Balance, 


I , 7 S° 









C) 









































































































A. <7> 




Dr. 


Dr. 


m3. 

Dec. 


3 ' 


To Balance , 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


SET I. LEDGER. (2.) 

Bills Receivable. 


Cr. 


1883. 

Dec. 

44 


To Mdse., 

(( 44 

1 

; 

1,050 

515 


iss 3 . 

Dec. 

14 

2S 

3 * 

By Cash, 

" Balance, 


L 

5 i 5 

/,OJt 





>.565 



• 




I.S 6 S 

1SS4. 

Jan. 

I 

To Balance, 


1,050 









Bills Payable. 

■■■ -» - . 


Cr. 


Li 


300 


155 3 . 

Dec. 10 

1554. 

Jan. 1 


By Mdse., 
By Balance. 


Expense. 


500 

500 

Cr. 


1883. 

Dec. 

4 4 

14 To Cash, 

31 “ “ 

I 

I 

50 

IOO 

1883. 

Dec. 

3 ' 

By Loss and Gain, 

Lz 

,yo 





















IV. L. George. 


Cr. 



| I 

7 SO\ 

. .1 

18 

By Mdse., 

I 


1884. 





Jan. 

I 

By Balance, 



Howard Harrison. 


75 ° 

75° 

Cr. 



3 ' 

To Balance, 

Lz 

8,250 


1883. 

Dec. 

26 

By Mdse., 

By Balance, 

I 

8,350 






1SS4. 

Jan. 

I 


8,250 

Dr. 


A. A. Me Hatton. 

Cr. 

1883. 

Dec. 

J 7 

To Mdse., 

To Balance, 

I 

6,000 


1883. 

Dec. 

3 i_ 

By Balance, 

zJ 

6.000 


1884. 

Jan. 

I 


6,000 








Dr. 


Balance. 


Cr. 


18S3. 

Dec. 


31 

To Cash, 

Li 

10,270 


1883. 

Dec. 

3 1 

31 

“ J ohn Williams, 

Li 

L 75 ° 


(4 

3 i 

3 t 

“ Bills Receivable, 

L 2 

1,050 



3 i 

3 ' 

“ A.A. Me Hatton, 

L 2 

6,000 


<4 

3 i 


_ 




44 

3 ' 


--- 


19,070 











By Armstrong: & Co., 

“ Bills Payable, 

“ W. L. George, 

“ Howard Harrison, 

“ Balance (net capital), 


Li 

6,000 

L2 

500 

L 2 

75 ° 

L 2 

8,250 


3 -S 70 


19,070 




Dr. 

Loss and Gain. 


Cr. 

18S3. | 

! j : 1883. | 




Dec. 31 ! To Expense, 

L2 150 Dec. 

3 i 

| By Mdse., 

Li 1,720 

“ I 31 I “ Stock {netgain), 

A/ j / ,S 7 o\ 





11720 - 


_____—— — 

1,720 






























































































































































































































■V 


o 


s> J- 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 


133 






Dr. 


SET I. TRIAL BALANCE—FACE OF LEDGER. 


Cr. 





2,000 


11,920 



1,650 


17,000 



18,720 





6,000 


i, 7 S° 





1.565 



5'5 





500 


150 








75o 





8,250 


6,000 





3S.3S5 


Equilibrium 

3S,3SS 




TRIAL BALANCE—DIFFERENCES. 

Dr. 

Cr. 

I 

Stock,.. 



2,000 

I 

Cash,. 

10,270 

| 


I 

Merchandise, .. 



1,72° 

I 

Armstrong & Co., . 



6,000 

I 

John Williams,.. .. 

i, 75 o 



2 

Bills Receivable,. 

1,050 



2 

Bills Payable, . 



500 

2 

Expense,.... 

! 5 ° 



2 

W. L. George,. 



750 

2 

Howard Harrison, . 



8,250 

2 

A. A. McHatton. 

6,000 





19,220 


1 19,220 































































































-s. ^ 


134 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 




DOUBLE 


SET II* 


& 

: 


ENTRY. 








DAY-BOOK AND JOURNAL COMBINED. 



N the system given in the following pages, 
the main feature is the combination 
of the Day-Book and the Journal. This 
form is the most practical in use for general pur¬ 
poses, and has been adopted by accountants in 
all branches of business. Its chief advantage is 
in dispensing with a separate Journal, and in 
bringing the Day-Book and Journal entries into 
such immediate connection as to leave no doubt 
of their identity. In this set by Merchandise 
Companies is meant the temporary copartnership 
existing between the consignor and the con¬ 
signee, having reference to the sale of particular 
consignments. In Merchandise Company busi¬ 
ness, one of the partners, the consignee, is the 
commission merchant, and, in that capacity, re¬ 
ceives and disposes of the property as he would 
of a simple consignment, the only difference be¬ 
ing that he is interested in the losses and gains. 
This species of copartnership differs from that 
of a general partnership only in its duration and 
the manner of conducting its sales. In the first 
method, exemplified by the three Merchandise 
Company accounts A, B and C, in the month of 
April, the principle recognized is that the holder 
of the property is responsible for it. Thus, when 
we receive from James A. Wright & Co. an in¬ 
voice to be sold on joint account, we debit 
Mdse. Co. A with the invoice and expenses, 
and credit the consignor with the cost of 
the invoice, thus making ourselves responsible 
for the property as if it were all our own. The 


consignor’s entry, if recognizing the same prin¬ 
ciple, will be to debit us for the entire cost of 
the merchandise. In the second method, shown 
by the three Mdse. Co. accounts D, E and F, 
the principle recognized is that the owner of the 
property is responsible. For example, when 
we receive from George Allen & Co. merchan¬ 
dise to be sold on joint account, we debit Mdse. 
Co. D with our own share only, and credit the 
consignor. The consignor’s entry in this case, 
if made to correspond with ours, would be to 
debit us for our share, and “Shipment in Co., to 
St. Louis,” for his share. However, the final 
result is the same in both cases. So far as ab¬ 
solute right and responsibility is concerned, the 
second method is correct, the principle recog¬ 
nized being that the owner of the property is 
responsible. The only advantage possessed by 
the first method is that the Mdse. Co. account 
shows its entire cost. 

For the month of April the Ledger is closed 
without the use of a balance account by bring¬ 
ing down the resources and liabilities under their 
proper accounts. This is the business method, 
and if each month is supposed to represent a 
year, this would be a good instance of the man¬ 
ner of closing books at the end of each year. 
The method of closing by Journal entries as 
shown in the month of May is used frequently, 
though requiring more labor and possessing no 
advantage over the other. The books used in 
this set are the Journal Day-Book and Ledger. 


/ 

























































































































































■V 


\ 


du 

~/\ (° 


136 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 


/ 


SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (2.) 

Saint Louis, April 6, i88j. 


Amounts brought forward, 


Butler & Carlton, 


Dr. To Sundries, 

Shipped them, to be sold on our joint >!, each 
20 hhds. Sugar, 24,000 lbs. ® 5^ 

100 bags Coffee, 14,000 lbs. ® iofi 

100 boxes Raisins ® $3. 


$ 1,200 

1,400 

300 


2 

I 4 

4 

s 


To Bills Payable, 
“ Cash. 


James Scott, 


Bo’t of J. Wills & Co., on our Note ® 90 days, 

For above Note,. 

Paid Insurance, h % on $3,000, . 

- 7 - 

Dr. 

To Mdse. Co. B, 

Sold him ® 30 days,. 

500 brls. Flour ® $9, . • . . 


Mdse. Co. B, Dr. To Sundries. 

Closed sales in Company with Butler & Carlton, of Sedalia, Mo., and rendered 
them an $ of sales. 

To Storage and Adv., Our Charges. 

“ Commission, 2| % on .. 

“ Butler & Carlton, Their ^ net gain,. 

“ Loss and Gain, Our “ . 

- 9 ' 

Sundries, Dr. To Merchandise. 


Cash, 

Bills Receivable, 


Sold John Tyler, 

30,000 lbs. Bacon ® 6 ><p 

Received,. 

His Note ® 30 days, for balance, 


James A. Wright & Co., Dr. 


To Bills Payable. 

Accepted their draft on us ® thirty days sight, favor F. B. Morse & Co., in full of 
their f. 


5 | Mdse. Co. C, 


To Peter Curtis, 
“ J. G. Holland, 
“ Cash, 


Dr. To Sundries. 

Received per Anchor Line, from Peter Curtis, Cairo, to be sold on joint ft of him¬ 
self, J. G. Holland, Memphis, and ourselves, each j, as per contract, 

1,000 brls. Flour, ® $8.50.$S,5oo 

For his and our § above invoice,. 


Paid Freight 


Str. Missouri Belle St’k, Dr. To Sundries, 

Bo’t of John Dunn, J Steamer Missouri Belle, for 

To Cash, Paid in hand. 

“ Bills Payable, Gave our note ® ninety days, for .... 

13 


Sundries, 


Bili.s Receivable, 
Cash, 

Mdse. Co. C, 


Dr. To Mdse. Co. C, 

Sold William Cook, Sedalia, 

1,000 brls Flour, ® $10 
His note ® forty days, for 
For Balance,. 


Dr. 


To Sundries, 


Closed sales in Company with Curtis & Holland, and rendered them each an Ac¬ 
count of the same. 


To Storage & Adver., Our charges, 

'• Commission, 25 # on $10,000 

“ Peter Curtis, His J net gain, 

“ J. G. Holland, “ “ “ 

“ Loss and Gain, Our “ “ 


49.875 

2.9IS 


49.87s 


4 . 5 °° 


500 


800 

1,000 


4,136 25 


8,700 


10,000 


2,900 

IS 


4,500 


20 

112 

1S3 

1S3 


i,Soo 


4,136 


5 ° 

75 

75 


5,666 
2 ,S 33 
200 


5,000 

S.ooo 


10,000 


7,000 

3,000 

1,300 


3 ° 
250 

34 ° 
34 ° 
34 ° 

"j — | 

93,726 25 93,726 25 


25 


67 

33 


\ 


V 1 


































































































































































































































































































































































CO to 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 


139 


SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (5.) 

St. Louis , May 5, i88j. 


Amounts brought forward, . 

Expense, Dr. 

To First National Bank, . 

Paid advertising bills per check. 

Mdse. Co. E, Dh. To Sundries,. 

Received of George Emerson & Co., of Vicksburg, to be sold on joint $ of them¬ 
selves, M. S. Clay & Co. and ourselves, each J, 

100 hlids. Sugar la) $60.$6,000 

To Geo. Emerson & Co., Forour J Invoice,. 

“ First National Bank, Paid freight per check,. . . . 


Mdse. Co. F, 


Dr. To Sundries,. 

Received from Hugh Spencer, Topeka, to be sold on our joint j , each 

500 brls. Pork, (a) $9. ..$4,500 

250 do Lard, 50,000 lbs., ® 5(L.2,500 


To Hugh Spencer, Our \ above invoice, 

“ First National Bank, Freight per check, 


$7,000 


7 

S 

S 

s 

3 

2 

4 


Sundries, 

Bills Receivable, 

Interest, 

Cash, 


Dr. To Mdse. Co. E, 

Sold George Jenks, 

100 hhds. Sugar, ® $75. 

Received in payment, Frank H. Wells’ note, dated January 1, 1SS3, due one day 

after date,. 

Due to date on above note. 

For balance. 


Mdse. Co. E, 


Dr. To Sundries. 

Closed Mdse. Co. E.,and rendered Account Sales of the same to George Emer¬ 
son, and M. S. Clay & Co., of Vicksburg. 

To Charges, Storage, Advertising, etc. 

“ Commission, 2.jj$ on $7,500. 

“ Geo. Emerson & Co. Their net proceeds. 

“ M. S. Clay & Co., Their net proceeds,. 

“ Loss and Gain, Our £ net gain. 


Cash, 


Dr. 


To Bills Receivable, 
Joseph Stanton has paid his note, due this day. 
- 10 - 


To Cash, 


First National Bank, Dr. 

Deposited. 

Sundries, Dr. To First National Bank, . 

Paid on mortgage, favor of Patrick Fields. 

Mortgage Payable, Amount applied on mortgage,. 

Interest, In full to date. 


5 

2 

Bills Payable, 

Dr. 

To First National Bank. 

Paid our acceptance, favor James A. Wright & Co., due this day. 

<< 


4 

5 

John A. Fargo & Co., 

Dr. 

To Bills Payable,. 

Accepted their draft on us payable (a) ten days sight. 

14 



Cash, 


Dr. 


To Mdse. Co. F. 
Sold Adam Kauffman, 

500 brls. Pork, (a) $9.50 


16,595 50 16,595 50 

1.S0 

iS° 


2,500 


4,000 


5,000 

123 47 

2,376 S3 


5,000 


3,300 


4,000 


4 ,Soo 
1 57 

4,136 


3,9°° 


4,75° 


60,489125 


2,000 

500 


3 ,Soo 

500 


7,500 


50 

187 

2,254 

2,254 

254 


3,300 


4,000 


4,657 


5 

1 

17 

17 


50 


4,13625 


3,900 


4,75o 

60489)25 


O VO 




































































































































(i 


140 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 




V- 




SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (6.) 

Si. Louis, May iy, i 88 j. 


Amounts brought forward, 


7 Henry Green & Co., Dr. 

3 ' To Loss and Gain,. 

Received advice from II. G. & Co., Chicago, of an error in an Account Sales of 
last year’s business, in which we were credited too little by the above amount 


7 Sundries, 

2 Cash, 

2 Interest, 


Dr. To Henry Green & Co., 

Sold our draft on them @ thirty days sight. 

Net proceeds. 

Discount and exchange off. 

17-- 


2 Cash, 

8 


Dr. 


To Mdse. Co. F, 

Sold John \V. Welsh, 

250 brls. Lard, 50,000 lbs., ® 4^. 


60,489 25 60,489 25 

27 S 

27S 


2,600 05 
44 95 

2,000 


Sundries, 

8 Mdse. Co. F., 

3 Loss and Gain, 

7 To Charges, 

S j “ Commission, 

8 “ Hugh Spencer, 


Dr. To Sundries, 

Closed “Mdse. Co. F,” and rendered Hugh Spencer, Topeka, an Account Sales 
of the same. 

To close ft . 

Our 5 net loss,. 

Storage, cooperage, etc.,. 

2 j ft on sales,. 

His | invoice, .?3>5 00 

Less 5 net loss,.484 3S 


2,750 

4S4 


37 


Leaves net proceeds, 


8 Hugh Spencer, 
2 


Dr.6,515 62 

To Cash, . 

Remitted him in full of f. 


2 Cash, 
4 


Dr. 


To Bills Receivable, 

Received payment in full for William Cook’s note of April 13th. 
23 

2 First National Bank, Dr. 

2 


Watson Weed, 


7 George Allen, 
5 


Deposited. 

Dr. 


To Cash, 

25 


To Shipment in Co. No. 1. 

Received an Account Sales of 200 brls. Mess Pork, shipped on the 2d inst. Our 
net proceeds as above. 

- 26 — - 


Dr. . 


To Bills Payable, 


Accepted his draft on us ® thirty days sight, favor of W. H. Walker, for amount 
his due. 


Bills Payable, 


Dr. 


2 Cash, 

5 

6 J. Wills & Co., 
2 


To Cash. 

Paid our acceptance favor of John A. Fargo & Co., due this day, 

2S 

Dr. 

To James Scott,. 

To balance ft . 

3° 

Dr. 

To Cash,. 

To balance ft. 


10,000 


Soo 


2,SSl 


3>9°° 


4.SOO 


1,000 


2,645 


2,000 


50 

16S 7S 


3,015 62 
6,515 62 

7,000 


Soo 


2,SSl 


3,900 


4,500 


1,000 


105,240 24 105,240 24 

































































































o 


3 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 


141 


SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (7.) 

St. Louis , May ji, 1883. 


Amounts brought forward, 


John Adams, 


Authur Astor, 


Interest, 


Dr. 

To John Adams, Private. 

For amount charged to J . D.’s Private $ , now carried to his Stock £ . 


Dr. 

To Arthur Astor, Private, 

For amount charged to Private $ , now carried to Stock <f . 


Dr. 

To John Adams, 

Allowed 7 # on his additional investment of April 30. 


CLOSING ENTRIES. 


Balance, 


Dr. 


To Store and Fixtures, 


Valuation of property. 


Store and Fixtures, Dr. 

To Loss and Gain, 
For increase in value of property. 


Mortgage Payable, Dr. 

To Balance, 
Amount due on Mortgage. 


Balance, 


Balance, 


Dr. 


Amount on hand. 


To Cash, 


To First National Bank, 


2 Interest, 


Dr. . 

Balance on deposit. 

U 

Dr. 

To Balance, 

Amount due from us to date on Mortgage. 


Balance, 


Dr. 

To Interest, . 
Amount due us on f F. II. Wells’ note. 


Loss and Gain, 


Dr. 

To Interest, 

Cost over proceeds of Interest. 


Loss and Gain, 


Balance, 


Dr. 

To Expense, 

Balance of Expense Account. 


Dr. 

To Bills Receivable, 
Note on hand (F. H. Wells). 


105,24c 24 105,240 24 

200 ) 

200 


J S° 


IS° 


IS 


6S 


105,605'92 105,60; 


6S 

92 


15,000 


2,500 


4>S°o 


4,575 


09 


21,337 So 


iS' 37 


146 


213 


ISO 


5,000 


S2 1 


iS 


2,500! 


4,500 


4 , 575 ! 09 


2i,337 So 


18 37 


146 


213 


Go 


S.ooo 


S2 


■S 


<0 







































































































































”*y '5- 


S> k> 


\ 


s\ 


142 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 


SET II. JOURNAL DAY-BOOK. (8.) 

St. Louis , May 31, 1883. 


5 

: 3 


: 5 
8 


6 

8 

8 

6 

8 

6 

8 

7 

3 

7 


Amounts brought forward, . 
Bii.ls Payable, Dr. 


To Balance, 
Our outstanding Notes. 


53.S75 iS 53,875 iS 
io.ySi 

io.ySi 


Peter Curtis, 


Dr. 


Amount due him. 


5.340 01 


To Balance, 


J. G. Holland, 


Dr. 


Amount due him. 


To Balance, 


Balance, 


Balance, 


Dr. 

To Steamer Missouri Belle Stock, 
Valuation of our interest in Steamer Missouri Belle. 


Dr. . 

Amount due us. 


To Steamer Missouri Belle, . 


Balance, 


8 

S 


Loss and Gain, 


Loss and Gain, 


Charges, 


Dr. . 

Balance due us. 

Dr. . 

Our loss on shipment. 

Dr. . 

Cost of insurance. 

Dr. . 


To Watson Weed, 


To Shipment in Co. i. 


To Insurance, 


To Loss and Gain, 
Gain on storage, advertising, etc. 


Geo. Emerson & Co., Dr. 

Amount due them. 
M. S. Clay & Co., Dr. 


To Balance, 


To Balance, 


Amount due them. 


Loss and Gain, 

To John Adams, 

“ Arthur Astor, 

John Adams, 


Arthur Astor, 


Dr. To Sundries, 

Net gain carried to Partners’ f . 

His 5 net gain,. 


<< (< «< ft 


Dr. 

To Balance, 
For amount his net capital. 


Dr. 

To Balance, 
For amount his net capital. 


>,954 


10,000 


250 


1,709 


109 


99 


37 5° 


150 


4> 2 54 


16 


2.254,17 


2,6So 40 


15.7S5 14 


13.130 57 


5 . 34 ° pi 


1.954 99 


10,000 


250 


1,709 


109 


37 So 


150 


4,254 16 


2,254 17 


1,340 20 
i, 34 °] 2 o 


>5,785 >4 


13,130 57 


(d 


o 




















































































































BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY 


143 


Dr. 


SET 18. LEDGER. (I.) 


John Adams. 


Cr. 


1883. 





1 

1883. 





Apr. 

31 

To Balance, 

Lt 

i4,bzq 

2b 

Apr. 2 

By Cash, 

I 

10,000 








“ 30 

<< (1 

4 

2,688 

90 







“ 30 

“ Loss and Gain, 

L3 

1,940 

36 





14,629 

26 




14,629 26 

1 

May 

3 : 

To J. A., Private, 

7 

200 


May j 

By Balance, 

Li 

14,629 26 

it 

31 

“ Balance, 

8 

1 5,785 

14 

“ 3 ' 

“ Interest, 

7 

15 68 







“ 3 1 

“ Loss and Gain, 

S 

1 . 34 ° 

20 





IS- 9 S 5 

14 




1 S) 98 S 








I 






Dr. Arthur As tor. Cr. 


1883. 






18S3. 





Apr. 

30 

To Balance, 

Lt 

a 040 

37 

Apr. 

2 

By First National Bank, 

I 

10,000 







(( 

3 ° 

“ Loss and Gain, 

l 3 

1,940 37 





11,940 

37 





11,940 37 

May 

3 i 

To A. A., Private, 

7 

150 


May 

I 

By Balance, 

Li 

”,940 37 

<< 

3 i 

“ Balance, 

8 

13,130 57 

“ 

3 1 

“ Loss and Gain, 

S 

1,340 20 





I3.2SOS7 





I 3 . 2 S 0 57 













Dr. Store and Fixtures. Cr. 


1SS3. 

Apr. 

}» 

2 

30 

To Sundries, 

“ Loss and Gain, 


12,500 

1,500 


1SS3. 

Apr. 

“ 

28 

30 

By Cash, 

“ Balance, Inventory, 

1 1 

1,500 

12,500 





14,000 






14,000 

-:— 

May 

(( 

I 

31 

To Balance, 

“ Loss and Gain, 

Li 

7 

12,500 

2,500 


May 

31 

By Balance, 

7 

15,000 





15,000 






15,000 













Dr. Mortgage Payable. Cr. 


1883. 

May 

ft 

II 

3 1 

To First National Bank, 

“ Balance, 

5 

7 

4 .500 

4.500 


1SS3. 

Apr. 

2 

By Store and Fixtures, 

I 

9,000 






9,000 






9,000 















A 











































































































































































































144 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY 


SET II. LEDGER. (2.) 


Dr. Cash. Cr. 


*883. i 




I I 

18.33. 


- ... , . ..— 



Apr. 

2 

/ To John Adams, 

I 

10,000 

Apr. 

2 

By Store and Fixtures, 

I 

3 , 4 * 6 ) 


5 

“ Mdse. Co. A, 

I 

1,400 

ii 

3 

“ Expense, 

I 

75 


9 

“ Mdse., 

2 

Soo 

tt 

3 

“ Mdse. Co. A, 

I 

IOO 


>3 

“ Mdse. Co. C, 

2 

3,000 

it 

6 

“ Butler & Carlton, 

2 

15 

ii 

H 

“ Mdse., 

3 

900 

a 

9 

“ Mdse. Co. C, 

2 

200I 


20 

“ Bills Receivable, 

3 

995 73 

tt 

12 

“ Str. Missouri Belle Stock, 

2 

5 ,ooo 


2S 

“ Store and Fixtures, 

3 

1,500 

a 

l6 

“ Mdse., 

3 

80 0 


3 ° 

“ John Adams, 

4 

2,6SS 90 

tt 

iS 

“ Sundries, 

3 

200 






a 

23 

a a 

3 

50 






(< 

30 

“ Expense, 

3 

159' 






14 

3° 

‘ 1 Balance, 

1 Li 

//.sChj t >3 





21,28463 





21,284 63 

May 

I 

To Balance, 

L2 

11,26963 

May 

I 

By First National Bank, 

4 

8,500 

tt 

3 

“ Mdse. Co. D, 

4 

7 So, 

ft 

2 

“ Sundries, 

4 

18 

tt 

s 

“ Mdse. Co. E, 

5 

2 > 3761 53 

it 

3 

“ Insurance, 

4 

37 5 o 


s 

“ Bills Receivable, 

S 

3 , 3 oo| 

(1 

10 

“ First National Bank, 

5 

4,ooo| 

6,515! 62 


>4 

“ Mdse. Co. F, 

5 

4 , 75 °| 

tt 

17 

“ Hugh Spencer, 

6 


15 

“ Henry Green & Co., 

6 

2,600)05 

“ 

23 

“ First National Bank, 

6 

io,ooo| 

it 

17 

“ Mdse. Co. F, 

6 

2,000' 

it 

26 

“ Bills Payable, 

6 

3,900 

tt 

17 

“ Bills Receivable, 

6 

7,000 

it 

3 ° 

“ J. Wills & Co., 

6 

1 ,ooo| 

it 

2S 

“ James Scott, 

6 

4,500 

(( 

31 

“ Balance, 

7 

4 , 575,09 





3^,546 21 





38,546 21 



t 









Dr. First National Bank. Cr. 


18S3. 



— 

r ii 

IS83. 





| 

Apr. 

2 

To A. Astor, 

I 

10,000! 

Apr. 

25 

By John Adams, 

3 

200] 






i i 

2 5 

<< 

Butler & Carlton, 

3 

96s 75 






a 

30 

ii 

Balance, 

La 

8.S31 23 





10,000 

7 1 






10,000, 

May 

I 

To Balance, 

L2 

8.S3I 25 

May 

I 

By Mdse. Co. D, 

4 

so 


I 

“ Cash, 

4 

8,500) 

« 

5 

it 

Expense, 

5 

15°) 


10 


5 

4,000 

it 

7 

ii 

Mdse. Co. E, 

5 

5 °o 


2 3 


6 

10,000 

ii 

7 

tt 

Mdse. Co. F, 

5 

500 






a 

11 

a 

Sundries, 

5 

4 ,657’ 5 ° 






a 

12 

a 

Bills Payable, 

5 

4,136 25 






a 

31 

tt 

Balance, 

7 

2 B 337 5 o 





31, 33 1 2 5 






3 I , 33 I 2 S 











Dr. Interest. Cr. 


1SS3. 


— 


1SS3. 


— 



Apr. 

20 To Bills Receivable, 

3 

4 2 7 

Apr. 

2 

By Store and Fixtures, 

I 

84 

ii 

jo j “ Loss ami Gain, 

L3 1 

79 ! 73 | 







i 


8 4 j 




84 

May 

8 To Mdse. Co. E, 

~ 5 

123 47 

May 

31 

By Balance, 

7 

146 S2 

*t 

11 “ First National Bank, 

5 

157 50 

(( 

31 

“ Loss and Gain, 

7 

213 "5 

tt 

15 “ Henry Green & Co., 

6 

44 95 






t* 

31 “ John Adams, 

7 

15 68 






ii 

31 “ Balance, 

7 

18 37 









359 97 

' —- 




359 97 

1 1 

| 


1 1 

















































































































\ <2- 


\ 


BOOK- 

KEEPING BY DOUBLE 

ENTRY. 



- 

MS 




SET H. 

LEDGER. 

3.) 




Dr. 




Expense. 




Cr. 

GO 

00 

OJ 






1S83■ 






Apr. 

3 

To Cash, 

1 

75 


Apr. 

30 

By Loss and Gain, 

l 3 

284 


<< 

iS 

<( 44 

3 

5 ° 








<< 

30 

44 (4 

3 

"59 












2S4 

| _ 





2S4 


May 

s 

To First National Bank, 

s 

Go 


May 

3 i 

By Loss and Gain, 

7 

150 













Dr. 




Butle 

r & 

Carlton. 



O 


iss 3 . 






18S3. 






Apr. 

6 

To Sundries, 

2 

2.91s 


Apr. 

4 

By Mdse. Co. B, 

I 

4,000 


44 

20 

“ Loss and Gain, 

3 

3 °° 


44 

7 

14 44 44 

2 

IS3 

75 

(( 

25 

“ First National Bank, 

3 

96S 

75 











4 .i 33 

75 





4,1 S3 

75 

1 










Dr. 




Merchandise 




Cr 


if® 3 . 






1SS3. 






Apr. 

3 

To Campbell & Co., 

I 

3.900 


Apr. 

9 

Bv Sundries, 

2 

i,Soo 


<4 

l6 

“ Sundries, 

3 

i,Soo 


44 

>4 

“ Cash, 

3 

900 


( ( 


“ Loss and Gain, 

£3 

730 


44 

*3 

“ Sundries 

3 

1 , 95 ° 









30 

“ Balance , Inventory, 

1-3 

1,800 






6,450 






6,450 


May 

I 

To Balance, 

03 

i,Soo 


May 

2 

By Sundries, 

4 

1 ,Soo 










Dr. 




Loss and Gai 

n. 



Cr. 

ips 3 . 






1SS3. 






Apr. 

30 

To J. G. Holland, 

3 

US 


Apr. 

6 

By Mdse. Co. A, 

X 

336 

25 

«< 

3 ° 

“ Expense, 

L 3 

2S4 


4 4 

7 

“ Mdse. Co. B, 

2 

'§3 

75 

<( 

30 

“ "John Adams {netgain ), 

Li , 

‘MO 3b 

44 

>3 

“ Mdse. Co. C, 

2 

340 


(< 

30 

“ Arthur Astor {netgain), 

Li 

1 , 94 ° 

37 

44 

20 

“ Butler & Carlton, 

3 

300 








4 4 

30 

“ Store and Fixtures, 

Li 

1,500 




s ' 




44 

30 

“ Interest, 

L2 

79 

73 



s ' 




44 

30 

“ Mdse., 

1-3 

75 ° 




s ' 




44 

30 

“ Storage and Adver., 

1-4 

60 




s ' 




4 4 

30 

“ Commission, 

l 5 

4S0 




s ' 




44 

30 

“ Str. Missouri Belle Stc (k, 

L6 

250 




/ 


4,279 

73 





4, 2 79 

73 

May 

17 

To Mdse. Co. F, 

6 

4S4 

37 

May 

3 

By Mdse. Co. D, 

4 

6 l 


44 

3 * 

“ Interest, 

7 

213 

■5 

4 4 

s 

“ Mdse. Co. E, 

5 

254 

>7 

(( 

3 > 

“ Expense, 

7 

150 


4 4 

*5 

“ Henry Green & Co., 

6 

2 7 5 


(( 

3 ' 

“ Shipment in Co. 1, 

S 

109 


44 

3 > 

“ Store and Fixtures, 

7 

2,500 


(< 

3 ' 

“ Insurance, 

S 

37 

50 


3 i 

“ Commission, 

7 

434 

25 

:t 

3 ' 

“ Sundries, 

s 

2 , 6 SoUo { 

44 

3 ' 

“ Charges, 

S 

150 






3,674 ! 42 





3,674 

43 




1 

i II 

1 





/ 











\ 



(t> 
































































































ST 








— 



/ 

146 


BOOK-KEEPING 

BY 

DOUBLE ENTRY. 







SET II. 

LEDGER 

. ( 

4.) 




Dr. 




John A 

. Fargo & Co. 



Cr. 


iss 3 . 






1SS3. 






| t* 

j *< 

12 

To Bills Payable, 

s 

3,900 


Apr. 

3 

By Mdse., 

I 

3,900 














Dr. 




Mdse. 

A. 




Cr. 


iss 3 . 






1SS3. 






Apr. 

3 

To Sundries, 

1 

3,900 


Apr. 

5 

By Cash, 

I 

1,400 


tt 

6 

fi (< 

1 

Soo 


<< 

6 

“ Bills Receivable, 

I 

3,300 






4,700 






4,700 












Dr. 



James A. Wright & Co. 


Cr. 


iss 3 . 






1SS3. 






Apr. 

9 

To Bills Payable, 

2 

4 > I 3 '-' 

-5 

Apr. 

3 

By Mdse. Co. A, 

I 

3,800 









6 

it tt it ti 

I 

336 

85 





4 , >36 ji 5 




— 

4 , i 3<5 fS 









1 



Dr. 




Mdse. 

Co. B. 




Cr. 


ISS3. 






I 1SS3. 






Apr. 

4 

To Butler & Carlton, 

I 

4,000 


Apr. 

7 

By J ames Scott, 

2 

4,500 


tt 

7 

“ Sundries, 

2 

500 












4 , 5 oo 






4,500 












1 

Dr. 




Receivable. 



Cr. 


1883. 






1 1SS3. 






Apr. 

6 

To Mdse. Co. A, 

I 

3,300 


Apr. 

20 

By Sundries, 

3 

1,000 


ft 

9 

“ Mdse., 

2 

1,000 



^0 

“ Balance, 

U 

10,300 


U 

13 

“ Mdse. Co. C, 

2 

7,000 












11,300 






11,300 


May 

I 

To Balance, 

L + 

10,300 


May 

8 

Bv Cash, 

5 

3,300 


<< 

8 

“ Mdse. Co. E, 

5 

5,000 


“ 

17 

it tt 

6 

7,000 








«( 

3 1 

“ Balance, 

7 

5,000 




* 


15,300 





J 

15,30° 






■ 







Dr. 



Storage and Advertising. 


Cr. 


18S3. 






1883. 






Apr . 

3 ° 

To Loss and Gain, 

A? 

bo 


Apr. 

6 

By Mdse. Co. A, 

I 

10 








<< 

7 

ft it it 

2 

20 








it 

13 

ft tt tt £ 

2 

30 






60 





60 





! 








/ - - 


■ ..... 









\ 




ol’V 
























































































































































































BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY 


147 


SET II. LEDGER. (5.) 

Dr. Commission. Cr. 


1883. 1 





iss 3 . 






Apr. 

30 

To Loss and Gain } 

1-3 

480 

Apr. 

6 

By Mdse. Co. A, 

z 

”7 5° 






44 

7 

.. B, 

2 

112 50 






(4 

13 

(4 44 44 £ 

2 

25° 






4S0 





4S0 


May 

31 

To Loss and Gain, 

7 

434 25 

May 

3 

By Mdse. Co. D, 

4 

73 







ii 

8 

“ “ “ E, 

5 

1S7 50 






a 

*7 

44 4 4 44 p' 

6 

16S 75 

— 




434 25 




434 25 








II 1 

Dr. 




Bills Payable. 




O 


1883. 





1SS3. 






Apr. 

3° 

To Balance , 

L S 

12,036 25 

Apr. 

6 

By Butler & Carlton, 

2 

2,900 







44 

9 

“ Jas. A. Wright & Co., 

2 

4P3 6 25 






44 

12 

“ Str. Missouri Belle Stock, 

2 

5,000 






12,036 25 





12,036 25 

May 

12 

To First National Bank, 

S 

4. r 36 25 

May 

I 

By Balance, 

Ls 

12,036 k 

it 

26 

“ Cash, 

6 

3.900 

44 

12 

“ John A. Fargo & Co., 

5 

3.900 


ii 

31 

“ Balance, 

8 

10,781 

<( 

26 

“ Geo. Allen, 

6 

2 ,8 Si 






18,817 25 





18,817 125 












Dr. 




James Scott. 




O 


1SS3. 





1SS3. 






Apr. 

7 

To Mdse. Co. B, 

2 

4.500 

May 

28 

By Cash, 

6 

4,500 












Dr. 




Mdse. 

Co. C. 




Cr. 

1883. 





1883. 






Apr. 

9 

To Sundries, 

2 

8,700 

Apr. 

13 

By Sundries, 

2 

10,000 


44 

13 

a 44 

2 

1,300 











10,000 





10,000 










1 _ 


Dr. 




Peter 

Curtis. 




Cr. 


iss 3 . 

Apr. 

44 

23 

3° 

To Sundries, 

“ Balance, 

3 

LS 

666 66 

S,34‘> or I 

6,006 67 

1883. 

Apr. 

44 

9 

13 

By Mdse. Co. C, 

44 44 44 44 

2 

2 

5,666 67 

34 ° 

6,006 67 

May 

3 1 

To Balance, 

8 

5,340 01 

May 

I 

By Balance, 

LS 

5,340 01 


























































































I 




\ 

148 


BOOK-KEEPING 

BY 

DOUBLE ENTRY. 



/ 



SET II. 

LEDGER. ( 

6.) 




Dr. 



J. G. Holland. 



Cr 


iss 3 . 





| 1SS3. 






Apr. 

23 

To Sundries, 3 

1.333 34 

Apr. 

9 

By Mdse. Co. C, 

2 

2.S 33 

33 

if 

^ ! 

“ Balance, \ Lb 

CU 54 W 

if 

13 

if if if i ( 

2 

34 ° 

i 






if 

3 ° 

“ Loss and Gain, 

3 

11 5 





3.2SS 33 





3,288 33 

May 

31 

To Balance, 8 

1 .954 99 

M ay 

I 

By Balance, 

L6 

i, 9 S 4 99 










Dr. 


Steamer Missouri Belle Stock. 


Cr 


1SS3. 





1SS3. 






Apr. 

12 

To Sundries, 2 

10,000 


Apr. 

2S 

By Steamer Missouri Belle, 

3 

250 



/0 

“ Loss and Gain, L3 

2/0 



30 

“ Balance , Inventory, 

Lb 10,000 





10,250 






10,250 


May 

I 

To Balance, L6 

10,000 


May 

3 i 

By Balance, 

S 

10,000 











Dr. 



7. Wills 

& Co. 



Cr. 


! 1SS3. 





1SS3. 






May 

30 

To Cash, 6 

1,000 


Apr. 

l6 

By Mdse. 

3 

1,000 













Dr. 



Arthur Astor, Private 



Cr. 


1883. 





, 1883. 






Apr. 

iS 

To Cash, 3 

•So 


May 

3 i 

By A. A., Stock, 

7 

l 5 c 













Z>r. 



John Adams , Private. 



Cr 


iss 3 . 





I 1SS3. 






Apr. 

25 

To First National Bank, 3 

1 

200 


j May 

3 i 

By J. A., Stock, 

7 

200 













Dr. 


Steamer Missouri 

Belle. 


Cr 


iss 3 . 





1SS3. 






Apr. 

28 

To Str. Missouri Belle Stock, 3 

250 


May 

31 

By Balance, 

8 

250 












Dr. 



Mdse. 

Co. D 




Cr. 


1SS3. 




1SS3. 






May 

I 

To Sundries, 4 

1,460 


May 

3 

By Cash, 

4 

75 ° 


<i 

3 

if if . 

4 

1,660 


if 


“ Henry Green & Co., 

4 

2,370 





3,120 






3,>20 












/ 










N, 




\ 




































































































































































1 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY 


149 


SET II. LEDGER. (7.) 


Dr. George Allen. Cr. 


ISS 3. 






1SS3. 





May 

26 

To Bills Payable, 

6 

2,SSl 


May 

I 

By Mdse. Co. D, 

4 

i,4io| 







it 

3 

a a a a 

4 

I > 47 1 _ 





2,SSl 






2,SSl 











1 

Dr. 




Watson 

Weed. 



Cr. 

1SS3. 






1SS3. 





May 

2 

To Sundries, 

4 

9°9 


May 

31 

By Balance, 

S 

1.709 

• < 

25 

“ Shipment in Co. No. i, 

6 

Soo 











1,709 






1.709: _ 







* 






Dr. Shipment in Co. No. i. Cr. 


1883. 

May 

2 

To Sundries, 

4 

909 


1883. 

May 

a 

25 

31 

By Watson Weed, 

“ Loss and Gain, 

6 

S 

Soo 

109 

• 




909 






909 













Dr. 


Insurance. 


Cr. 


1883. 

May 

3 To Cash, 

4 

37 

So 

1883. 

May 31 By Loss and Gain, 

8 

37 

50 











Dr. 


Henry Green & Co. 


Cr. 


1SS3. 

May 

ti 

3 

15 

To Mdse. Co. D, 

“ Loss and Gain, 

4 

6 

2,370 
27 S 


1SS3. 

May 

15 

By Sundries, 

2,64s 












Dr. Charges. 


6 

2,64s 



2,64s 






Cr. 


1SS3, 

May 

3 i 

To Loss and Gain, 

S 

ISO 






Go 

-- 







1SS3. 

May 

<< 

3 

S 

By Mdse. Co. D, 

it H “ 

4 

5 

So 

So 

it 

i 7 

“ “ “ F, 

6 

So 





150 






























































































































































































* 5 ° 


BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY 


SET II. LEDGER. (8.) 

Dr. Mdse. Co. E. Cr. 


ISS3. 

May 

U 

7 

8 

To Sundries, 

<< (< 

5 

5 

2,500 

5,000 


1SS3. 

May 

8 

By Sundries, 

5 

7.5oo 


7 , 5 oo 


7,5oo 











Dr. 




Geo. Emerson & 

Co. 




• 

1333. 

May 

3i 

To Balance, 

S 

4,254 16 

1SS3. 

May 

<< 

7 

8 

By Mdse. Co. E, 

<< << << (« 

5 

5 

2,000 

2,254 16 

4,254 16 

4,254 16 







— 



Dr. 




Mdse. 

Co. F. 




G 


1883. 






iss 3 . 






May 

7 

To Sundries, 

S 

4,000 


May 

H 

By Cash, 

5 

4,750 



*7 

<t <( 

6 

2,750 


<< 

17 

(< << 

6 

2,000 






6,750 






6,750 












Dr. 




Hugh Spencer. 



Cr. 

1SS3. 






1S83. 






May 

»7 

To Cash, 

6 

6,515 62 

May 

7 

By Mdse. Co. F, 

5 

3,500 








<< 

>7 

tt a «« 4 t 

6 

3,015 62 





6,515 62 





6,515 62 










1 


Dr. 




J/! Clay & 

Cb. 



Cr 


1SS3. 






1SS3. 






May 

31 

To Balance, 

8 

2,254 ! 7 

May 

8 

By Mdse. Co. E, 

5 

2,254 

’7 












Dr. 




Balance. 




Cr 


1883. 






18S3. 






May 

31 

To Store and Fixtures, 

7 

15,000 


May 

3 1 

By Mortgage Payable, 

7 

4,500 



31 

“ Cash, 

7 

4,575 

09 

it 

3" 

“ Interest Tayable, 

7 

18 

37 

it 

31 

“ First National Bank, 

7 

21,337 

50 

<< 

3 1 

“ Bills Payable, 

8 

io,7Si 



31 

“ Interest Receivable, 

7 

146 

82 

“ 

3 1 

“ Peter Curtis, 

8 

5,34° 

OI 

<< 

31 

“ Bills Receivable, 

7 

5,000 


“ 

3i 

“ J. G. Holland, 

8 ( 

i,954 

99 


31 

“ Str. Missouri Belle Stock. 

8 

10,000 


i* 

3‘ 

Geo. Emerson & Co., 

8 

4,254 

l6 


31 

“ Str. Missouri Belle, 

8 

250 


(1 

3i 

“ M. S. Clay & Co., 

8 

2,254 

17 

<< 

3‘ 

“ Watson Weed, 

8 

1,709 


«< 

3' 

“ John Adams, 

8 

35,785 

■4 







«( 

3i 

“ Arthur Astor, 

8 

13,130 

57 





58,018 41 





5S,oi8 

41 

- 1 

1 



~ 1 


1 




— 



































































































































































BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY 


SET II. 


BALANCES. 

TOTAL 

FOOTINGS. 


II,OOC 


1 2 , 50 q 


- 

11,26^ 

83 

2I,2S4 63 


- 

8,831 

25 

10,000 

• 




4 2 7 


- 

2S4 


2S4 





4,183 75 


- 

1,05c 


5,700 

- 




US 

. 




4 , 7 °° 





4,136 25 





4 , 5 oo 



10,30c 


11,300 

• 


4,50c 


4 ,Soo 





10,000 





666 66 





L 333 34 



9,75c 


10.000 

• 


20 C 


209 

• 


15c 





2 5 c 


259 



57,584 

h ss 

105,807 90 









I 5 I 


TRIAL BALANCE, APRIL 


John Adams (Stock) 
Arthur Astor (Stock) 
Store and Fixtures 
Mortgage Payable 
Cash 

First National Bank 
Interest 

- Expense 
Butler & Carlton 

Merchandise 

- Loss and Gain - 

• John A. Fargo & Co. 

- Mdse. Co. A. 

J as. A. Wright & Co. 

- Mdse. Co. B. - 
Bills Receivable 

Storage and Advertising 
Commission 

- Bills Payable - 
James Scott 

- Mdse. Co. C. - 

- Peter Curtis 

- J. G. Holland - 
Steamer Missouri Belle Stock 

- J. Wills & Co. - 

- John Adams (Private) - 
Arthur Astor (Private) 

- Steamer Missouri Belle • 


TOTAL 

BALANCES. 

FOOTINGS. 



i 2,6SS 90 

12.68S 

90 

10.000 

10,000 


1,500 



9,000 

10,01^ 

9,00a 


1,163 75 



84, 

79 

73 

4,i 8 3 -5 

4650 



1,160 

1.045 


3,909 

3,90a 


4,70a 

4,139 25 



4,500 

1,000 



60 

60 


480 

12,036 25 

4^0 

12,036 

2 S 

10.000 



6,006 67 

S. 34 C 

01 

3.2SS 33 

i ,954 

99 

250 

I,OOQ 

I,OOC 



105 ,S 07 9 ° j 57 . 5 8 4 88 


Inventory.—Property Unsold, April 30. 


Store and Fixtures, valued at cost 

Mdse, on hand. 

Steamer Missouri Belle, at cost ... 



10,00c 


SET II. TRIAL BALANCE, MAY. 


BALANCES. ; FOOTINGS.* 


FOOTINGS. BALANCES. 






20d 




159 


12,500 


12,500 




4,509 


4,575 

09 

38.546 

21 

21,337 

50 

31,331 

25 1 

341 

60 

341 

60 

159 


150 




484 

37 

5,000 


15.3001 




00 

£ 

. ON 

25 

250 


250 

1 

1,70c 


1,709 


109 


909 


37 

50 

37 

50 

10,000 


10,000 


56,009 

69 

1 124,445 

IS 


• John Adams 
Arthur Astor 
Store and Fixtures 

- Mortgage Payable 

Cash 

- First National Bank 

Interest 

- Expense 
Loss and Gain 
Bills Receivable 

- Commission 
Bills Payable 

- Peter Curtis 

- Steamer Missouri Belle • 

- Watson Weed - 
Shipment in Co, I 

- Insurance 

Charges 

Geo. Emerson & Co. 

- M. S. Clay & Co. 

- J. G. Holland - 
Steamer Missouri Belle Stock 


14,644 94 

1 i .949 37 

9,ood 
33 > 97 1 12 
9.993 75 


59d 17 
10,300 
434 2 S 
iS,8i7 25 
5,349 01 


Soc 


lSd A 

4. 2 54 16 

2.254 '7 
1 , 954,99 


124 , 445 ! 18 


14,444 94 
ii ,790 37 

4,500 


io5j So 

434 2 5 
10,781 
5,340 01 



2,254! 17 
L 954 99 

56,009 69 


* The amounts in this column do not comprise, like those in the preceding balances, the footings of all the Ledger accounts, but such only 
as do not balance or cancel. The footings of this column and its opposite will not, therefore, tally with the footings of tne Journal. Tlu. 
method here adopted is the one most in use with accountants, but does not afford so sure a test of the correctness of the Ledger. 


























































































































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© 


PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


I 53 



-fh' F the importance to all classes of a legi- 
#Kf|| ble, easy and rapid handwriting, we 
scarcely need speak. No other one 

aVj> ^ c 

attainment assists an equal number of 
young ladies and gentlemen to positions of profit 
and advancement, or affords more satisfaction 
as an accomplishment; and we believe it to be 
an acquirement within the reach of all persons 
having common sense and one good hand. 

It has been the determination of the publish- 

4 

ers of this work to spare no pains or expense to 
place before the student the very best instruction 
and examples in every department of Penman¬ 
ship. They accordingly employed Prof. D. T. 
Ames, of New York, the famed pen artist, and 
editor of the Penman's Art Journal , to prepare, 
specially for this work, the following pages of 
instruction and examples. It is their belief that 
the instruction embodies the best thought of 
the times, while the copies and specimens are 
certainly the product of the highest order of 
artistic skill. 


All the copies and specimens have been photo- 
engraved directly from the original pen-and-ink 
copy, and therefore may be said to be actual 
pen-work, and not the result of the engraver’s 
skill, as is generally the case with what has 
heretofore been presented to the public as repro¬ 
ductions of penmanship. 

The learner will, therefore, know that the 
copies before him, having once been executed 
with a pen, may be exactly reproduced by the 
same simple process. 

If, in some instances, the forms are less rigidly 
correct, or the lines less delicate than are fine 
plate engravings, we are fully convinced that the 
more easy, flowing and natural lines of the 
actual pen-work will more than compensate for 
such lack, if so it may be termed. 

The publishers are confident that no equally 
practical and useful exposition of teaching and 
practicing the art of Penmanship has ever been 
presented to the public. 


/ 


9 

T 


























































PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


AV 


^POSITIONS*#- 

^IRST in importance to the pupil in writing is a Correct 
['([ Position. As in logic an error in the premises must 
lead to false conclusions, so a bad position while learn¬ 
ing to write must lead to failure. It is only when in 
a correct position that the pen, even in the hand of its skillful 
master, is capable of producing the smooth, graceful line, shade 
and curve so essential to good writing. If such is the fact when 
in a master’s hand, how doubly so it is in the undisciplined and 
struggling hand of the learner! 

It is also important that a proper position be maintained at 
the table or desk, as well as the relative positions of the pen, 
hand, paper, desk and body. 

ing on the muscles 

° RIGHT POSITION. 

just forward of the 

elbow, and rest the hand on the nails of the third and fourth 
fingers, not permitting the wrist to touch the paper. Let the 
hands be at right angles to each other, and rest on the book, 
keeping the book parallel to the side of the desk. 

This position is advocated as furnishing the best support for 
the hand and arm while wanting, and we think not without jus¬ 
tice in school or class rooms, where the desk is often sloping 
and narrow. 

Front Position. —In this, 
the same relative position of 
hand, pen and paper should be 6^ TjjJ 

maintained as described in the A V Jl 

former one. In commercial col- 
leges and writing academies, A • J\, 
where more spacious desks, or \ 

tables, are used than in the 
common school room, this posi- £ 
tion is permissible and is fre- 
quently adopted. 


FRONT POSITION. 


Left Position. —Without illustrating this position, we would 
say that the left side is presented to the desk, and the same rela¬ 
tive positions maintained as in the right and front. This position 
is advocated on the ground of its relieving the right arm from 
being burdened with any support of the body while writing, and 
thus giving a more free, rapid and less tiresome action to the 
hand and arm. This argument has considerable force where 
the fore-arm or muscular movement is practiced. 

It is also the most convenient, if not a necessity, in the count¬ 
ing-room, where numerous and large books are required to 
remain in a position at right angles with the desk, and also in 
the execution of large drawings or specimens of penmanship, 
which necessarily, or most conveniently, occupy positions directly 
in front of the artist. 

Right Oblique Position. —Another position at the desk, 
sometimes advocated by authors and teachers, is the right 
oblique, which is a position between the front and side, as 

the first and second 
fingers and thumb, 
letting it cross the forefinger just forward of the knuckle, and 
the second finger at the root of the nail, three-fourths of an inch 
from the pen’s point. Bring the point squarely to the paper 
and let the tip of the holder point toward the right shoulder. 

The thumb should be bent outward at the first joint, and 
touch the holder opposite the first joint of the forefinger. 

The first and second fingers should touch each other as far as 
the first joint of the first finger; the third and fourth must be 
slightly curved and separate from the others at the middle joint, 
and rest upon the paper at the tips of the nails. The wrist 
must always be elevated a little above the desk. This position 
of the pen is undoubtedly the best for all writers using the 
finger movement, as it admits of the greatest freedom and facil¬ 
ity of action of the fingers. But among writers using the 
muscular movement, where less depends upon the action of the 
fingers, it is common, and we think well, to allow the holder to 


RIGHT OBLIQUE POSITION. 


(5 














































PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


/ 


*55 


fall back and below the knuckle joint. It is more easily held, 
and, from its forming a more acute angle with the paper, moves 
more readily and smoothly over its surface. 

Finger Movement is the combined action of the first and 
second fingers and thumb. 

Fore-Ann Movement is the action of the fore-arm sliding the 
hand on the nails of the third and fourth fingers. 

Combined Movement is that which is most used in business 
penmanship. It is a union of the fore-arm with the finger 
movement, and possesses great advantage over the other move¬ 
ments in the greater rapidity and ease with which it is employed. 

Whole-Arm Movement is the action of the whole arm from 
the shoulder, with the elbow slightly raised, and the hand 
sliding on the nails of the third and fourth fingers, and is used 
with facility in striking capital letters and in off-hand flourishing. 


MOVEMENT EXERCISE. 

All instruction in penmanship should be initiated with a 
liberal use of movement exercises, arranged and practiced 
with the view of facilitating upward and downward a§ well 
as lateral movement of the hand, and each and every lesson 
should be preceded by more or less practice upon movement 
exercises. 


CARE IN PRACTICE. 

In practicing upon movements and writing, it should be con¬ 
stantly borne in mind that it is not the amount of practice so 
much as the careful and thoughtful effort to acquire precision 
and certainty that determines the success of the writer. 

It is often said that “ practice makes perfect.” This is true, 
if the term practice implies thoughtful, patient and persistent 
effort for improvement; otherwise it may be quite untrue. 

Thoughtless scribbling tends rather to retard than to enhance 
the acquisition of good writing. Each time a copy has been 
carelessly repeated, incorrect or bad habits have been confirmed 
rather than corrected—a move backward instead of forward. 
This is a fact not sufficiently appreciated by teachers or pupils. 
Better far not to practice than to do so carelessly; one might as 
well seek to win a race by occasionally taking a turn in the 
opposite direction. 

Good or well-constructed writing is no more essential than 
that it should be executed with facility and ease; yet we would 
have no learner fall into the mistaken idea that he is to give 
special attention to speed before having acquired by deliberate 
study and practice correct forms and proportions in writing. 
First accuracy, then speed. Rapid and thoughtless practice is 
worse than useless. The mind must be educated before the 
hand. The hand and pen are only the servants of the mind, and 
as such can never surpass the mind’s conception and power to 
guide and direct in any performance. 

If upon the tablets of the mind there is presented constantly 

to our mental vision a perfect 
copy of the letters and their 
varied combinations into grace¬ 
ful writing, the hand will strike 
for the single and definite pur¬ 
pose of reproducing the same, 
and will progress steadily to the 
attainment of skill requisite for 
the reproduction of the most 
perfect conceptions of the mind. 
The hand of the greatest sculptor or artist has no cunning not 
imparted by a skillful brain. Michael Angelo was the chief of 
artists, because of his superior mental conception of art, and 
may we not suppose that the untouched canvas presented to his 
mental vision all the grandeur and beauty in design and finish 
that delighted the eye of the beholder when finished into the 
most exquisite painting? The hand can never excel the con¬ 
ception of the mind that educates and directs its action. If 
Spencer or Flickinger excel others in the perfection and beauty 
of penmanship, is it not because of their superior conception of 
that in which superior penmanship consists ? The student who 
would have success must see that his practice is preceded by 
and always attended with thoughtful study and criticism. 

After having once written the copy, study and criticise your 
effort before the next trial. Your faults noted, and a thought as 
to how they may be best corrected will enable you to make an 
intelligent and successful effort for improvement. Remember 
that unknown faults can never be avoided or corrected. First 



SCALE OF SLANT. 

Main Slant. —A straight line slanting to 
the right of the vertical, forming an angle of 
52 0 with the horizontal, gives the main slant 
for all written letters. 

Connective Slant .—Curves which connect straight lines in 
small letters, in a medium style of writing, are usually made on 
an angle of 30°. This is called the connective slant. See dia¬ 
gram. 

Base Line. —The horizontal line on which the writing rests 
is called the base line. 

Head Line .—The horizontal 
line to which the short letters 
extend is called the head line. 

Top Line .—The horizontal 
line to which the loop and capi¬ 
tal letters extend is called the 
top line. 

A Space in Height is the 
height of small i. 

A Space in Width is the width of small u. 

The distance between the small letters is I spaces, measured 
at head line, except in the a, d, g and q. The top of the pointed 
oval in these letters should be two spaces to the right of a pre¬ 
ceding letter. 

Upper and Lotver Turns .—In the analysis of small letters, 
short curves occur as connecting links between the principles. 
These curves v r e call turns. When one appears at the top of a 
letter, it is called an tipper turn ; when at the base, it is called 
a lower turn. 



POSITION OF PEN AND ARM. 



\ 



























•V 




/ 


j 56 


PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


(0 


study to discover, and then to mend. Short exercises or copies, 
if rightly practiced, are much more favorable for improvement 
than long ones, inasmuch as they are repeated at intervals so 
short as to keep faults and criticisms fresh in mind, while oft- 
repeated efforts for correction will be correspondingly effective. 
Faults observed by ourselves or pointed out by others at the 
beginning of a long copy are very likely to be out of mind 
before that portion of the copy in which they occur is repeated. 

WRITING NOT A SPECIAL GIFT. 

It is often said that good writing is a “ special gift.” This 
idea is not only fallacious, but is exceedingly pernicious as 
regards the acquisition of good writing, inasmuch as it tends to 
discourage pupils who write badly, by leading them to believe 
that, not having “the gift,” they are debarred from becoming 
good writers. 

Good writing is no more a gift than is good reading, spelling, 
grammar, or any other attainment, and in the same way it is and 
can be acquired, viz., by patient and studious effort. 

The correct form and construction of writing must be learned 
by study, while practice must give the manual dexterity for its 
easy and graceful execution. Many persons fail to become 
good writers from not properly uniting study and practice. 
Careful study with too little practice will give writing compara¬ 
tively accurate in its form and manner of construction, but 
labored, stiff and awkward in its execution; while, upon the 
other hand, much practice with little study imparts a more easy 
and flowing style, but with much less accuracy, as regards the forms 
of letters and general proportion and construction of the writing, 
which will commonly have a loose and sprawly appearance. 

Example of writing which has resulted more from study than 
practice: 




Example of writing in which there has been more practice 
than study: 

taS) 



The result of study properly combined with practice: 



Undoubtedly, many of our readers will see forcibly illustrated 
in one of these examples their own experience. So manifest is 
the effect of these different modes of practice that we have only 
to glance at a piece of writing to discern the extent to which a 
writer has combined study with practice while learning lo write. 


UNITY AND SIMPLICITY OF FORM. 

It is an old but true saying that “ a jack of all trades is master 
of none.” This is so from the fact that, working at many 
things, neither the hand nor brain can attain to a high order 
of proficiency or skill. It is the specialist that advances the 
standard of progress in all the directions of human discovery. 
Concentration of thought and action makes the great masters of 
the world, while by a diffusion of the same the greatest genius 
is dissipated and fails to attain to a marked degree of eminence. 

So, in learning to write, the pupil who vacillates between 
many systems and multitudinous forms of letters must inevitably 
fail of becoming an expert and skilful writer. 

It is a matter of frequent observation that persons learning or 
practicing writing vacillate between from two to six different 
forms of the capitals, and as many as are possible in the small 
letters, apparently in the belief that variety is the chief element 
of good writing, which is a double mistake, as it detracts from 
the good appearance of the writing at the same time that it 
enhances the difficulty of learning and of executing it. 

For example, we have known writers who, in executing a 
short piece of writing, would for many of the letters make use 
of forms as varied and numerous as follows: 



and use more or less variety in all of the letters, thus requiring 
study and practice upon about one hundred different and unnec¬ 
essarily complicated forms for the alphabet, in place of twenty- 
six. Thus the labor and uncertainty of becoming a skillful 
writer is magnified fourfold. A single and simple form for each 
letter, capital and small, should be adopted, and, with a few 
exceptions, which we shall hereafter explain, should be invaria¬ 
bly practiced. The frequent and uniform repetition will 
impart that accuracy of form, grace and facility of execution 
which constitute good writing. 

The simple forms are not only more easily acquired and 
more rapidly executed, but they are more easily read than the 
more ornate styles; in fact, those forms that cost the most are 
worth the least. It is as if a merchant should constantly pur¬ 
chase an inferior class of merchandise and pay the high price 
of the best; his chances for success certainly would not be very 
promising. 

ECONOMY OF FORM. 

Labor, whether of the clerk or mechanic, is rewarded accord¬ 
ing to the results it can produce. 

The copyist or clerk who can write one hundred words 
equally as well in the same time that another writes fifty will 
certainly, other things being equal, command twice as much 
pay. The rapidity with which writing can be executed depends 
largely upon the simplicity of the forms of letters used and the 
size of the writing. A medium or small hand is written with 
much more ease and rapidity than a large hand, from the fact 
that the pen can be carried over short spaces in less time and 
with greater ease than over long ones, and can execute simple 


V 



















PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


x 57 



forms more easily and rapidly than complicated ones. To illus¬ 
trate : Suppose one writer were to habitually make the capital 
R thus: 

Which requires eleven motions of the hand to 
execute; and that another were to uniformly make 
it thus: 

Requiring only four motions of the hand. . It is 
apparent that the difference of time required to make 
each cannot be less than the proportion of eleven to 
four. That is not all. The complicated form consists of many 
lines, some of which are required to run parallel to each other, 
and all made with reference to balancing or harmonizing with 
some other line, and requires to be made with much greater care 
and skill than the more simple form, so that the disadvantage is 
even greater than indicated by the simple proportion between 
eleven and four. 

The practice of these complex forms of the alphabet will be 
fatal to rapid and legible business writing. 

These remarks are intended to apply more especially to busi¬ 
ness and unprofessional writing. Where show and beauty are 
of greater consideration than dispatch, variety and complexity 
of forms are quite proper, and even necessary. 

We give here the entire alphabet of capitals such as we 
would recommend for all business purposes, as combining sim¬ 
plicity of form and ease of construction: 



jPd j;3 V cP Jl 

C# of O 

a ^ dr 



c? a 

CP a 



We would add as not objectionable the following: 


CORRECT PROPORTION ESSENTIAL TO 
GOOD WRITING. 

One might be able to execute faultlessly each single letter of 
the alphabet, and yet be a most miserable writer. Writing, to 
be really good, must be harmonious in all its parts; letters must 
be proportionate to each other, properly connected, spaced, have 
a uniform slope and degree of pen-pressure, etc., as well as an 


easy and graceful movement. The following example will 
illustrate the bad effect of disproportion of letters: 





It will be seen that each letter, taken by itself, is creditably 
accurate in form, and yet, when associated with each other in a 
word, they present an appearance as ungainly as would an ox 
yoked with an elephant. We have often seen writing in which 
the letters were really badly formed, yet so harmonious in their 
combinations, and easy in their construction, as to present an 
attractive, not to say an elegant, effect; while, upon the other 
hand, we have often seen writing in which the letters were well 
formed, and yet so awkward in their combinations, and labored 
in their execution, as to be really painful to the sight of persons 
having a refined and correct taste regarding writing. 

CORRECT AND INCORRECT SPACING. 

Another important factor of good writing is the proper spac¬ 
ing and connecting of letters and words. Upon these very much 
depends, as in many instances the connecting lines alone impart 
the distinctive character to letters. 

In determining the proper spacing of writing, the distance 
between the straight lines of the small ti may be taken as a 
space in width. The distance between the parts of letters hav¬ 
ing more than one downward stroke should be one space; 
between the letters one and one-fourth spaces, measured at the 
head line, except a , d, g and q, which should occupy two spaces, 
measuring from the preceding letter to the point of the ovals; 
between words there should be two spaces. 

Example of correct spacing : 

Incorrect spacing: 






/ 

SLANT OF WRITING. 

The degree of slant now adopted by the leading authors, and 
one which we approve, is at an angle of 5 2 ° from the horizon¬ 
tal, as per diagram in a preceding column. 

The relative effects of incorrect and correct slope may be 
seen in the following examples: 



The variation in the slope of different letters and their parts 
will be rendered much more perceptible by drawing straight 
extended lines through their parts, thus : 































One of the most common faults in slope occurs on the last 
part of letters in, n, u, h and p, which are made thus: 


sm//rvsM/s / 

Example of correct slant, space, proportion, etc. 




SIZE OF WRITING. 

In its practical application to the affairs of life, writing must 
be greatly varied in its size, according to place and purpose. 

It would be obviously bad taste to use the same size and style 
of writing fqr the headings of a ledger and other books of 
account or record that would be employed on the body of a 
page. In the address of a letter and superscription upon the 
envelope much greater license, as regards size and style, may be 
taken than in the body of the writing. Nor is it practical at all 
times to maintain a uniform size for body writing. It may, 
with propriety, be written larger upon wide than narrow-ruled 
paper. Care should always be taken to gauge the size of the 
writing according to the space in and the purpose for which it 
is to be written. This should be done by varying the scale 
rather than the proportions of the writing. When writing upon 
ruled paper we should always imagine the space between the 
lines to be divided into four equal spaces, three of which may 
be occupied by the writing; the fourth must not be touched, 
save by the downward extended letters from the line above. 
This open space between the lines separates them, and enables 
the eye more readily to follow and distinguish between the lines 
when reading. A small or medium hand is the best, both as 
regards the readiness with which it is read and the ease and 
rapidity of its execution. 

In a large hand, the writing is apt to be more or less inter¬ 
mingled and confused, the loops of one line often cutting into 
and obscuring the writing upon other lines, while the more 
extended sweeps of the pen in the large writing are proportion¬ 
ately slow and tedious. 

For legibility, ease and rapidity of execution, small, unshaded 
writing is decidedly the best. 


HOW TO LEARH AND TEACH 
WRITING. 

CONSPICUOUS FAULTS. 

To note and indicate all the faults liable to occur in writing, 
or to prescribe a cure-all remedy, is more than we presume to 
undertake. They are as numerous and varied as are the cir¬ 
cumstances, habits, tastes and accomplishments of the writers; 
but it is quite safe to say that a very large proportion of all the 
“unpleasantness” in writing comes from sheer carelessness on 


the part of the writers, which is manifest in the awkward, non¬ 
descript or uncertain forms which are employed—forms often 
most easy and graceful, but which, taken separately, represent 
no intelligible character, and, apart from the context, are liable 
to be mistaken for any one of the several letters that are similar 
in their construction. This fault is specially grievous where it 
occurs in an initial letter, in short names, abbreviations and 
cipher writing, as in such cases the context furnishes the reader 
little or no aid. 

Another prolific source of annoyance, and not unfrequently 
illegibility, arises from the inexcusable use of flourishes and 
superfluous lines. We say inexcusable, because, at best, they 
mix and confuse the writing, and, when hurriedly and carelessly 
made, they frequently take forms which are liable to be mis¬ 
taken by the reader for letters or parts of letters, and thereby 
puzzle and annoy, if not entirely change the intent of the 
writer. Another frequent fault is the personal eccentricity 
which leads writers to adopt, as their style , forms for letters, and 
especially capitals and in autographs, which are entirely outside 
the pale of any known system of writing, and whose identity 
can only be guessed at by those unfamiliar with the peculiarity. 

While, as we have stated, it is quite impossible to name all 
the sources of bad writing, or to formulate rules for its pre¬ 
vention or correction, we do believe that there are many of the 
most common faults — among which are those enumerated 
above—that with a little thought and care may be avoided. 

To aid the student, as far as possible by negative instruction, 
to avoid some of the more common and inexcusable faults, we 
have formulated a few rules, with examples illustrative, which 
we here present. 

Rule First .—All unnecessary, superfluous or flourished lines 
must be omitted; as: 


cJLoM/ 3 fc 

cAjz/ 



Rule Second .—No capital letters or words should be joined 
together; as: 



for 

M Fr cytQf&ffJ 



fan 





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PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


159 


Rule Third .—Capital letters should not be joined to the 
smaller letters; as: 



Rule Four .—The capital T should never be looped at the 
top; as: 


Rule Six .—Cross all /’s with a single horizontal line at the top. 






A telegraph dispatch addressed as above was taken down and 
sent to Ha-Hi-E, who was not known at the street and number 
to which it was directed, and it was consequently returned; and 
when the error was discovered, and traced to the operator who 
made it, he was asked how he came to make such a mistake, and 
whom he supposed Ha-Hi-E to be. The operator replied, 
“ Some Indian Chief or Chinese ”—a very natural supposition 
in such a city of all peoples as is New York. 




y tiT' 




.Rule Seven .—The capital /should always be made above the 
line, ■while the J should extend below. Otherwise, when used 
as initials or in cipher-writing, they cannot be distinguished with 
certainty. 


Rule Eight .—The small s should never be made with the 
loop below the line, as it is liable to be mistaken for a p or f; as : 


Several expensive litigations have grown out of the delivery 
of messages having the latter combination, as Seventy when it 
was written for Twenty, or vice versa , by the sender of the 
dispatch. We are not informed respecting the precise circum¬ 
stances of any of the cases, but, supposing the error to have been 
in orders to buy twenty thousand bushels of grain, shares of 
stock, or other thing of similar value, the consequence might 
have been serious. 


Rule Five .—A capital H should never be so made as to be 
mistaken for an A or other combination ; as: 




Rule Nine .—Letters should be connected in their parts, and 
with other letters, by the proper and characteristic curved or 
straight lines. It is a common and grievous fault in writing that 
a straight line or the wrong curve is employed in the construc¬ 
tion and connection of letters, thus leaving them without dis¬ 
tinctive character, or imparting one which is false and misleading. 
For instance, a form made thus may be taken for 

an / 7 'T/i* and, possibly, for a . Incases 

where the context does not determine, its identity becomes a 
mere matter of guess, and when extended thus /ZZZZ'' 
its significance, as will be seen, is still more vague and uncertain, 
as it might be intended for either of the following seven 
combinations: 

With a properly trained hand no more time or effort is 
required to impart the true and unmistakable characteristics to 
each letter than to make forms whose identity is open to doubt 
and conjecture. 


z. 























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PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


Rule Ten .—No letter should have a doubtful form, such as 
may be mistaken for one of several letters; as: 



A/ for, 

fo 


El' AA 07*/A 



Afor /0oty&/; 


Rule Eleven .—All eccentric forms and conspicuous personal 
oddities, which so often render writing, and especially auto¬ 
graphs, illegible, should be avoided; as : 





*%rrzf for 







This example was used as an initial letter in 
sf/ a communication recently received. In address¬ 
ing the author we could only do as we are 
often obliged to do with doubtful initials—make a facsimile, 
and leave it to the postmaster to decipher at the office of delivery. 
Writers should remember that short names and initial letters, 
when carelessly written, are very liable to be misread, from the 
fact that no aid can be derived from the context. 

A large proportion of letters which miscarry through the 
mails do so from the careless manner in which they are super¬ 
scribed. As an example, let us suppose that a writer desires to 
address an important communication to 





but he hurriedly and carelessly superscribes it thus : 





The abbreviation for the name of the State (Cal.) is so 
indefinite that the letter goes first to Colorado, but, there being 
no Herman or Sherman in that State, it is finally re-directed to 
Herman, Cal. The initial S and following letter h being of so 
indefinite and doubtful a character, they together were naturally 
mistaken for an H, but, there being no Herman post-office in Cali¬ 
fornia, the mistake is finally discovered by a distributing agent, 
and the letter is again re-directed to Sherman, Cal.; here the H 
in Howell is read St, and accordingly the letter is placed in S 
box for general delivery; not being called for, it is at length 
advertised in the list of undelivered letters, thus : I. A. Stowell. 
The J, having been made above the line, is mistaken for an I, 
while the initial // is so nearly closed at the top that it is mistaken 
for an A. After being duly advertised, the letter is sent to the 
Dead Letter Office at Washington, and from there returned, 
after several weeks, to the writer. J. H. Howell, in the mean¬ 
time, has enquired daily for letters at the Sherman post-office, 
when the delivery clerk has looked in the H box and answered, 
“ Nothing.” Mr. Howell has also carefully scanned every list 
of advertised letters, but never could he have imagined that the 
letter advertised for I. A. Stowell was the one he had so long 
and anxiously looked for. 

It is just such errors as those above described that cause a 
large percentage of the miscarriages of mail matter. 




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PRINCIPLES. 





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PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


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EN embellishment is one of the oldest and 
most useful of the arts. In ancient times, 
before the discovery of the art of printing, 
the pen was not only the sole recording 
agent, save the chisel, but the chief implement 
of art. All manuscript books were the tedious 
productions of the pen. These were often elab¬ 
orately embellished with ornate lettering and 
various styles of ornament. The more ancient 
styles of ornamentation were of the scroll and 
grotesque order. Mythical figures of gods, 
dragons, genii and all manner of imaginary 
forms figured conspicuously in ornamentation. 
Later, beginning with about the sixteenth cen¬ 
tury, in nearly all of the French, English and 
American published works upon penmanship, 
off-hand flourishing was the predominant mode 
of pen embellishment, which appeared in all 
manner of forms, from a simple sweep of the pen 
to elaborate designs representing birds, beasts, 
dragons, fishes and all manner of fanciful 
designs. This order of embellishment, although 
greatly modified from the masters of a few 
centuries ago, is still a conspicuous element in 
the penman’s as well as the engraver’s art, and 
is, therefore, entitled to consideration in any 
work of the present time devoted to artistic 
penmanship. The art of flourishing is not only 
desirable as an accomplishment to the pen 
artist, but its practice tends to discipline the hand 
and eye, so as to impart greater ease and dex¬ 
terity in the execution of practical writing. 

Recently, through the introduction of the 
various photographic processes for transferring 


and printing pen drawings, new demands have 
been made upon the penman’s art. The pen 
artist is now called upon to execute all manner 
of designs which have hitherto been strictly 
within the province of the engraver, and such 
designs must be produced not only with a 
degree of care and perfection, but in a style to 
meet and rival the various classes of engraving 
with which they must compete. 

Through this exacting demand, the styles of 
lettering and ornamentation which were formerly 
known and recognized as essentially the pen¬ 
man’s art require modification and adaptation to 
these new purposes. Flourishing is now less 
abundant and conspicuous; in its place are 
various other species of ornamentation, such as 
floral, scroll, panel and tint work. Examples of 
these several styles of ornamentation, illustra¬ 
tive of their proper application in artistic pen 
work, will appear upon the following pages. 

It has been the earnest endeavor of the author 
to present the best forms for standard and ornate 
lettering, together with designs covering the 
entire range of the penman’s art. 



T THE DESIGN AND EXECUTION 

OF PEN-WORK. ,^13. 

'HATEVER the purpose of any work, 
much of its success depends upon the 
skill and artistic effect of the design ; 
hence extreme care and thought should be ex¬ 
ercised in this respect. No amount of work, 

















































\ 


PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 


173 


however carefully and skilfully performed, can 
produce a good or satisfactory result from a 
design awkward or inappropriate. 

After selecting the paper or material upon 
which the work is to be executed, fasten it with 
thumb-tacks or glue to a drawing-board ; draw 
with a pencil border and centre lines; then 
sketch lightly with a pencil the design, having 
care to give due prominence to the several parts 
according to their importance in the work, with 
a proper intermingling of light and shade. 

When designs are to be copied, there are 
numerous methods for making transfers. The 
most common is by means of thin, transparent 
paper or cloth, which is placed over the design 
to be copied, and the outline traced over with 
a pencil, after which the opposite side of the 
tracing is penciled over with a soft, black pencil; 
then place the tracing upon the paper on which 
the copy is to be made, when the lines upon the 
tracing are retraced with a pencil or any smooth- 
pointed instrument which will give a distinct 
outline upon the paper underneath. 

Transfer or blackened paper is often placed 
under the tracing before retracing it, instead of 
pencilling its reverse side, which is objectionable 
from the liability of blackening or soiling the 
paper upon which the drawing is to be made; 
and then the transfer lines thus made are not 
easily removed with a rubber. 

Of course this method of transfer can be used 
only where the desired reproduction is the same 
size as the original. If it is to be enlarged 
or diminished, other methods must be sought. 
This may be accomplished by marking the copy 
to be transferred into squares, and the paper 
upon which the reproduction is to be made into 
corresponding squares, enlarged or diminished 


according to the change desired from the size of 
the original copy. The same change is accom¬ 
plished very readily by the use of proportional 
dividers, with which every draftsman should be 
provided, or by the use of the pantograph. 

MATERIALS ADAPTED TO ARTISTIC PEN- 

WORK. 

Use a fine quality of Bristol board or What¬ 
man’s hot-pressed drawing-paper, and a fine 
quality of black India-ink, freshly ground from 
a stick, in a tray containing rain-water. Ink of 
any desired shade may thus be made. If work 
is intended for reproduction by any of the pho¬ 
tographic processes, the ink must be ground 
until jet black, and then the pencil guide-lines 
must be removed with a soft gum or sponge 
rubber, so as to remove as little of the ink as 
possible. Hard rubber will not only remove 
much of the ink, but will tear up the fibre of the 
paper, and thus break or make ragged the deli¬ 
cate hair-lines, which will therefore fail of a good 
result when photo - engraved. It should be 
specially noted that all lines to reproduce must 
be clear, smooth, continuous and black ; if so, 
no matter how fine, they will answer the pur¬ 
pose. Copy should also be made at least twice 
the dimensions of the desired reproduction. 

PENS. 

For script writing, use Gillott’s “ 303 ” or 
Spencerian Artistic No. 14. For fine drawing 
or tinting, use the “303” or Crow Quill. For 
flourishing, use Spencerian No. 1 or Ames’ 
Penman’s Favorite. For lettering, especially 
Old English, German and Church Text, the 
Sonnecken pen, both broad and double-pointed, 
may be used to advantage. 



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174 


PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 




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PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 
































































176 


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PRACTICAL AND ORNAMENTAL PENMANSHIP. 



177 






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A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


185 







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c/htxrf, etc pt/cxxttxx rj , -Cc-ctteo -Gotixvxct xut 
£}raxxtp/it/tat & d-n ttx-c- axxxxei.x -o^ ti-wixa.” 

— Longfellow's Psalm of Life. 

_ 


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©HE GMINENT r)lST0I^I6AL I^EI^SONAGES OP AL 1 L 1 flGES. 



N the following Biographical Diction¬ 
ary the most salient points in each 
career have been touched, and par¬ 
ticular attention has furthermore been 
paid to adapting it to the wants of 
American readers and of the present 
time. It will be found that many 
names are included of persons recently brought 
into prominence, which are the subject of daily 
enquiry in this country, but of which no men¬ 
tion can be found in the more pretentious and 
bulky volumes devoted exclusively to biogra¬ 
phy. The great extent of the work has made 
it impossible within the pages allotted to this 
department to do more, in the majority of cases, 
than answer about each individual named the 
following questions: “Who was he?” “What 
was he?” “Where did he live?” “What did 
he do?” “When was he born?” “When did he 
die?” These queries have been replied to in 
the shortest possible manner. It has been the 


endeavor of the editor to make the collection 
so complete that this biographical information 
will answer every demand made upon it by the 
reader. It is confidently believed that no name 
at all apt to be met with in an ordinary course 
of English reading has been omitted. 


EXPLANATION: 

The figures following the name indicate the years of birth and death. 
After the names of some of the Popes, where the date of birth is un¬ 
known, the first figure shows the year of accession to the pontificate. 

An interrogation tnark indicates that the date is doubtful or approx¬ 
imate. 

Assumed names or sobriquets are printed in italics immediately fol¬ 
lowing the name. 

FI.—Flourished or lived. 

B.C.—Before the Christian era. 

A m.—A merican. 

Dan. — Danish. 

E ng.—E nglish. 

Fr. — French. 

Ger. — German. 

Gr. — Greek. 


It. — Italian. 

Nor. — Norwegian. 
Port. — Portuguese. 
Prus. — Prussian. 
Scot. — Scottish. 

Sw. — Swedish. 


^j^ACHEN, Johann van. 1552-1620. German painter. 

Aaron. 1600-1723 B.c. First high priest of the Israelites. 
Brother of Moses. 

Aarschot, Philippe de Croi, Duke of. -—1595. Flemish 

general and statesman. 

Aarsens, Franz van. 1572-1641. Dutch diplomatist. 


/ 






















































>*■ 


\ 

G\ 




4 


7 



Abati, Bocco degli. Florentine traitor mentioned in Dante's 
Inferno. In 1260, in a battle between the Guelphs and Ghibelines, he 
caused the deieat of his countrymen by striking off the head of their 
standard-bearer. 

Abbas I. The Great. 1557-1628. Shah of Persia. 

Abassides. FI. 749-1258. The most famous dynasty of 

Caliphs at Bagdad and Damascus. 

Abbot, George. 1652-1633. English prelate. 

Abbot, Rev. Jacob. 1803-1879. Am. author. Rollo Books. 

Abbott, John Stevens Cabot. 1805-1877. American historian. 

Abd-el-Kader. 1807-1883. Emir of Algeria. Led the 

Arabians, about 1830, in hostilities against the French, then beginning 
to invade his country. After a brave struggle he was vanquished in 
1847 and imprisoned in France. In i860, risking his own life, he averted 
the massacre of thousands of Christians in Syria. He was noted for 
his devotion to the Moslem faith, for eminent literary attainments and 
great eloquence. 

Abdul-Aziz. 1830-1876. Sultan of Turkey. 

Abdul-Hamid II. 1842-. Sultan of Turkey. 

Abelard, Pierre. 1079-1142. French orator and philosopher. 

Abercrombie, James. 1706-1781. British general in America. 

Abercrombie, John. 1781-1844. Scottish metaphysician. 

Abercromby, Sir Ralph. 1734-1801. British general. 

Abernethy, John. 1764-1831. Eng. physician and anatomist. 

About, Edmond Frangois Valentin. 1828-.... Fr. author. 

Abraham, or Abram. Born about 2000 B.c., and died at the 

age of 175. Hebrew prince and patriarch. 

Acier, Michel Victor. 1736-1799. French sculptor. 

Acilius Glabrio, Manius. FI. 191 b.c. Consul of Rome. 

Acosta, Jose de. 1 539 ?— 1 600. Spanish Jesuit, missionary and 

author. 

Adair, John. 1757-1840. American general and statesman. 

Adam. 4000 B.c. Father of the human race. 

Adams, Charles Francis. 1807-.... American statesman 

and diplomatist. Son of J. Q. A. Negotiated the Treaty of Geneva. 

Adams, John. Born at Braintree, Mass., 1735; died, 1826. 

American statesman and diplomatist. First vice-president and second 
president of the United States ; one of the negotiators of the treaty of 
peace with Great Britain, 1782. Defeated by Jefferson for the presi¬ 
dency in 1800, he retired to private life, disliked by both prevailing 
parties. His talents, patriotism and public services, however, entitle 
him to be regarded as one of the greatest of the founders of the American 
republic. 

Adams, John Quincy. 1767-1848. Son of J. A. American 
statesman and diplomatist. Sixth president of the United States, being 
elected by the House, not one of the four candidates in 1824 — Adams, 
Clay, Jackson and Crawford, all members of the same party — having a 
majority. Defeated by Jackson in 1828. Elected to the House in 
1830, his oratory gained for him the title “ Old Man Eloquent,” and he 
was distinguished for his unremitting devotion to public business. He 
was a member of the House until 1848, in which year, while in his seat 
at the Capitol, he received a stroke of paralysis, which caused his death. 

Adams, Samuel. 1722-1803. Governor of Massachusetts; 

one of the popular leaders of the Revolution ; a signer of the Declaration 
of Independence. 

Adanson, Michel. 1727-1806. French naturalist. 

Addison, Joseph. 1672-1719. English poet, moralist and 

dramatist. Requested by Lord Godolphin to write a poem on the battle 
of Blenheim, Addison composed “ The Campaign,” which procured 
for him a great public applause and a lucrative government position. He 
became under-secretary of state in 1705, and was elected to Parliament 
in 1708. Dr. Johnson says of him : ” He not only made the proper use 
of wit himself, but taught it to others. * * * He has restored virtue 
to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed.” His contribu- 


tions to the Tatter and the Spectator are examples of his graceful style 
and genial spirit. 

Adelaide. 1792-1849. Consort of William IV. of England. 
Adelung, Johann Christoph. 1732-1806. German philologist. 
Adrian I. Pope, from 772-795. II., 867-872. III., 884-885. 

IV., 1154-1159. V.,1276; died same year. VI., 1521-1523. 

.TEschines. 398-314 B.C. Athenian orator; rival of De¬ 

mosthenes. 

./Esop. 6197-564 b.c. Greek fabulist. Being a slave, he 
was liberated by his master on account of his talents. 

./Esopus. FI. 1st century B.c. Roman tragedian. 

/Etion. FI. end of 4th century. Greek painter. 

Affre, Denis Auguste. 1793-1848. Archbishop of Paris. 
Killed during the insurrection of June, 1848, in an effort to arrest the 
carnage. 

■ Aga, Mohammed. 1734-1797. Founder of the reigning Per¬ 

sian dynasty; assassinated. 

Agamemnon.-.... Generalissimo of the Greek forces 

during the Trojan war. 

Agassiz, Louis. 1807-1873. Swiss naturalist; professor at 
Harvard; founder of museum of comparative zoology, Cambridge. 
Researches on Fossil Fishes. 

Agatharchus. FI. 480 B.c. Greek painter, said to have 

been the first to rdopt the rules of perspective. 

Agnesi, Maria Gaetana. 1718-1799. Italian lady possess¬ 

ing rare talents for languages and mathematics. 

Agricola, Cnteus Julius. 37-93. Roman general; built a line 

of fortresses across Scotland. 

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius. 63-12 b.c. Roman soldier and 

statesman. 

Agrippina Augusta.-60 A.d. Mother of Nero; noted 

for her cruelty and immorality ; poisoned her uncle and second hus¬ 
band, the Emperor Claudius ; executed by order of Nero. 

Aiken, John. 1747-1822. English writer. General Biog¬ 

raphy. 

Ainsworth, Robert. 1660-1743. English classical scholar. 
Ainsworth, William Harrison. 1805-1882. English novelist. 

Jack Sheppard, Guy Fawkes, etc. 

Airy, Sir George Biddell. 1801-.... Astronomer Royal of 

England. 

Akbar. 1542-1605. Most illustrious of the Mogul emperors. 
Akenside,* Mark. 1721-1770. English physician, poet and 

classical scholar. Pleasures of the Imagination. 

Aladdin. FI. 1375. Son of Osman and organizer of the 

Janissaries. 

Alaric. 3507-410. King of the Visigoths; conquered Rome. 
Albert, or Albert Francis, Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince 
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 1819-1861. Consort of Queen Victoria. 

Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. 1841-.... Heir-apparent 

to the British Crown. 

Alboin.- 573 - King of the Lombards. Assassinated at 

the instigation of his wife, whom he had requested to drink wine from 
the skull of her father. 

Alboni, Marietta. 1824-.... Italian vocalist; married 

Count Pepolo ; retired from the stage, 1863. 

Albuquerque, Alfonso, Marquis de. The Great. 1453—1 5 1 5 - 

Portuguese conqueror. 

Alcibiades. 450-404 B.c. Athenian general. Assassinated. 
Alcott, Amos Bronson. 1799-.... American philosopher 
and teacher. 

Alcott, Louisa May. 1833-. ... American authoress; acted 
as hospital nurse during the civil war. Little Women; An Old-Fash¬ 
ioned Girl, etc. 





* 


























A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


7f 






187 


Aldrich, Thomas Baily. 1836-.... American poet and 
novelist. Story of a Bad Boy ; Margery Daw ; Baby Bell; Pru¬ 
dence Palfrey, etc. 

Alembert, Jean le Rond d’. 1717-1783. French geometer. 

Alexander. The Great. 356-324 b.c. King of Macedon. 
“The youth who all things but himself subdued.”— Pope. Taught by 
Aristotle. Ascended the throne of Macedon 336, destroyed Thebes and 
was chosen commander of the Greeks against Persia. He invaded Asia 
Minor in 334, defeating Darius on the banks of the Granicus. In 333 
he almost annihilated the Persian army at the battle of Issus. Cut the 
Gordian knot and caused the Ammonian oracle to declare him the son 
of Jupiter Ammon. Captured Tyre in 332, and, having invaded Egypt, 
founded Alexandria. In 331 he defeated Darius at the decisive battle 
of Arbela. Becoming elated by his successes, he claimed the homage 
due to a god, stabbing his foster-brother Clitus, for refusal to pay such 
homage. Invaded India in 327, advancing as far as the Hyphasis. Died 
at Babylon of a fever said to have been aggravated by excessive drinking. 

Alexander I. 1777-1825. Emperor of Russia. II., 1818-1881; 

assassinated by the Nihilists. III., 1845-.... 

Alexander I. Pope from 108 to 117. II., 1061-1073. III., 

1159-1181. IV., 1254-1261. V., 1409-1410. VI., 1492-1503. 

Alexander I.-1124. King of Scotland. II., 1198-1249. 

III., 1241-1286. 

Alexander, Archibald. 1772-1851. Am. author and divine. 
Alexander, James Waddell. 1804-1859. Son of A. A. Ameri¬ 
can author and divine. 

Alexander, Joseph Addison. 1809-1859. SonofA.A. Ameri¬ 
can theologian and orientalist. 

Alexander, William. Lord Stirling. 1726-1783. American 

Revolutionary general. 

Alfieri, Vittorio. 1749-1803. Italian poet. 

Alfonso XII. 1857-.... King of Spain. 

Alfred. The Great. 8497-901. King of the West Saxons. 

Established schools and a system of police, and founded a navy. 
Algardi, Alessandro. 16007-1654. Italian sculptor. 

Alger, William Rounseville. 1823-.... Am. author and divine. 
Allen, Ethan. 1742-1789. American Revolutionary com¬ 
mander. With only eighty-three men, in 1775, he captured Ticonderoga 
and Crown Point. 

Abraham a Sancta Clara. (Ulrich Megerle). 1642 -1709. 

Ger. pulpit orator ; chaplain at the court of Vienna. 

Abt, Franz. 1819-.... Ger. musician and composer. When 
the Swallows Homeward Fly; Oh, Ye Tears; Over The Stars 
is Your Rest. 

Albani, Emma. 1850-.... American vocalist. 

Allen, William F. 1847-. • • • American perfecter of the new 
system of standard time. 

Allen, William Henry. 1784-1813. Am. naval commander. 
Allibone, Samuel Austin. 1816. American author. Critical 
Dictionary of English Literature. 

Allison, William R. 1829--.... Am. lawyer and statesman. 
Allston, Washington. 1779-1843. American painter. 
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence. 1836. Belgian painter. 

Alva, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of. 1508-1582. 
Spanish commander in the Netherlands, infamous for his cruelties. 

Ambrose, Saint. 3407-397. One of the fathers of the 

church. 

Ames, Fisher. 1758-1808. Am. orator and statesman. 

Amherst, Jeffrey. Lord Amherst. 1717-1797. British 
general and field-marshal and governor of Virginia. 

Ampere, Andre Marie. 1775-1836. French mathematician 

and natural philosopher. 



Anacreon, b.c. 5607-478. Greek poet. Many of his poems 
have been rendered into English by Moore. 

Anaxagoras. B.c. 500-428. Greek philosopher. “The 

father of modem science." 

Andersen, Hans Christian. 1805-1875. Danish author and 

novelist. 

Anderson, Maj. Robert 1805-1861. Defender of Ft. Sumter. 
Anderson, Mary. 1859-. ... American actress. 

Andrassy, Julian, Count. 1823-.... Hungarian statesman. 
Andre, John. 1751-1780. Fnglishspy; hanged for his con¬ 
nection with the contemplated treason of Arnold. 

Andrew, John Albion. 1818-1867. American statesman and 
abolitionist; governor of Massachusetts. 

Andros, Sir Edmund. 1637-1714. British colonial governor 
of New England. 

Anjou. Famous noble house of France. 

Anne of Austria. 1601-1666. Queen of France. 

Anne. 1664-1714. Queen of England ; last of the Stuarts. 
Anthon, Charles. 1797-1867. American classical scholar. 
Anthony, St. 251—356? Egyptian founder of monachism. 
Anthony, Henry B. 1815-. ... U. S. Senator. 

Anthony of Padua, St. 1195-1231. Monk of Franciscan order. 

Anthony, Susan B. 1820-.... American “ woman’s rights ” 
advocate. 

Antigonus. Cyclops. B.c. 382 7—301. General of Alexander 
the Great. 

Antiochus I. King of Syria and Babylonia; reigned B.C. 
280-261. II., reigned B.c. 261-246; poisoned by his queen, Laodice. 

III. ( The Great), reigned B.c. 223-187. 

Antisthenes. FI. 400 B.c. Greek philosopher; regarded as 
the founder of the Cynic school. 

Antoinette, Marie. 1755—1 793 - Queen of Louis XVI. 01 

France; guillotined. 

Antonelli, Giacomo. 1806-1876. Italian cardinal. 

Antonius, Marcus. A/ark Antony. B.c. 93 7-30. Roman 

general and statesman. 

Applegarth, Robert. 1831-.... Leader of the workingmen 
of England. 

Aquinas, Thomas. Saint. The Angelic Doctor. 1224-1274. 

Theologian, teacher and writer; member of the order of St. Dominic. 

Arabi Pasha. 1834-.... Egyptian revolutionist. 

Aram, Eugene. 1704-1759. English scholar; noted for his 
learning no less than for his tragic fate. Executed for the murder of one 
Daniel Clark, whom he is said to have killed to procure means for prose¬ 
cuting his studies. The chief character in one of Bulwer’s novels. 

Arbuthnot, John. 1675-1735. Scottish physician. 

Archimedes. B.c. 2877-212. Greek mathematician and 
natural philosopher. 

Argyll (or Argyle), Archibald Campbell, eighth earl. 1 598 — 

1661. Scottish Covenanter; defeated by Montrose ; executed for treason. 
Argyll (or Argyle), George Douglas Campbell, seventh duke. 
1823-.... English statesman and author. The Reign of Law. 

Ariosto, Ludovico. 1474-1533. Italian poet. Orlando 

Furioso. 

Aristides. B.c.-468 7 Athenian general and statesman. 

Aristophanes. B.c. 444 ?~38o 7 Greek comic poet. 

Aristotle. The Stagirite. B.c. 384-322. Greek philosopher; 

tutor of Alexander the Great. Ethics. 

Arius. 2557-336? Patriarch of Alexandria and founder of 
the Arian schism. 

Arkwright, Sir Richard. 1732-1792. English manufacturer 
and inventor of the spinning-jenny. 

X 


<5 


c) 



























A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


188 


Arminius. b.c. 16-21 A.D. Ger. hero. See Hermann. 
Arminius, Jacobus (Jacob Harmen). 1560-1609. Dutch 
founder of the Arminian theology. 

Armitage, Edward. 1817-.... Eng. historical painter. 
Armstrong, John. 1709-1779. Scottish poet and physician. 
Armstrong, Sir William George. 1810-. ... English inven¬ 
tor of the Armstrong gun. 

Arnaud, Henri. 1641-1721. Leader of the Waldenses. 

Arndt, Ernst Moritz. 1769-1860. German poet and writer. 
Arnheim, Johann Georg von. 1581-1641. German general 
and diplomatist. 

Arnim, Harry Carl Edward von. 1824-1879 Prussian 

diplomatist. 

Arnold, Benedict. 1740-1801. American general and traitor. 
His plot to betray West Point, one of the most important of American 
fortresses, into the hands of the British, was betrayed by the capture of 
Major Andre, and he barely escaped. He became a colonel in the 
British army, and is said to have received .£6,315 from the British as 
indemnity for the loss he sustained by his treachery. 

Arnold of Brescia (or Arnaldo).-1155. Italian re¬ 

former, orator and popular leader. 

Arnold, Edwin. 1832-.... English journalist and poet. 

Light of Asia. 

Arnold, Matthew. 1822-.... English author, poet and critic. 

God and the Bible ; The Strayed Reveller ; Essays on Criticism , etc. 
Arnold, Thomas. 1795-1842. English historian and master j 
of Rugby. History 0/Rome. 

Arnold von Winkelried.-1386. Swiss patriot, who 

broke the Austrian phalanx at the battle of Sempach by throwing him¬ 
self against the points of their spears, gathering in his arms all the spears 
within reach. He was mortally wounded, but his brave action decided 
the fate of the battle in favor of his countrymen. 

Artemisia. FI. 480 b.c. Queen of Halicarnassus. Joined 

the fleet of Xerxes against Greece, and commanded her own ship in the 
battle of Salamis with courage and ability. 

Artemisia. FI. 350 b.c. Consort of Mausolus, Prince of 

Caria, and after his death erected in his honor a tomb numbered among 
the seven wonders of the world. 

Artevelde, Jacob van. 1300 7-1345. Leader of the people of 

Ghent. 

Artevelde, Philip van, son of J. v. A. 1340-1382. Leader 

of the insurrection in Flanders. 

Arthur, Chester Allan. 1831-_ Twenty-first President of 

the United States. Born at St. Albans, Vermont; read law, was 
admitted to the bar and began practice in New York city ; i860, quarter¬ 
master-general on the staff of Gov. Morgan ; 1871, collector of the port 
of New York, but superseded, 1878, by Gen. Merritt; 1880, placed in 
nomination for vice-president by the republican party and elected ; suc¬ 
ceeded to the presidency on the death of Garfield, Sept. 19, 1881. 
Arthur, Timothy Shay. 1809-1841. American author. 

Lights and Shadows 0/Real Life ; Ten Nights in a Bar-Room, etc. 
Ascham, Roger. 1515-1568. English scholar and author. 
Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Lord. 1774-1848. English 

diplomatist (Ashburton treaty.) 

Aspasia of Miletus. B.c.-432? Mistress of Pericles, the 

Athenian law not permitting a citizen to marry a foreigner. Socrates 
called himself one of her disciples. 

Astor, John Jacob. 1763-1848. Wealthy American merchant, 

native of Heidelberg, Germany. Settled in New York city, and entered 
the fur trade with great success, establishing trading posts in the north¬ 
west as far as the Pacific Ocean and founding Astoria in 1811. He 
next made extensive investments in real estate, and when he died his 
property was estimated at twenty millions. Founded the Astor Library. 

Atahualpa.~ 1 533 - Last Inca of Peru. 


Athanasius. 2967-373. Greek father of the church. 

Athelstan. 8957-941. King of England. 

Athenagoras. FI. 168. Greek Christian philosopher. 

Atterbury, Francis. 1662-1732. Eng. prelate and politician. 

Attila. The Scourge of God. ....-453. King of the Huns. 

Attucks, Crispus.— 1 77°. Mulatto leader of mob in 

Boston massacre. 

Auber, Daniel Frangois Esprit. 1784-1871. French com¬ 

poser. Fra Diavo/o ; Masaniello. 

Audubon, John James. 1780-1851. American ornithologist. 

Auerbach, Berthold. 1812-1882. German Jewish author 

and poet. The Country House on the Rhine. 

Augereau, Pierre Frangois Charles, Due de Castiglione. 1757— 
1816. French general. The son of a mechanic, he received but little 
education. Enlisted as a private in the French army in 1792, but was 
rapidly promoted, and at the end of a year had attained to the rank of 
general of division. Throughout his successful military career he ex¬ 
hibited remarkable valor and ability. 

Augustine, Saint. 354-430. Latin father of the church. 

Augustus I. 1670-1733. King of Poland and elector of 

Saxony. 

Augustus Caesar. B.C.63-A.D. 14. First Emperor of Rome. 

Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d’Orleans, Due d’. 

1822-1883. French general. Son of King Louis Philippe. 

Aurelianus. 212-275. Roman emperor. 

Aurelius Antoninus, Marcus. Marcus Aurelius. 121-180. 

Roman emperor and philosopher 

Aurung-Zebe. 1618-1707. Emperor of Hindostan. 

Ausonius. 310-394? Latin poet. 

Austen, Jane. 1775-1817. English author. 

Austin, Saint. FI. 597. The apostle of England. 

Austin, Stephen F.—1836. Founded the first colony in 

Texas. 

Avicenna. 980-1037. Arabian physician. 

Aytoun, William Edmondstoune. 1813-1865. Scottish poet. 

ABER, Mahommed. 14837-1530. Founder of the 

Mogul empire in India. 

Baccio della Porta. Fra Bartolommeo di San Marco. 
1469-1517. Italian painter , member of the order of St. Dominic. Last 
Judgment; Marriage 0/ St. Catherine; Virgin on a Throne. 

Bach, Johann Sebastian. 1685-1750. German composer and 
musical director, distinguished also for his skill as a performer on the 
organ and the piano. The Nativity. 

Bache, Alexander Dallas. 1806-1867. American philoso¬ 

pher and savant; great-grandson of Dr. Franklin. 

Bache, Franklin. 1792-1864. Am. physician and chemist. 

Back, Sir George. 1796-1878. English Arctic navigator. 

Bacon, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans. Lord 
Bacon. 1561-1626. English statesman, jurist and philosopher. Son 
of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper of the great seal under Elizabeth. His 
youthful precocity caused Queen Elizabeth to call him her “ little lord 
keeper.” Studied at Trinity College, and at 15 began to oppose the 
philosophy of Aristotle. Called to the bar, and made queen’s counsel 
at 28. Solicitor-general, 1607; judge of the marshal’s court, 1611; 
attorney-general, 1613; lord keeper, 1617; lord high chancellor, 1619. 
Charged with gross bribery and corruption in Parliament, 1621, he 
pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to pay a fine of £40,000, and to be 
imprisoned during the royal pleasure, and incapacitated from holding 
public office. He regained his liberty after two days’ imprisonment, his 
fine, too, being remitted by King James, who also allowed him a pension 
of ,£1,200 per annum. He spent the remainder of his life in retirement, 
diligently pursuing the study of literature and science. The dark side 


































■71 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


189 


of Bacon’s character was shown in his obsequiousness to the crown, and 
his enmity to the cause of liberty, and also in his base ingratitude to the 
Earl of Essex, voluntarily assisting in the prosecution of that unfortu¬ 
nate nobleman. The lVisdom 0/ the Ancients; Novum Organuni. 
Bacon, Nathaniel. i630?-i 677. Virginia patriot, born in 
England. 

Bacon, Roger. The Admirable Doctor . 1214—1292. Eng¬ 

lish philosopher. Opus Majus. 

Baconthorp, John. The Resolute Doctor. ....-1346? 

English monk and philosopher. 

Baffin, William. 1580-1622. English navigator. (Baffin’s Bay.) 
Bailey, Philip James. 1816—. ... English lawyer and poet. 

Festus ; The Mystic . 

Baillie, Joanna. 1762-1851. Scottish poetess. The Family 

Legend ; Plays on the Passions. 

Baillie, Matthew. 1761-1823. Scottish physician. 

Baillie, Robert. i6o2?-i662. Scottish theologian. 

Bailly, Jean Sylvain. 1736-1793. French astronomer and 
philosopher. 1789, first president of the States-General; mayor of Paris 
same year. Endeavoring, with Lafayette, to curb the violence of the 
revolutionists, he caused the National Guard to fire on a riotous mob in 
the Champ de Mars, in 1791, thus incurring the enmity of the people. 
Executed by the Jacobins. 

Baily, Edward Hodges. 1788-1867. English sculptor. 

Baily, Francis. 1774-1844. English astronomer. 
Bainbridge, William. 1774-1833. Am. naval commander. 
Baird, Sir David. 1757-1829. Scottish general. 

Baird, Spencer F. 1823- .... American naturalist. 

Bajazet (or Bayazeed). 1347-1403. Sultan of the Ottomans. 
Subjugated Bulgaria, Asia Minor, and a portion of Greece, and gained 
a victory over the Hungarians, French and Poles at Nicopolis, in 1396. 
Defeated and captured in 1401 by Tamerlane, by whom he is said to 
have been confined in an iron cage. 

Baker, Sir Samuel White. 1821- .... English African 

explorer, and author of geographical and literary works. In 1847 he 
established a sanatorium and prosperous agricultural settlement in the 
mountains of Ceylon, 6,200 feet above sea level, whither he conveyed 
emigrants and the best breeds of sheep and cattle. In 1861-4 explored, 
at his own expense, the region lying around the sources of the White 
Nile ; discovered and named Lake Albert N’yanza, and found the exit of 
the Nile. In 1869, the sultan of Turkey placed at his disposal 1,500 
troops, with which another expedition was made to the great African 
lakes. 

Baker, Valentine, Pasha. English officer and commander of 

Egyptian troops in the Soudan. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de. 1475 ?— 1 5 1 7 - Spanish discoverer. 
Discovered the Pacific Ocean, 1513. The jealousy of his superior offi¬ 
cers caused his conviction on a charge of treason, for which he was 
executed. 

Baldwin I. 1058-1118. King of Jerusalem; brother of 

Godfrey de Bouillon. 

Balfe, Michael William. 1808-1870. Irish composer. The 
Bohemian Girl. 

Baliol, Edward.-1363. King of Scotland. 

Baliol, John.-1269. English baron; father of Edward 

Baliol. 

Baliol, John de. I259?-I3i4. Son of the preceding. King 

of Scotland; rival of Bruce. 

Ballou, Hosea. 1771-1852. American theologian; founder 

of the denomination of Universalists. 

Balmes, Jaime Lucio. 1810-1848. Spanish philosopher and 

theologian. 

Balzac, Honore de. 1799-1850, French novelist. 


Bancroft, George. 1800-.... American historian and diplo¬ 
matist. Minister to Germany and to England ; secretary of the navy. 
History 0/ the United States, which has been translated into all the 
principal languages of Europe. 

Baner (or Banier), Johan. 1595-1641. Swedish general. 

Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss. 1816-.... American general and 
politician. Native of Massachusetts ; worked during boyhood in a cot¬ 
ton factory; learned the machinist’s trade; edited a country newspa¬ 
per ; admitted to the bar; elected to Legislature of his native state in 
1849, and three years later became speaker. Sent to Congress in 1852 as a 
Democrat, and in 1854 re-elected by the American and Republican par¬ 
ties. Speaker of House in 1855. Served three terms as Governor of 
Massachusetts, and in 1861 was appointed major-general of volunteers. 
After the war was sent to Congress in 1866, 1868 and 1870. Supported 
Horace Greeley for presidency in 1872. Re-elected to Congress in 1876 
by Democrats and disaffected Republicans. 

Banks, Thomas. 1735-1805. British sculptor. 

Banneker, Benjamin. 1731-1806. American negro mathe¬ 

matician. 

Barbarossa, Hadher. I476P-I546. Corsair king of Algiers. 

Barbaroux, Charles Jean Marie. 1767-1794. French rep¬ 

resentative and Girondist; beheaded by the Jacobins. 

Barbauld, Anna Letitia. 1743-1825. English authoress. 

Barbour, John. I320?-I395 ? Scottish poet. The Bruce. 

Barclay de Tolly, Michael, Prince. 1755-1818. Russian 

field-marshal. 

Barclay, Robert. 1648-1690. Scottish Quaker author. 

Barham, Richard Harris. 1788-1845. English divine and 

humorist. Ingoldsby Legends. 

Barebone, Praise God.-1680. English fanatic. 

Baring, Sir Francis. 1740-1810. English capitalist. 

Barlow, Joel. 1755-1812. American patriot and poet. 

Barnard, John G. 1815-1882. American general and writer. 

Barmecides. Famous Persian family, noted for its tragic fate. 

Barnes, Albert. 1798-1870. American theologian and com¬ 

mentator. 

Barneveldt, Johan van Olden. 1549-1619. Dutch statesman. 

Barnum, Phineas T. 1810-.... American showman; na¬ 

tive of Connecticut. Humbugs of the World. 

Barras, Paul Francois Jean Nicola, Count de. 1755-1829. 

French statesman. 

Barry, James. 1741-1806. Irish painter. 

Barry Cornwall. See Procter. 

Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Jules. 1805-__ French states¬ 

man and writer. 

Baxter, Richard. 1615-1691. English Dissenting minister 

and writer. The Saints’ Everlasting Rest; Call to the Unconverted. 

Bayard, Pierre du Terrail de. 1475-1524. French warrior, 
whose bravery earned for him the sobriquet “The cavalier without 
fear and without reproach." Francis I. showed the universal reverence 
for Bayard’s character by choosing to be knighted at his hands. Mor¬ 
tally wounded at Romagnano, Bayard would not allow himself to be 
carried from the field of battle, refusing to “ turn his back to the enemy 
for the first time.” 

Bayle, Pierre. 1647-1706. French philosopher and critic. 

Bazaine, Francois Achille. 1811-.... French general. Made 
general of division during the Crimean war; held a command in the 
French expedition to Mexico, in 1862, with great distinction, and suc¬ 
ceeded to the supreme command in 1863. Created a marshal of France in 
1864. In the Franco-German war he surrendered the fortress of Metz,with 
173,000 men, 6,000 officers, 50 generals and 3 marshals, and fled to Eng¬ 
land. He was court-martialed and sentenced to degradation and death, 
but the sentence was commuted to twenty years’ imprisonment. Con¬ 
fined at the isle Sainte Marguerite, he escaped in nine months and 
settled in Madrid. 


1 ' 


(s 

















190 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of. 1804-1880. Eng¬ 
lish statesman and novelist. His first novel, Vivian Grey, was pub¬ 
lished at the age of si. Entered Parliament in 1837, and became the 
leader of the Conservative party. Acted as chancellor of the exchequer 
a number of years, and in 1868 was prime minister of England for a few 
months. Was again called to the premiership in 1874, and was raised 
to the peerage. Was succeeded in 1880 by William E. Gladstone. 
Beaton (or Beatoun), David, Cardinal. 1494-1546. Primate 
of Scotland. 

Beattie, James. 1735-1803. Scottish poet and philosopher. 
Beauharnais, Eugene de. 1781-1824. French general; son 

of Alexander de Beauharnais and Josephine, afterward Empress of 
France. 

Beaumarchais, Pierre Auguste Caron de. 1732-1799. French 

dramatist. 

Beaumont, Francis. 1586-1615. English dramatic writer; 

associate of John Fletcher. 

Beauregard, Peter Gustavus Toutant. 1816-.... American 
Confederate general. Born in Louisiana; graduate of West Point; 
served in Mexico. Entered Confederate army in 1861, and commanded at 
Fort Sumter and at the first battle of Bull Run ; defeated at Shiloh by 
Gen. Grant in 1862 ; defended Charleston in 1863. 

Becket, Thomas a. 1117-1170. Archbishop of Canterbury; 
high chancellor of England. Having excommunicated two bishops for 
complying with the king’s will, he was assassinated by four barons of the 
royal household. Canonized in 1172. 

Bede. The Venerable. 6737-735. English monk and 

ecclesiastical writer. Ecclesiastical History 0/ the English Nation. 

Bedford, John Plantagenet, Duke of. 1390-1435. English 

general. Regent of France and protector of England during the 
minority of Henry VI. Defeated by Joan of Arc. 

Beecher, Henry Ward. 1813-.... American divine and lec 
turer. Born in Connecticut. Pastor of Plymouth Congregational Church, 
Brooklyn, since 1847. Powerful advocate of the abolition movement. 
Star Papers ; Sermons. 

Beecher, Lyman. 1775-1863. American divine. Father of 

H. W. B. Views on Theology. 

Beethoven, Ludwig von. 1770-1827. German composer. 

Sin/onia Eroica ; Lenore ; Fidelia ; Ninth Symphony. 

Behring, Vitus. 1680-1742? Danish navigator. Discovered 
Behring's Strait: suffered shipwreck while commanding an expedition 
to the northern seas and died on Behring’s Island. 

Belisarius. 505 7-565. Byzantine general. 

Bell, Sir Charles. 1774-1842. Scottish physiologist. 

Bellini, Vincenzo. 1802-1835. Italian composer. La Son- 

nambula; I Puritani: Norma. 

Belvedere, Andrea. 1646-1732. Italian painter. 

Belzoni, Giovanni Battista. 1778-1823. Italian traveller. 
Bendemann, Edward. 1811-.... German painter. 
Benedek, Ludwig von. 1804-1878. Hungarian general. 
Benedict I. Pope from 575 to 578. II., 684-685. III., 855— 

858. IV., 900-903. V., chosen pope 964 but driven from Rome by Otho 

I. , died at Hamburg 965. VI., 972-974; killed by the people of Rome. 
VII., 975-984. VIII., 1012-1024. IX., ascended the pontifical chair in 
1034, but was driven from Rome. X., 1058-1059, when he was deposed 
on account of being irregularly elected. XI., 1303-1304. XII., 1334- 
1342. XIII., 1724-1730. XIV., 1740-1758. 

Benedict XIII. 1334-1424. Anti-Pope. Original name, 
Pedro de Luna. Chosen pope at Avignon in 1394, while Boniface IX. 
reigned at Rome. Both were deposed in 1415 by the council of Con¬ 
stance. 

Benedict, Sir Julius. 1804-.... German musician and 

composer, residing in England since 1835. 

Benezet, Anthony. 1713-1784. French philanthropist. 


Bennett, James Gordon. 1800-1S72. American journalist; 

native of Scotland ; founded the New York Herald. 

Benjamin, Park. 1809-1864. Am. journalist and poet. 
Bentham, Jeremy. 1748-1832. English jurist and utilitarian 
philosopher. 

Bentinck, William Charles Cavendish, Lord. 1774-1839. 

British general; governor-general of India. 

Bentley, Richard. 1662-1742. English classical scholar and 

divine. The Epistles 0/Phalaris. 

Benton, Thomas Hart. 1782-1858. American statesman. 
Born at Hillsboro, N. C. ; removed to Tennessee, where he studied 
law, and commenced practice at 29. Commanded a regiment under 
Gen. Jackson, who, in a quarrel, attempted to strike Benton with a horse¬ 
whip, causing Benton’s brother to severely wound Gen. Jackson with a 
pistol. Benton shortly after removed to St. Louis, where he published 
a political paper. Elected to the United States Senate in 1820, he con¬ 
tinued a member of that body for thirty years, being defeated in 1850 by 
a division in the Democratic party on the slavery question. His advo¬ 
cacy of a gold and silver currency during his second term in the Senate 
earned for him the sobriquet of “ Old Bullion.” Elected in 1852 to 
the National House of Representatives, he earnestly opposed the repeal of 
the Missouri Compromise. Defeated for the governorship of Missouri in 
1856. Favored Buchanan for the presidency in opposition to his son- 
in-law, Fremont. A Thirty Years’ View. 

Beranger, Pierre Jean de. 17S0-1857. French lyric poet. 
Bergerac, Cyrano de. 1620-1655. Fr. dramatist and duelist. 
Beriot, Charles Auguste de. 1802-1870. Belgian violinist 
and composer. 

Berkeley, George. 1684-1753. Irish Protestant prelate and 
metaphysician. The Principles of Human Knowledge. 
Berlichingen, Gotz von. Of the Iron Hand. 1480-1562. 

German warrior; hero of one of Goethe’s dramas. 

Berlioz, Louis Hector. 1803-1869. French composer. The 
Damnation of Faust: symphonies, Harold, Romeo and Juliet. 
Bernadotte, Jean Baptiste Jules. 1764-1844. Marshal of 

France; King of Sweden and Norway as Carl XIV. Johan. 

Bernard, Saint. 1091-1153. French ecclesiastic, canonized 

1174. Abbot at Clairvaux, refusing other ecclesiastical preferment, but 
exerting great power over Europe. 

Bernard de Menthon, Saint. 923-1008. Founder of the 

hospices of St. Bernard. 

Bernardo del Carpio. FI. 9th century. Spanish soldier. 
6ernhardt, Sara (Mme. Damala). 1850-.... Fr. tragedienne. 
Bert, Paul. 1833- .... French physician and politician. 
Berthier, Louis Alexandre, Prince of Wagram. 1753-1815. 
Marshal of France. 

Berthollet, Claude Louis. 1748-1822. French chemist. 
Berwick, James Fitz-James, Duke of. 1660-1734. Marshal 
of France; natural son of James II. of England. 

Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm. 1784-1846. Prus. astronomer. 
Bessemer, Henry. 1813-.... English engineer. (Bessemer 
process.) 

Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand von, Count. 1809-. . .. German 

statesman. 

Beza, Theodore. 1519-1605. Fr. Calvinistic theologian. 
Biddle, John. The father of English Unitarians. 1615-1662. 

English theologian. 

Biddle, Nicholas. 1786-1844. American financier. 

Bierstadt, Albert. 1829-1882. American landscape painter; 

native of Germany. 

Billings, William. 1746-1800. American musical composer. 
Binney, Amos. 1803-1847. American naturalist. 

Binney, Horace. 1780-1875. American lawyer. 





























A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Birney, James G. 1792-1857. American politician. 

Bird, Robert Montgomery. 1803-1854. American author. 
Bismarck-Schonhausen, Karl Otto, Prince. 1815-.... 

German statesman ; chancellor of the German Empire. 

Bjornson, Bjornstjerne. 1832-.... Norwegian poet and 

novelist. 

Black Hawk. 1767-1838. American Indian chief. 

Black, William. 1841-. . .. Scottish author. A Princess of 

'I'hule: MacLeod 0/ Dare: A Daughter 0/ Heth. 

Blackburn, Joseph Clay Stiles. 1838-. ... Am. statesman. 
Blackstone, Sir William. 1723-1780. English jurist. Com¬ 
mentaries on the Laws 0/ England. 

Blackwood, William. 1776-1817. Scottish publisher. Black¬ 

wood's Magazine. 

Blaine, James Gillespie. 1830-.... American statesman. 
Born in Pennsylvania; removed to Maine, where he edited the Port¬ 
land Argus : served four terms in the Legislature; member of Congress 
from 1862 to 1876, and speaker for three terms. Prominent candidate for 
the Republican nomination for the presidency in 1876 and 1880. Chosen 
United States senator in 1877, but resigned to accept the secretaryship 
of state under Garfield. 

Blair, Hugh. 1718-1800. Scottish divine and rhetorician. 
Blake, Robert. 1599-1657. British admiral, regarded as 
the founder of England’s naval supremacy. 

Blake, William. 1757-1828. English poet and artist. 

Blanc, Jean Joseph Louis. 1813-1883. French journalist, 

historian and politician. 

Blanchard, Thomas. 1788-1864. American inventor. 
Blennerhasset, Harman. 1770-1831. Friend and accom¬ 
plice of Aaron Burr. 

Blessington, Margaret, Countess of (nee Power). 1789-1849. 

Beautiful and accomplished Irish lady. 

Blind, Carl. 1820-.... German radical. 

Bloomfield, Robert. 1766-1823. English poet. A tailor’s 

son and a shoemaker’s apprentice. The Farmer's Boy. 

Blucher, Gebhard Lebrecht von. Marschall Vonvarts. 174 2 
-1819. Prussian field-marshal. Decided the battle of Waterloo. 
Blumenthal, Leonard von. 1810-.... Prussian general and 
strategist. 

Boabdil.-1536? Last Moorish king of Granada. 

Boadicea.-62. British queen. 

Bobadilla, Francisco de. FI. 1500. Spanish administrator 

who sent Columbus in chains to Spain. 

Boccaccio, Giovanni. 1313-1375- It. novelist. Decameron. 
Bodenstedt, Friedrich Martin. 1819-. ... German poet and 
author. 

Boerhaave, Herman. 1668-1738. Dutch physician and 

philosopher. 

Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus. 475-525 ? 
Roman statesman and philosopher. Falsely charged with treason, he 
was beheaded. De Consolatione Philosophic. 

Bogardus, James. 1800-1874. American inventor. 

Bohn, Henry George. 1800-- English publisher. 

Boileau-Despreaux, Nicolas. 1636-1711. French poet and 

satirist. 

Boleyn, Anne. 1507 P-1536. Second queen of Henry VIII. 

of England. Beheaded. 

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, Viscount. 1678-1751. English 

author, orator and politician. Dissertation on Parties. 

Bolivar, Simon. 1783-1830. Liberator of the South Ameri¬ 

can colonies. 


I 9 I 


Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoleon. Napoleon III. 1808- 

1873. Son of Louis Bonaparte. Emperor of the French. As claimant 
to the throne of France, he attempted in 1836 to take Strasburg, but 
was banished. In 1840 he was imprisoned in Havre for an attempted 
insurrection at Boulogne, but escaped to England in 1846. Returning to 
France after the revolution of 1848, he was elected president. He gained 
the support of the army, and abolishing popular representation by the 
coup d'etat of 1851, was declared emperor. In 1853 he married Eugenie, 
Countess de Teba. Having surrendered at Sedan, after the decisive 
battle of the Franco-German war, he was deposed and retired to Chisel- 
hurst, in England, where he died. 

Bonaparte, Jerome. 1784-1860. Voungest brother of Napo¬ 

leon I. King of Westphalia. 

Bonaparte, Joseph. 1768-1844. Eldest brother of Napoleon 

I. King of Spain. 

Bonaparte, Louis. 1778-1846. Brother of Napoleon I. 

King of Holland. 

Bonaparte, Lucien, Prince de Canina. 1775-1840. Brother 

of Napoleon I. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon. Napoleon I. 1769-1821. Emperor 
of the French. Born at Ajaccio, Corsica. Attended a military school 
from 1779 to 1784, and showed particular aptitude for history and mathe¬ 
matics. Entered the army as sub-lieutenant in 1785, and in 1792 had 
risen to the rank of captain of artillery. In 1793 he submitted a plan 
for the reduction of Toulon, held by the English and Spaniards, and was 
entrusted with its execution. His success in this undertaking won for 
him a commission as brigadier-general. In 1794, on the fall of Robes¬ 
pierre, Napoleon was suspended and put under arrest, his detention, 
however, being of short duration. In the spring of 1795, on the remodel¬ 
ling of the army, he was again suspended, and placed upon half-pay, the 
only reason given by the authorities being that he was too young to com¬ 
mand the artillery of an army. In the fall, on the breaking out of a for¬ 
midable insurrection led by the National Guard, the whole force of 
insurgents numbering more than 30,000, the convention recalled Napo¬ 
leon, who, with only 5,000 regulars and 1,500 volunteers, gained a 
brilliant victory after a brief but sanguinary engagement. This victory 
made him virtually commander-in-chief of the army of the interior. In 
1796 he was appointed to the command-in-chief of the army of Italy, and 
in the same year married Josephine de Beauharnais. In his very first 
campaign Napoleon appeared a consummate general. His peculiar 
mode of attack consisted in precision of movement, concentration of 
forces and formidable charges upon a determinate point. In a few weeks 
he gained four victories, conquered Lombardy and laid siege to Mantua, 
which he captured after almost annihilating three Austrian armies. 
Napoleon then turned his arms against the Pope, compelling him to pay 
30,000,000 lires and surrender many valuable works of art. After 
defeating another Austrian army sent to Italy, Napoleon concluded a 
treaty securing his brilliant success. In 1798 he was given command of 
a powerful expedition into Egypt, the intention being to strike at the 
power of Great Britain, and gained a decisive victory over the Mamelukes 
and Turkish auxiliaries at the battle of the Pyramids, and another at 
Aboukir. Returning to France, he overthrew the Directory and was 
elected first consul. In 1800 he gained the great victory of Marengo. 
Made peace with England 1802, granted general amnesty, established 
public order, re-established the Catholic faith, and produced his Civil 
Code. Napoleon became emperor in 1804, and engaged in war with 
England, Russia, Sweden and Prussia. Divorced from Josephine in 

1809, he married Maria Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria, in 

1810. In 1812 occurred the ill-fated Russian campaign, Napoleon’s 
loss being estimated at 450,000 men. Beaten at Leipzig, 1813, he made 
a disastrous retreat. In 1814 the allies entered Paris, compelled Napo¬ 
leon to abdicate, and sent him to Elba, granting him the sovereignty 
of that island, with a yearly pension of 6,000,000 francs. Returning 
again to France, he was enthusiastically received and raised an army of 
about 125,000, but was completely defeated at Waterloo, 1815. He 
abdicated again, and, unable to carry out his intention of embarking for 
America, he surrendered to the captain of a British man-of-war. Carried 
to the island of St. Helena he died there in 1821 after nearly six years’ 
confinement. 























192 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Bonaparte, Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul. Prince Napoleon. 
1822-.... Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa. 

Bonaparte, Napoleon Francois Charles Joseph. Napoleon II. 
1811-1832. Son of Napoleon I. and Maria Theresa 

Bonaventura, Saint. The Seraphic Doctor. 1221-1274. 
Italian theologian. 

Bonheur, Rosa (or Rosalie), 1822-.... French painter of 
animals. 

Boniface I. Pope, ruling from 419 to 422. II., 530 - 53 2 - 
III., elected 667 and died same year. IV., 608-615. V., 619-624; dis¬ 
tinguished for his efforts to convert the Britons VI., died in 895, fif¬ 
teen days after his election to the Papacy. VII. (Anti-Pope), elected 
974, during reign of Benedict VI.; driven from Rome, hut returned in 
985, imprisoning John XIV., who is said to have been starved to death, 
died 985 VIII., 1294-1303. IX., 1389-1404. 

Boniface, Winfred, Saint. Apostle of Germany. 680-755? 

Bonner, Edmund. Bloody Bonner. 1490 7-1569. Bishop 
of London, noted for his persecution of the Protestants. 

Bonneville, Benjamin L. E. 17957-1878. American soldier 
and traveller. 

Bonnivard, Francois de. 1496-1570. The hero of Byron’s 

Prisoner 0/ Chilton. 

Boone, Daniel. 1735-1820? American pioneer. Born in 
Pennsylvania, but removed in boyhood to North Carolina. Visited 
Kentucky, hitherto unexplored, in 1769, and emigrated to that State 
with his own and five other families in 1773, constructing a fort at 
Boonsborough in 1775. Captured by the Indians, he was adopted by 
them, but escaped and returned to the fort, which was shortly after at¬ 
tacked by Indians under the British flag. The fort was ably de¬ 
fended, two of Boone’s sons, however, being killed. Boone lost his 
lands in Kentucky in consequence of a defective title, and, removing to 
Missouri, pursued the occupation of a hunter and trapper. 

Booth, Edwin. 1833-.... Son of Junius Brutus Booth. 

American tragedian. 

Booth, John Wilkes. 1835-1865. Son of Junius Brutus Booth. 

American actor, who became infamous as the assassin of Abraham 
Lincoln, whom he shot at the theatre on the evening of April 14th, 1865. 
Effected his escape, but was traced into Virginia, where, refusing to sur¬ 
render, he was shot. 

Booth, Junius Brutus. 1796-1852. English tragedian. 

Borden, Simeon. 1798-1856. American civil engineer. 

Borgi, Giovanni. 1735-1802. Italian founder of ragged 
schools. 

Borgia, Cesare, Due de Valentinois. 1457-1507. Natural 
son of Alexander VI. Italian cardinal and military leader. Made 
cardinal in 1492, but afterwards secularized. Notorious for cunning, 
perfidy and cruelty. 

Borgia, Francisco. See Francis, Saint. 

Borgia, Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara.-1523. Sister 

of Cesare Borgia. Distinguished for beauty and talents, and a patron of 
learning, but contemporaneous writers differ in their estimation of her 
character. 

Borromeo, Carlo, Saint. 1538-1584. Italian cardinal, noted 
for benevolence and care of the sick. 

Borrow, George. 1803-1881. English author and traveller. 

Bos, Hieronymus. 14507-1500. Dutch painter. 

Boscawen, Edward. 1711-1761. English admiral. 

Bossuet, Jacques Benigne. 1627-1704. French prelate, ora¬ 
tor and controversialist. 

Boswell, James. 1740-1795. Scottish lawyer; biographer of 
Dr. Johnson. 


Bothwell, James Hepburn, Earl of. 15267-1577? Scottish 
conspirator; husband of Mary of Scotland. 

Bottcher, Johann Friedrich. 1682-1719. Inventor of Dres¬ 
den china. 

Boucicault, Dion. 1822-_ Irish dramatist, residing in 

New York since 1876. Colleen Baum; The Octoroon. 

Boudinot, Elias. 1740-1821. Am. philanthropist and patriot. 
Bouillon, Godfrey de. 1060 7 - 1 100. Leader of the first 

Crusade. 

Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauter. 1816-.... Fr. general. 
Bourbon. The name of a famous dynasty reigning in France 
from 1589 to 1848, excepting the republic and the empire of the first 
Napoleon. 

Bourbon, Charles, Due de. Constable Bourbon. 1490-1527. 

French general. Killed after mounting the wall of Rome at the head of 
his troops. A prominent character in Byron’s The Deformed Trans¬ 
formed. 

Bourdaloue, Louis. 1632-1704. French Jesuit orator. 
Bourdon, Sebastien. 1616-1671. French painter. 

Bourne, Hugh. 1772-1852. English founder of Primitive 
Methodism. 

Bowditch, Nathaniel. 1773-1838. American mathematician; 

son of a cooper. Navigation. 

Bowdoin, James. 1727-1790. American statesman. 

Bowles, Samuel. i82b-?878. American journalist. 

Bowles, William Lisle. 1762-1850. English poet. 

Bowring, Sir John. 1792-1872. Eng. scholar and statesman. 
Boyce, William. 1710-1779. Eng. organist and composer. 
Boydell, John. 1719-1804. Eng. engraver and art publisher. 
Boyle, Robert. 1626-1691. Irish experimental philosopher 
and philanthropist. Disquisition on Final Causes. 

Bozzaris, Marcos. 1790-1823. Patriotic leader in the Greek 

war for independence. Slain in a night attack upon the Turks. 
Braddock, Edward. 17157-1755. English general in Amer¬ 
ica. Killed by Indians. 

Braddon, Mary Elizabeth. 1837-.... English novelist; editor 
of Belgravia. Lady Audley's Secret; Dead Sea Fruit; An Open 
Verdict. 

Bradford, William. 1590-1657. Governor of Plymouth colony. 
Bradford, William. 1660-1752. First printer in Pennsylvania. 
Bradshaw, John. 1586-1659. English republican judge. 
Bradstreet, Anne. 1612-1672. American poetess. 
Bradstreet, John. 1711-1774. American major-general. 
Bragg, Braxton. 1815-1876. Confederate general. 

Brahe, Tycho. 1545-1601. Swedish astronomer. 

Brainerd, David. 1718-1747. American missionary. 
Bramante d’ Urbino. Donato Lazari. 1444-1514. Italian 
architect of St. Peter’s. 

Brandt, Joseph. Thayendanega. 17427-1807. Half-breed 
chief of the Mohawks. 

Breckenridge, John Cabell. 1821-1875. American states¬ 
man and Confederate general. Born in Kentucky. Vice-president 
1857-61. Democratic candidate for the presidency in i860. Elected to 
the United States Senate from Kentucky in 1861, but resigned to enter 
the Confederate army. Confederate secretary of war, 1865. 

Bremer, Fredrika. 1802-1865. Swedish novelist. The Neigh¬ 
bors; The Homes of the New World. 

Brentano, Clemens. 1777-1842. German novelist and poet. 
Brenghel, Jan. 1569-1625. Flemish painter. 

Brewster, Sir David. 1781-1868. Eng. optician and physicist. 


<s 



























A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


193 


Brian Boru (or Boroihme). 727?-ioi4. King of Ireland. 
Bridget, Saint. 1302-1373. Patroness of Ireland. 
Bridgman, Laura. 1829-.... American blind deaf-mute, 
noted for her mental acquirements. 

Bright, John. 1811—.... English statesman and orator. 
Bright, Richard. 1789-1858. English physician. 
Brillat-Savarin, Anthelme. 1755-1826. French author. 

Physiology 0/ the Taste. 

Brissot de Warville, Jean Pierre. 1754-1793. French leader 

of the Girondists ; beheaded. 

Broglie, Charles Jacques Victor Albert, Due de. 1821-.... 

French statesman and writer. 

Bronte, Charlotte. Currer Bell. 1816-1855. English novelist. 

Jane Eyre; Shirley ; Villette. 

Brooks, James. 1810-1873. American journalist. 
Brougham, Henry, Lord. 1779-1868. British author, states¬ 
man and orator. 

Brown, Charles Brockden. 1771-1810. Am. novelist. 
Brown, Hablot, Knight. Phiz. 1815-1882. English comic 

designer. 

Brown, John, Captain. 1800-1859. Born in Connecticut, and 
a tanner by trade. Removed to Kansas and became prominent as an 
abolitionist, and gained the title of “ Ossawatomie ” by a victory, in 
1856, over a company of Missourians vastly exceeding his own force in 
number. In pursuance of a plan for the invasion of Virginia and the 
emancipation of slaves, he surprised Harper’s Ferry in 1859, and took 
the arsenal and armory and forty prisoners. Attacked the next day by 
the United States marines and the Virginia militia, two of his sons and 
most of his company of twenty men were killed, and he himself was 
wounded and taken prisoner. He was tried and hanged at Charlestown, 
Virginia, the same year. 

Brown, Thomas. 1778-1820. Scottish metaphysician. 
Browne, Charles F. Artemus Ward. 1835-1867. Ameri¬ 
can humorist. 

Browne, Sir Thomas. 1605-1682. English physician, phil¬ 
osopher and author. Religio Medici; Enquiries into Vulgar and 
Common Errors. 

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett. 1809-1861. Wife of Robert 

Browning. English poetess. Aurora Leigh; Casa Guidi Windows. 

Browning, Robert. 1812-.,.. English poet. The Ring 
and the Book; Strafford; Men and Women; Fifine at the Fair; 
A Sours Errand. 

Brownlow, William Gannaway. Parson Brownlow. 1805- 

1877. American politician. 

Brownson, Orestes Augustus. 1803-1876. Am. theologian. 
Bruce, James. 1730-1794. Scottish traveller; discovered the 
source of the Blue Nile. 

Bruce, Robert. 1274-1329. King of Scotland. Defeated 
Edward II. at Bannockburn, in 1314. The greatest of the rulers of 
Scotland. 

Brummel, George Bryan. Bean Brummel. 1778-1840. 

English man of fashion. 

Brunei, Isambard Kingdom. 1806-1859. Eng. engineer. 
Brunei, Sir Mark Isambard. 1769-1849. English engineer, 
born in France. Built the Thames tunnel. 

Brunelleschi, Filippo. 1377-1444. Italian architect and 

sculptor. 

Bruno, Saint. I040?-H9i. German founder of the Car¬ 

thusians. 

Brutus, Lucius Junius. FI. 500 B.c. Roman patriot; over¬ 

threw Tarquin. 

Brutus, Marcus Junius. 80-36 B.c. One of Caesar’s assas¬ 

sins; committed suicide after his defeat at Philippi. 


Bryant, William Cullen. 1794-1878. American poet and 
journalist; born in Massachusetts. At 13 composed The Spanish Rev¬ 
olution and The Embargo. Entered Williams College, read law, and 
was admitted to the bar in 1816. Published Thanatopsis in 1816. Became 
editor of the New York Evening Post in 1826. He was a firm oppo¬ 
nent of slavery. 

Buchanan, George. 1506-1582. Scottish historian and poet. 
Buchanan, James. 1791-1868. Fifteenth president of the 
United States. Born in Pennsylvania. Admitted to the bar, 1812 ; 
member of Congress, 1821-31; minister to Russia, 1832-4; U. S. 
senator, 1834-5; secretary of state, 1845-9; minister to England, 
1853-6; signed Ostend manifesto in 1854; president, 1857-61. In 
his last message, President Buchanan censured the Northern people for 
the imminent disruption of the Union, holding that neither the executive 
nor Congress had power to coerce a state. 

Buckland, William. 1784-1856. English geologist. 

Buckle, Henry Thomas. 1S22-1862. English writer. History 

0/ Civilization. 

Buddha (or Booddha ), Gautama. 624-523 b.c. Hindoo re¬ 

former; founder of Buddhism. 

Buell, Don Carlos. 1818?-.... American general. 

Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc de, Comte. 1707-1788. French 

naturalist and philosopher. Natural History ; Epochs 0/Nature. 
Bull, Ole Bornemann. 1810-1882. Norwegian violinist. 
Bulow, Bernhard Ernst von. 1815-.... German statesman. 
Bulow, Friedrich Wilhelm von, Count. 1775-1816. Prussian 
general. 

Bulow, Hans Guido von. 1830-. ... German pianist. 
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward George Earle Lytton, Baron Lytton. 
1805-1873. English novelist. 

Bulwer-Lytton, Edward Robert, Baron Lytton. Owen 

Meredith. 1831-.... Son of the preceding. English poet. 

Bulwer, Sir Henry Lytton Earle. 1804-1872. English author 

and diplomatist. 

Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias von, Baron. 1791-1860. Ger¬ 

man philologist and diplomatist. 

Bunyan, John. 1628-1688. English author. The son of a 
tinker, he followed that vocation and led for many years a dissipated, 
wandering life ; served in the Parliamentary army ; joined the Anabap¬ 
tists in 1654, and in 1655 became a Baptist minister; sentenced to trans¬ 
portation for life on a charge of promoting seditious assemblies, but 
sentence not enforced ; was, however, imprisoned for more than twelve 
years, and during this time wrote his Pilgrim's Progress. After his 
release he was minister of the gospel at Bedford, and became very 
popular. Among his other works are The Holy City and The Holy 
War. 

Burckhardt, Johann Ludwig. 1784-1817. Swiss traveller. 
Burdett-Coutts, Angela Georgina, Baroness. 1814-.... 

English philanthropist. 

Burger, Gottfried August. 1748-1794. German poet. 
Burgoyne, John. 1730-1792. English general and dramatist. 
Surrendered at Saratoga. 

Burke, Edmund. 1730-1797. English (Irish) orator, states¬ 
man and writer. Prominent as the ablest member of the Commons to 
oppose the ministry’s American policy. Impeached Warren Hastings 
in 1788. Rejlections on the Revolution in France. 

Burke, Thomas N. 1830-1883. Irish Dominican orator. 
Burleigh, William Cecil, Lord. 1520-1598. Eng. statesman. 

Burlingame, Anson. 1822-1870. American diplomatist; 

negotiator of treaty between the United States and China, 

Burnet, Gilbert. 1643-1715. British prelate and historian. 

History of My Own Times. 




















<3. 




/ 


i 9 4 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Burns, Robert. 1759-1796. Scotch lyric poet. Born at 

Ayr; the son of a poor farmer. Burns worked hard on his father’s 
farm and had little opportunity for education. Began rhyming at the 
age of 16, and studied mensuration and surveying. His poems brought 
him into society, where he acquired dissipated habits. Formed a liai¬ 
son in 1785 with Jean Armour, whom he married in 1788. Intended to 
emigrate, but the popularity of his poems, published in full in 1787, in¬ 
duced him to remain in Scotland. He afterward became an officer of 
the excise. The principal characteristics of Burns’ poems are beauty 
and independence of thought and intensity of feeling. The Cotter's 
Saturday Night; Tam O'Shanter; To the Unco' Guid; Halloween; 
Holy Willie's Prayer. 

Burnside, Ambrose Everett. 1824-1881. American general. 

Burr, Aaron. 1756-1836. American statesman and lawyer. 
In 1800 Burr and Jefferson were the Democratic candidates for presi¬ 
dent and vice-president. Receiving the same number of votes, the 
House gave the higher office to Jefferson. Burr’s course in endeavor¬ 
ing to supplant Jefferson lost him the regard of his party. Unsuccessful 
as candidate for governor of New York in 1804, Burr attributed his 
defeat to Alexander Hamilton, whom he killed in a duel. After the ex¬ 
piration of his term as vice-president, Burr was tried for treason, 
charged with the subversion of federal authority, and with raising an 
expedition for the conquest of Mexico, but acquitted. 

Burritt, Elihu. The Leai-ned Blacksmith. 1810-1879. Am¬ 
erican scholar and journalist. The son of a shoemaker, and appren¬ 
ticed to a blacksmith, he devoted all his spare time to study, and event¬ 
ually mastered eighteen foreign languages. He became a successful 
lecturer and advocated many reforms. 

Burton, Richard Francis. 1821-.... Irish traveller in 

Africa. 

Burton, Robert. 1576-1640. English philosopher. Anatomy 

0/ Melancholy. 

Bushnell, Horace. 1802-1876. American divine. 

Butler, Benjamin Franklin. 1818-. ... American politician, 
lawyer and general. Born in New Hampshire. Butler applied the 
term “contraband of war” to the slaves who sought protection at 
Fortress Monroe while he was in command there. Military governor 
of New Orleans in 1862, ruling with vigor and efficiency and preserving 
the city from the yellow fever. Went to Congress as a Republican in 
1866, and was re-elected for several terms. Elected governor of Mas¬ 
sachusetts in 1882 by the Democrats, but defeated for the same office a 
year later. 

Butler, Joseph. 1692-1752. English theologian. 

Butler, Samuel. i6l2?-l68o. English poet. Hudibras. 

Byng, John. 1704-1757. Eng. admiral, shot for cowardice. 

Byron, George Gordon Noel, Lord. 1788-1824. English 
poet. Born in London and educated in Scotland. Travelled 1809-11, 
and on returning produced the first cantos of Childe Harold. Giaour 
and Bride 0/Abydos, 1813 ; Corsair, 1814. In 1815 he married Anne 
Isabel Millbank, but separated from her and left England in 1816. In 
Italy he formed a liaison with the beautiful Countess Guiccioli. Espous¬ 
ing the cause of the Greeks in their struggle for liberty, he left for 
Greece in 1823, and died the following year at Missolonghi from the ef¬ 
fects of exposure while preparing for the siege of Lepanto. Byron’s 
poetry is characterized by intense emotion, and by rare taste and mar¬ 
vellous felicity in composition. Childe Harold's Pilgrimage; Don 
Juan. 

/Tf’ABALLERO, Eernan. 1787-1877. Pseudonym, of the 

V-*- Spanish novelist Cecilia Bohl de Faber. 

Cabanel, Alexandre. 1823-.... French historical painter. 

Cabanis, Pierre Jean George. 1757-1808. French physician 

and philosopher. 

Cabot, George. 1751-1823. President of the Hartford Con¬ 

vention. 


Cabot, John.-1498? Venetian navigator in the service 

of England. Discovered North American continent in 1497. 

Cabot, Sebastian. 1477?—!557. Son of preceding. English 

navigator. 

Cade, John. Jack Cade .-1450. Irish rebel. 

Cadoudal, George. 1769-1804. French Bourbon general. 

Executed for plotting the dethronement of Napoleon I. 

Cadwalader, George.-1879. American general. 

Cadwalader, John. 1743-1786. American general. 

Caedmon.-680? Anglo-Saxon poet. The Creation. 

Caesar, Caius Julius. 100-44 B.C. Roman general and 
statesman. Elected Consul 60 b.c. ; formed a secret alliance with 
Pompey and Crassus known as the first triumvirate. It is said that 
during his Gallic wars a million of men were slain, eight hundred cities 
and towns captured and three hundred tribes subdued. Pompey having 
become Caesar’s enemy through jealousy, the latter crossed the Rubicon, 
49 B.c., and in a short time became master of Italy. Having conquered 
all his enemies, and subdued Spain and Africa, Caesar was made, per¬ 
petual dictator, and received from the Senate the title of Imperator. 
Although beloved by the masses, the patricians feared and hated him, 
and the result of a conspiracy of Cassius, Brutus and others was his 
assassination. 

Cagliari, Paolo. Paid Veronese. 1530 P-1588. Italian 

painter. 

Cagliostro, Alexandra (Joseph Balsamo). 1743-1795. Italian 

impostor and adventurer, physician and alchemist. 

Caille, Nicolas Louis de la. 1713-1762. French astronomer. 

Caillet, Guillaume.-1359. French insurgent leader. 

Cajetan, Thomas de Vio. 1469-1534. Italian prelate. 

Calderon de la Barco, Don Pedro. 1600-1683. Spanish 
poet and dramatist. Produced his first drama at the age of 13. 
Served as a soldier, but took orders in 1652, after which he wrote only 
sacred dramas. He wrote some five hundred plays. 

Calhoun, John Caldwell. 1783-1850. American statesman. 
Born in South Carolina; elected to Congress, 1810; secretary of war, 
1817; vice-president, 1825-1832, resigning to enter the Senate; secre¬ 
tary of state, 1844 ; returned to the Senate, 1845. Calhoun was an 
avowed champion of slavery and state’s rights. 

Caligula, Caius Ceesar. 12-41. Emperor of Rome, noted 
for cruelty and sensuality. Built a temple to himself. Assassinated. 
Calonne, Charles Alexandre de. 1734-1802. Fr. statesman. 

Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore.-1676. First 

proprietor of Maryland, residing in England. 

Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore. 15827-1632. Father 

of the preceding. Founder of Maryland. 

Calvert, Leonard. 16067-1647. Brother of Cecilius. First 

governor of Maryland. 

Calvin, John. 1509-1564. French theologian. Established 

the Presbyterian form of church government. The fundamental prin¬ 
ciple of his theology is that of predestination to eternal happiness or 
misery by the absolute decree of God. 

Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis de. 1757-1824. French 

statesman. 

Cambyses.-522 B.c. King of Persia; conqueror of 

Egypt. 

Cameron, Richard.-1680. Scottish Covenanter. 

Cameron, Simon. 1799-_ American politician; senator 

from Pennsylvania, secretary of war and minister to Russia. 

Camillus, Marcus Furius.-364 b.c. Roman general 

and dictator. 


Y. 




(f 





























(O 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


*95 




Camoens, Luis. 1517-1579. Portuguese poet. Served in 

Morocco as a volunteer, and, failing to procure advancement at court on 
his return, went to India. There he was banished, on account of his 
satire, Follies in India , from Goa to Macao, where he wrote the Lusiad, 
the greatest of his works. Recalled to Goa, he suffered shipwreck, and 
saved the Lusiad by holding it above the waves as he swam ashore. He 
died in great poverty. 

Campanini, Italo. Italian tenor singer. 

Campbell, Alexander. 1788-1866. Irish founder of the de¬ 
nomination of “Christians,” or “ Disciples of Christ.” 

Campbell, Colin, Lord Clyde. 1792-1863. British General. 
Campbell, John, Lord. 1779-1861. Lord chancellor of 
England. The Lives 0/ the Lord Chancellors. 

Campbell, Thomas. 1777-1844. Scottish poet. Son of a 

Glasgow merchant. Published Pleasures of Hope in 1799. Among his 
other poems are The Exile of Erin, LocliieVs Warning, Gertrude of 
Wyomingand O' Connor's Child. Also wrote biographies of Petrarch, 
Mrs. Siddons and Frederick the Great. 

Canby, Edward Richard Sprigg. 1819-1873. American 

general. 

Canisius, Petrus. (De Hondt.) 1521-1597. Dutch Jesuit 

theologian. 

Canning, George. 1770-1827. English statesman and orator. 
Canova, Antonio. 1757-1822. Italian sculptor. Venus Vic¬ 
torious; Venus and Adonis; Theseus and the Minotaur; Dteda- 
lus and Icarus; The Graces. He executed statues of Washington 
and Napoleon. 

Canrobert, Francois Certain. 1S09-.... French marshal 
and senator. 

Cantacuzenus, John.-1411? Greek emperor and 

historian. 

Canute II. 990-1035. King of Denmark; conqueror of 

England. 

Capet, Hugh. 9407-996. Founder of the Capetian dynasty. 
Caracalla. 188-217. Emperor of Rome, noted for cruelty. 
Caracci, Agostino. 1558-1602. Italian painter and engraver. 
Caracci, Annibal. 1560-1609. Italian painter. 

Caracci, Ludovico. 1555-1619. Italian painter. 

Caravaggio, Michel Angelo da. 1569-1609. Italian painter. 
Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, Earl of. 1797-1868. 
English general. 

Carducci, Bartolommeo. 1560-1610. Florentine painter. 
Carey, Henry Charles. 1793-1879. Am. political economist. 
Carlisle, John G. 1829-.... American statesman. 

Carlos, Don, Duke of Madrid. (Carlos Maria de los Dolores 
Juan Isidoro Josef Francesco Quirino Antonio Miguel Gabriel Rafael.) 
1848-.... Claimant to the Spanish throne. Nephew of Charles VI. 

Carlyle, Thomas. 1795-1881. Scottish essayist, biographer 

and historian. The son of a small farmer; educated at the University 
of Edinburgh. Taught mathematics for some time, but resolved to 
devote himself to literary pursuits and became thoroughly familiar 
with the literature of Germany. Married Jane Welch in 1827, and set¬ 
tled on a farm. Besides his best known works and several translations, 
he produced biographies of Schiller, Frederick the Great and John 
Sterling. Sartor Resartus first appeared in Fraser's Magazine in 
1833; French Revolution, 1837; Chartism, 1839; Heroes and Hero 
Worship, 1840; Latter-Day Pamphlets and Cromwell's Letters and 
Speeches, 1845. 

Carnarvon, Henry H. M. Herbert, third Earl of. 1831-- 

English statesman. 

Carnot, Lazar Nicolas Marguerite. 1753-1823. French strate¬ 
gist and military administrator. 

Carroll, Charles (of Carrollton). 1737-1832. Am. patriot. 


Cartier, Jacques. 1494-1555? French navigator. 

Cartwright, Edmund. 1743-1823. English inventor. 

Cary, Alice. 1822-1870. American poetess. 

Cary, Henry Francis. 1722-1884. Eng. translator of Dante. 
Casas, Bartolome de las. 1474-1566. Spanish missionary 

and historian. History of the Indians. 

Casaubon, Isaac. 1559-1614. Swiss scholar and critic. 

Casimir I. The Pacific .-1058. King of Poland. 

II., 1137-1194. III., The Great, ... .-1370. IV., 1425-1492. V., 1609- 
1672. 

Cass, Lewis. 1782-1866. Am. statesman and diplomatist. 
Castelar y Rissol, Emilio. 1832-.... Spanish republican 

orator and statesman. 

Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount. 1769-1822. Second 

marquis of Londonderry. British statesman, prominent in suppressing 
the Irish rebellion of 1798, and to him is attributed the union of Ireland 
with Great Britain. Opposed Bonaparte Committed suicide. 
Castro, Joao de. 1500-1548. Port, general and navigator. 
Catherine, Saint. 1347-1380. Italian nun at Siena. Mediator 

between the rival popes in the great schism. 

Catherine I. 1682-1727. Empress of Russia; succeeded to 

the throne on the death of her husband, Peter the Great. II., 1729-1796; 
notoriously immoral. 

Catherine of Aragon. 1486-1536. Queen of Henry VIII. of 

England; divorced. 

Catherine de, Medici. 1510-1589. Queen of Henry II. of 

France; opponent of the Huguenots. 

Catiline, Lucius Sergius. io 8?-62 b.c. Roman conspirator. 
Cato, Dionysius. FI. 3d century. Latin poet. 

Cato, Marcus Portius. The Elder. 234-149 b.c. Roman 
statesman and author. 

Cato, Marcus Portius. The Younger. 95-46 B.c. Opponent 

of Csesar ; famed for purity and nobility. Committed suicide. 

Catullus, Caius Vallerius. 77 ?—45 ? b.c. Latin poet. 
Caulaincourt, Annand A. L. de. 1773-1827. Fr. diplomat. 
Cavaignac, Louis Eugene. 1S02-1S57. French general and 
statesman. Put down the insurrection of 1848. 

Cavour, Camillo Benso di. 1818-1861. First prime minister 
of the kingdom of Italy. 

Caxton, William. I4I2?-I492. English scholar and mer¬ 
chant. Introduced printing into England. 

Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh. 1520-1598. Lord treasurer 
of England. 

Cecilia, Saint. FI. 2d century. Roman martyr; patroness of 
music. 

Cenci, Beatrice. The beautiful Parricide. 1583 7-1599. 

Roman lady, famous for her beauty and tragic fate. 

Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. 1547-1616. Spanish novel¬ 
ist. Don Quixote. 

Cesnola, Louis Palma di. 1832-.... Born in Italy ; colonel 
in U. S. army during the civil war; appointed 1865 consul to Cyprus, 
and became famous for his excavations in that island. 

Chalmers, Thomas. 1780-1847. Scottish divine ; founder of 
the “ Free Church.” Astronomy in its Connection with Religion. 
Chambers, William. 1800-1883. Scot, editor and publisher. 

Chambord, Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne d’Artois, 
Comte. 1820-1883. Head of elder branch of the Bourbons. 
Chamisso, Adelbert von. 1781-1838. German traveller. 
Champollion, Jean Francois. 1791-1832. French Egyptolo¬ 
gist. Hieroglyphic Dictionary. 

Changarnier, Nicolas A. T. 1793-1877. French general. 

































a. 


\ - 

196 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Channing, William Ellery. 1780-1842. American divine and 

author; opponent of slavery. 

Chantroy, Sir Francis. 1782-1841. English sculptor. 
Chapin, Edwin Hubbell. 1814-1881. American divine. 

Charlemagne. Charles the Great, or Charles I. 742-S14. 
Emperor of Germany and King of France. Crowned emperor of the 
West, with the title of Caesar Augustus, by Pope Leo III., 800. The 
most powerful and enlightened monarch of his time. His empire extended 
from the Elbe to the Ebro, and from Calabria to Hungary. Founder of 
the Carlovingian dynasty. 

Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of France.) 823-877. 

Emperor of Germany. Invaded Italy and was crowned Emperor. III., 
The Fat, 832?-888. IV., 1316-1378. Emperor of Germany and King 
of Bohemia. V., 1500-1558. Emperor of Germany. King of Spain 
as Charles I. Ascended the Spanish throne in 1516 and became Emperor 
of Germany in 1519. In 1521 summoned the Diet of Worms to check the 
progress of Luther’s doctrines. In 1527, warring with Francis I. of 
France, and Pope Clement VII., Rome was sacked and the pope made 
prisoner. Convened the Diet of Augsburg to suppress the Reformation, 
but, the Protestants having united, liberal terms were granted them. In 
t535, defeated Barbarossa and captured Tunis, liberating thousands of 
Christian slaves. Defeated in 1552 by the Protestant forces under 
Maurice of Saxony, he signed the treaty of Passau, establishing the 
Protestant church on a firm basis. Three years later he retired to the 
monastery of St. Yuste. VI., 1685-1740. VII. (Karl Albrecht), 
1697-1745. 

Charles II. The Bald. (Charles II. of Germany.) 823-877. 

King of France. IV., The Fair. 11294-328. V., The Wise, 1337- 

1380. VI., The Mad or The Beloved, 1368-1422. Became insane in 
1392. VII., The Victorious, 1403-1461; expelled the English. IX., 
1550-1574- X., 1757-1836. 

Charles I. Charles Stuart. 1600-1649. King of England. 
Executed after ineffectually attempting to subdue his rebellious subjects. 
II., 1630-1685; witty, but careless and voluptuous, the Habeas 
Corpus act was passed during his reign. 

Charles I. (Charles V. of Germany.) 1500-1558. King of 

Spain. II., 1661-1700. III., 17x6-1788. IV., 1748-1819. 

Charles IX. 1550-1611. King of Sweden. X. (Gustavus), 

1622-1660. XII., 1682-17x8; ascended the throne in 1697. A 
league being formed against him by Russia, Denmark and Poland, in 1700, 
he besieged Copenhagen, forced Denmark to make peace, and beat the 
Russians. He then invaded Poland, compelling King Augustus to 
resign. Invading Russia, he was badly defeated at Pultowa. He fled 
to Turkey, but soon returned. Marching into Norway, he was killed at 
the siege of Frederickshall. XIII., 1748-1818. XIV. (Bernadotte), 
1714-1844. XV., 1826-1872. King of Sweden and Norway. 

Charles Edward Stuart. The Young Pretender. 1720-1788. 

English prince. 

Charles the Bold. 1433-1477. Duke of Burgundy. While 

still Count of Charolais and before succeeding to his dukedom, he led 
a successful revolt of the nobles against Louis XI. of France. Aspiring 
to enlarge his dominions, he invaded Lorraine, but was defeated by Duke 
Rene’s Swiss allies and killed in battle. 

Charles Martel. 694?-74i. King of the Franks. 

Charron, Pierre. 1531-1603. French moralist. 

Chartier, Alain. 1385-1455. French poet. 

Chase, Salmon Portland. 1808-1873. American statesman 

and jurist. Secretary of the Treasury; chief justice. 

Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste de, Viscount. 1768-1848. 

French author. Genius of Christianity. 

Chatham, William Pitt, Earl of. The Great Commoner. 
1708-1778. English statesman and orator. Opposed taxation of the 
American colonies. 

Chatterton, Thomas. 1752-1770. English literary impostor. 

/ - --- - 


Chaucer, Geoffrey. I340?-I400. English poet, styled the 

“ Father of English poetry.” Canterbury Tales. 

Cheever, George Barrelle. 1807-.... American divine. 
Cheke, Sir John. 1514-1557. English scholar. 

Chenier, Andre Marie de. 1762-1794. French poet; exe¬ 
cuted. The Young Captive, written just before his death, is called by 
Lamartine “ the most melodious sigh that ever issued from a dungeon." 

Cherbuliez, Victor. 1832-.... French novelist. 

Cherubini, Maria Luigi C. Z. S. 1760-1842. It. composer. 
Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of. 1694-1773. 

English orator and wit, distinguished especially as a man of fashion. 

Chevalier, Michael. 1806-1879. Fr. political economist. 
Chiabrera, Gabriello. 1552-1637. Italian lyric poet. 

Child, Lydia Maria. 1802-.... American philanthropist. 
Chillingworth, William. 1602-1644. English theologian. 

The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation. 

Chitty, Joseph. 1776-1841. English jurist and writer. 
Choate, Rufus. 1799-1859. American lawyer and statesman, 
noted for his eloquence. Senator from Massachusetts. 

Choiseul, Etienne Frangois de. 1719-1785. Fr. statesman. 
Choris, Louis. 1795-1828. Russian painter and traveller. 
Christian I. 1425-1481. King of Denmark. II., 1481-1556. 
Called “ The Hero of the North.” III., 1503-1559. IV., 1577-1648. V., 
1646-1699. VI., 1699-1746. VII., 1749-1808. VIII., 1786-1848. IX., 
1818-.... 

Christina. 1629-1689. Queen of Sweden. Daughter of 
Gustavus Adolphus. Learned and eccentric. Abdicated 1654. 
Chrysippus. 280-207 B -C. Greek Stoic philosopher. 
Chrysostom, John, Saint. 3507-407. Greek father of the 
church. 

Church, Frederick Edwin. 1826-.... American painter. 
Churchill, Charles. 1731-1764. English poet and satirist. 
Cialdini, Enrico. 1811-.... Italian general. 

Cibber, Colley. 1671-1757. English actor and dramatist. 
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. 106-43 B - c - Roman author, states¬ 
man and orator. While consul, suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline. 
Exiled 58 B.c., but recalled and enthusiastically received. Was an ad¬ 

herent of Pompey, but enjoyed the favor of Julius Caesar. Killed by 
the soldiers of Antony. Cicero is regarded as an orator second only to 
Demosthenes. 

Cid Campeador. (Ruy Diaz de Bivar.) 10407—1099. Cas¬ 

tilian hero. 

Cimabue, Giovanni. 1140-1300? Italian painter. 

Cimon. 500-499 B.c. Athenian general and statesman. 
Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintus. 520-438 b.c. Roman patriot 

and Dictator. Elected consul while cultivating a farm, having lost his 
property. Conquered the TEqui. Twice chosen dictator, and at the 
expiration of each term of office he returned to the plow. 

Cinna, Lucius Cornelius.-84 B.c. Roman demagogue. 

Cinq-Mars, Henri C. de Ruze, Marquis de. 1620-1642. 

French conspirator. 

Civilis, Claudius. FI. 70. Chief of the Batavi. 

Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of. 1608-1674. English 

historian and statesman. 

Clarke, Adam. 1762-1832. Irish Methodist Bible com¬ 

mentator. 

Clarke, John S. 1835-.... American comedian. 

Clarke, Mary Cowden. 1809-.... English writer. Con¬ 
cordance of Shakspere. 

Claude Lorraine. 1600-1682. French painter. 


k!> 






























A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


197 


Claudian (Claudius Claudianus). 365 ?-4o8 ? Latin poet. 

Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero). B.c. 10-54 A.D. 
Roman emperor; invaded Britain. 

Claudius, Marcus Aurelius. 214-270. Roman emperor. 

Clay, Henry. 1777-1852. American statesman and orator. 
Born in Virginia; removed to Kentucky 1797; practiced law; elected 
to Kentucky Legislature in 1804, and two years later chosen to fill a 
short term in the U. S. Senate ; re-elected to the Senate 1809, and to 
the House of Representatives 1811, of which body he was made 
speaker; re-elected speaker 1813; signed treaty of Ghent, 1815; re¬ 
elected speaker four times; advocated Missouri Compromise. Not 
one of his decisions as speaker was reversed. In 1824, he was one of 
four candidates for the presidency, receiving thirty-seven electoral 
votes. When the election devolved on the House of Representatives, 
his influence decided the contest in favor of Jackson. A bloodless 
duel between Clay and Randolph, in 1826, was the result of charges 
against Clay growing out of this election. Re-elected to the Senate in 
1831 for six years ; and in 1832 was defeated for the presidency as the 
candidate of the anti-Jackson party. Again elected to the Senate in 1836, 
but resigned in 1842. Whig candidate for the presidency in 1844. Re¬ 
elected Senator 1848. Clay is generally given credit for the compro¬ 
mise of 1850, believed to have postponed for ten years the civil war. 

Clemens, Samuel Langhorne. A/ark Twain. 1835-.... 

American humorist. Learned the printer’s trade, and became a pilot 
on the Mississippi. The Innocents Abroad; The Jumping Frog; 
Roughing It; The Gilded Age ; The Tramp Abroad. 

Clement I. 3oP-ioo. Pope. IV., ...-628. V., I264?-I3I4. 
VII. (Giulio de Medici), i475?-i534. VIII., 1605. XI., 1649-1721. 
XIV., 1705-1774. 

Clement of Alexandria. 1507-220? Father of the church. 

Cleon.-422 B.c. Athenian demagogue and general. 

Cleopatra. 69-30 b.c. Queen of Egypt, remarkable for 
beauty and accomplishments. Upon the death of her father, Ptolemy 
Auletes, 51 b.c., she became joint ruler of Egypt with her brother Pto¬ 
lemy. Expelled from the throne by her brother, she was reinstated by 
Julius Caesar (48 B.c.), with whom she lived at Rome 46-44. Became 
the favorite of Mark Antony in 41, who neglected his own affairs and 
the affairs of state, thus allowing Octavius to rapidly gain sole com¬ 
mand of the Roman empire. Captured after Antony’s defeat at Ac- 
tium by Octavius, she committed suicide by means of an asp, conveyed 
to her in a basket of fruit. 

Clinton, De Witt. 1769-1828. American statesman; pro¬ 
moter of the Erie Canal. Governor of New York, United States Sena¬ 
tor, and Federal candidate for the Presidency. 

Clinton, George. 1739-1812. Vice-president of the U. S. 

Clinton, Sir Henry. 1738-1795. English general in America. 

Clive, Robert, Lord. 1725-1774. English general and 

founder of the British empire in India. Committed suicide. 

Clodius, Publius. 52 B.c. Roman tribune and demagogue. 

Clootz, Jean Baptiste, Baron. Anacharsis Clootz. 1753—1794. 

Prussian traveller and French revolutionist. Guillotined. 

Clough, Arthur Hugh. 1820-1861. English poet. 

Clovis (or Chlodwig ). 465-511. King of the Franks; con¬ 

queror of Gaul. 

Cobbett, William. 1762-1835. English political writer. 

Cobden, Richard. 1804-1865. English statesman and 

economist. Leading orator of the Anti-Corn-Law League. 

Coke (or Cook), Sir Edward. 1552-1633. English jurist. 

Colbert, Jean Baptiste. 1619-1683. French statesman. 

Cole, Thomas. 1801-1848. English landscape painter. 

Colenso, John William. 1814-- Eng. theologian. Bishop 

of Natal. The Pentateuch and Book 0/ Joshua Critically Examined. 

Coleridge, Hartley. | 1796—1849. Son of S. T. C. Eng. poet. 

/ 


Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. 1772-1834. English poet and 
critic. Educated at Cambridge. Intimate friend of Robert Sodthey, 
with whom he intended to emigrate to America for the purpose of found¬ 
ing a democratic community. In company with Wordsworth he studied 
German literature and wrote the Lyrical Ballads. In 1807 he took to 
wandering habits, and left his family dependent on his brother-in-law, 
Southey. His health failing about 1825, he became addicted to the 
opium habit, but succeeded in overcoming it. The Ancient Mariner. 

Colfax, Schuyler. 1823-.... Am. politician ; vice-president. 

Coligny, Gaspard de. 1517-1572. French admiral. Leader 

of the Huguenots, and killed in the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

Collier, Jeremy. 1650-1726. English theologian. 

Collingwood, Cuthbert, Lord. 1750-1810. English lord high 

admiral; second in command at the battle of Trafalgar. 

Collins, Anthony. 1676-1729. Eng. author and free-thinker. 

Collins, William. 1720-1756. Eng. poet. The Passions. 

Collins, William Wilkie. 1824-.... English novelist. 

AJter Dark; Armadale; The Woman in White; Man and IViJe. 

Colman, George. The Elder. 1733-1794. Eng. dramatist. 

Colman, George. The Younger. 1762-1836. English dra¬ 

matist. John Bull. 

Colonna, Vittoria. 1490-1547. Italian poet. 

Colt, Samuel. 1814-1862. Am. inventor of the revolving pistol. 

Columba, Saint. 521-597. The apostle of Caledonia. 

Columbus, Christopher. 1436-1506. Genoese navigator and 
discoverer of America. Became a sailor at 14. Studied mathe¬ 
matics at the University of Pavia. Removed to Lisbon at the age of 
thirty, and was employed in several expeditions to the west coast of 
Africa. Columbus meditated reaching India by a western route. He 
unsuccessfully solicited the aid of John II. of Portugal, but finally 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain furnished him two small vessels, and 
another was added by the efforts of his friends. With these ships and 
one hundred and twenty men he set sail from Palos, August 3, 1492, and 
after a long voyage, during which he was threatened with death by his 
mutinous crew, he discovered the island of San Salvador, October 12 of 
same year. Supposing that he had reached India, he called the natives 
Indians. After visiting Cuba and Hayti, he returned to Spain, where he 
was received triumphantly. In 1493 he again sailed across the Atlantic, 
this time with seventeen ships, and discovered Jamaica and Porto Rico. 
In 1498 he made his third voyage, with six vessels, discovering the 
mainland at the mouth of the Orinoco. In 1499, complaints having been 
made to the court of the conduct of Columbus at Hispaniola, he was 
carried to Spain in chains by Francisco de Bobadilla, whose action was, 
however, repudiated by the king and queen Columbus’ last voyage 
to America was made in 1502, to Honduras. He died neglected. 

Combe, George. 1788-1858. Eng. educator and phrenologist. 

Comines, Philippe de. 1445-1509. Fr. statesman and historian. 

Commodus, Antoninus. 161-192. Emperor of Rome. 

Comonfort, Ignacio. i 8 io?-i 863 . President of Mexico. 

Comte, Auguste. 1798-1857. French philosopher. Positivism. 

Conde, Louis II., Prince de. The Great Conde. 1621-1686. 
French general. Victorious over the Spaniards at Rocroi, 1643, and 
over the Germans at Nordlingen, 1645. Again defeated the Spanish at 
Lens in 1648, almost annihilating their infantry, previously regarded in¬ 
vincible. Seeking revenge for having been imprisoned by the orders of 
Mazarin or the queen, he warred against the government, and next 
entered the service of Spain. Returned to France in 1659, and 
defeated William of Orange in 1674. 

Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de. 1715-1780. French meta¬ 

physician. 

Condorcet, Marie Jean A. N. C. de. 1743-1794. French 

mathematician and philosopher. Imprisoned in 1794, he committed 
suicide by poison. 





























198 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Confucius, or Kong-foo-tse. 551-478 B.c. Chinese phil¬ 
osopher. The son of a soldier, he was raised to the rank of mandarin 
at 19 ; superintendent of public markets and public fields. Commenced 
public teaching at 22. Became, in 499 B.c., minister of crime, and 
soon after retired from public life, devoting his time to study, travel, and 
the dissemination of his doctrines. The philosophy of Confucius re¬ 
lates to the present life only, the useful and the practical forming the 
chief objects. He placed great importance upon outward forms of po¬ 
liteness, being the first to enunciate, in substance, the Golden Rule. His 
object was to promote human happiness. His influence upon posterity 
has been truly enormous, his teachings affecting two-thirds of humanity 
for twenty-three centuries. 

Congreve, Sir William. 1772-1828. English engineer. (Con¬ 
greve rocket). 

Congreve, William. 1670-1729. English dramatist and wit. 

Conkling, Roscoe. 1829-.... American statesman, lawyer 
and orator. U. S. senator from New York. 

Conrad I .-918. Emperor of Germany. II., ... .-1039. 

III., 1093-1153. IV., 1228-1254. V., 1252-1268. 

Conscience, Hendrik. 1812-1883. Flemish novelist. 

Constans I. 3207-350. Emperor of Rome. II., 630-668. 

Constantine I. The Great. 272-377. Emperor of Rome. 

Embraced Christianity, and transferred his court from Rome to Byzan¬ 
tium, thenceforth called Constantinople. II., 312-340. III. (emperor 
of the East), 612-641. IV., ....-685. V., 719-775. VI., 771-797. 

VII., 905-959; poisoned by his son, Romanus II. VIII., ....-946. 
IX., 961-1028. X., ....-1054. XI., ....-1067. XII., ....-1071. 

XIII. (Palaeologus), 1394-1543; killed while defending Constantinople 
against the victorious Mahomet II. Last emperor of the East. 

Constantius I. 250-306. Emperor of Rome. II. (emperor 
of the West), 317-361. III., ....-421. 

Conti, Frangois Louis de, Prince. 1664-1709. Fr. general. 

Cook, Eliza. 1817-.... English poetess. 

Cook, James, Captain. 1728-1779. English discoverer, and 
circumnavigator of the globe. Killed by natives in the Sandwich Islands. 

Cooke, George Frederick. 1755-1812. English actor. 

Cooper, Sir Astley Paston. 1768-1841. English physician. 

Cooper, James Fenimore. 1779-1851. American novelist. 

Having studied at Yale College, he entered the navy in 1806 as mid- 
shipman,but left the service in 1811. His first novel, Precaution, ap¬ 
peared in 1809, but was not a success. His next. The Spy, was enthu¬ 
siastically received. His sea-stories are considered the best of his 
numerous productions. 

Cope, Edward Drinker. 1840-.... American naturalist. 

Copernicus (Copernik or Kopernik ), Nicholas. 1473-1543. 
German astronomer. Disproved the Ptolemaic theory. In his great 
work, The Revolution of the Celestial Orbs, the first copy of which 
was handed to him on the day of his death, he demonstrated that the 
sun is the centre of the universe. 

Copley, John Singleton. 1737-1815. English painter, born 
in Massachusetts. 

Corday, Charlotte. (Mariane Charlotte Corday d’Armans). 
1768-1793. French heroine ; assassinated Marat. 

Coriolanus, Cneius Marcius. FI. 490 b.c. Roman hero. 

Corneille, Pierre. 1606-1684. Founder of the Fr. drama. 

Cornelius, Peter von. 1787-1867. German painter. 

Cornell, Ezra. 1807-1874. American philanthropist. 

Cornwallis, Charles, Earl. 1738-1805. British general. 

Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille. 1796-1875. French painter. 

Correggio, Antonio Allegri da. 1494-1534. Italian painter. 
Extremely skilful in foreshortening and in the use of chiaroscuro. The 
Assumption of the Virgin; Ecce Homo; Penitent Magdalen ; St. 
feromc; La Vierge an Panier. 


Cortez, Hernando. 1845-1847. Spanish conqueror of Mexico. 

Corvinus, Matthias. 1443-1490. King of Hungary. 

Corwin, Thomas. 1794-1865. American statesman. 

Cotton, John. 1585-1652. Puritan minister in Boston. 

Cottin, Sophie Ristaud. 1773-1807. French novelist. 

Cousin, Victor. 1792-1867. French philosopher. 

Cowley, Abraham. 1618-1667. Eng. poet. Pindaric Odes. 

Cowper, William. 1731-1800. English poet. Studied at 
Westminster school, and became a fine classical scholar. Admitted to 
the bar, but never practiced, his morbid sensitiveness, nervousness and 
diffidence making him unable to occupy a conspicuous position. Became 
temporarily deranged, and made several attempts at suicide. In 1784 he 
commenced his translation of Homer. The Task was published in 1785. 
Cowper’s letters are considered among the best in the language. His 
poetry is by turns playful and pathetic, tender and sarcastic—sometimes 
sublime. 

Cowper, William. 1666-1709. English anatomist. 

Cox, Samuel Sullivan. 1824-.... American statesman. 

Coxe, Arthur Cleveland. 1818-.... Am. bishop and poet. 

Cozzens, Frederick Swartwout. 1818-1869. ‘ Am. author. 

Crabb, George. 1778—1854. Eng. philologist. Synonyms. 

Crabbe, George. 1754-1832. English poet. Studied surgery, 
but abandoned that profession. Was befriended by Edmund Burke, and 
published The Library in 1781. Ordained a minister of the Church of 
England in 1782. The Village, his best work, was produced in 1783. 

Craik, Dinah Maria (Mulock). 1826-. ... English authoress. 
Olive; John Halifax, Gentleman ; A Life for a Life; A Woman’s 
Thoughts about Women. 

Cranch, Christopher Pearse. 1813-. ... Am. artist and poet. 

Cranmer, Thomas. 1489—1556. English reformer; arch¬ 
bishop of Canterbury. Burned to death. 

Crassus, Marcus Licinius. io 8?~53 B.c. Roman triumvir; 

immensely wealthy. Defeated and slain by the Parthians. 

Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. 1812-1878. English historian. 

Fifteen Decisive Battles. 

Crichton, James. The Admirable Crichton. 1560-1583. 
Scottish prodigy. Stabbed by his pupil, a son of the Duke of Mantua. 

Crittenden, John Jordon. 1786-1863. American statesman. 

Crockett, David. 1786-1836. American backwoodsman. 

Crcesus. 590-546 B.C. King of Lydia, famous for wealth. 

Croly, George. 1780-1860. Irish poet and pulpit-orator. 

Cromwell, Oliver. 1599-1659. English general; lord pro¬ 
tector of England. Elected to Parliament 1628. In 1637 resolved to 
emigrate with his cousin, John Hampden, but they were detained by an 
order of council. Re-elected to Parliament 1640. Entered the Parlia¬ 
mentary army in 1642 as captain of cavalry. Rapidly promoted, and 
led left wing at Marston Moor, 1644. Commanded right wing at Naseby, 
1645, and became leader of the Independents. Transferred the custody 
of the king from Parliament to the army, 1647. Won the battle of 
Preston, 1648. Signed the death warrant of Charles I., 1649. Made 
commander-in-chief, 1650, and defeated the Scotch at Dunbar and 
Charles at Worcester. Dissolved Parliament in 1653, and was in 1654 
proclaimed by the army protector of the commonwealth. 

Cropsey, Jasper Frank. 1823-.... American painter. 

Cruden, Alexander. 1700-1770. Scottish bookseller and 
author. Concordance. 

Cruikshank, George. 1792-1878. Eng. humorous artist. 

Cumberland, William Augustus, Duke of. 1721-1765. Con¬ 
queror at Culloden. 

Cunningham, Allan. 1785-1842. Scottish author and critic. 

Curran, John Philpot. 1750-1817. Irish barrister and orator. 

Curtis, Benjamin Robbins. 1809-1874. American jurist. 







































A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


199 


Curtis, George William. 1824-.... Am. author and editor. 
Cushing, Caleb. 1800-1879. American lawyer, statesman 
and diplomatist. 

Cushman, Charlotte Sanders. 1816-1876. Am. actress. 
Custer, George A. 1839-1876. American general, killed by 
the Sioux. 

Cuvier, Georges C. L. F., Baron. 1769-1832. French naturalist. 
Cyprian, Saint. 2007-258. Latin father; bishop of Car¬ 
thage ; martyr. 

Cyril, Saint. 3157-386. Bishop of Jerusalem. 

Cyril, Saint. 3767-444. Bishop of Alexandria. 

Cyrus. The Great , or The Elder .-529 b.c. King of 

Persia; conquered Babylon. 

Cyrus. The Younger .-401 B.c. Hero of Xenophon’s 

A >m/msis. 

ABOLL, Nathan. 1750-1818. American mathemati¬ 
cian. 

Dacier, Andre. 1651-1722. French scholar and critic. 
Dacier, Anne Lefevre. 1654-1720. Wife of preceding. 
Translated Homer. 

Daendels, Hermann Willem. 1762-1818. Dutch general. 
Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande. 1789-1851. French artist; 

inventor of the daguerreotype. 

Dahlberg, Eric. 1625-1703. Swedish general and engineer. 
Dahlgren, John Adolph. 1809-1870. Am. rear-admiral. 
Dallas, Alexander James. 1759-1817. Am. statesman. 
Dallas, George Mifflin. 1792-1864. Am. statesman. 

Dalton, John. 1766-1844. English chemical philosopher. 
Damiani, Peter. 990-1072. Italian ecclesiastic. 

Damiens, Robert F. 1714-1757. French fanatic. 

Dampier, William. 1652-1712. Eng. explorer and navigator. 
Dana, Charles A. 1819-.... Am. journalist. 

Dana, Francis. 1743-1811. Am. lawyer and" statesman. 
Dana, Richard Henry. 1787-1879. American poet and writer. 
The Buccaneer. 

Dana, Richard Henry. 1815-1882. Son of preceding. Am. 

author and lawyer. Two Years Before the Mast. 

Dancer, Daniel. 1716-1794. English miser. 

Dandelot, Francois de Coligny. 1521-1569. French general. 
Dandolo, Enrico. 11057-1205. Blind doge of Venice ; took 
Constantinople by storm. 

Dane, Nathan. 1752-1835. Am. lawyer and statesman. 
Daniel. FI. 6th century B.c. Hebrew prince and prophet. 
Daniel, Samuel. 1562-1619. English poet. 

Dante Allighieri. 1265-1321. The greatest poet of Italy. 

Divina Commedia. 

Danton, Georges Jacques. 1759-1794. A leader of the French 
revolution, and head of the “ Dantonists.” Guillotined. 

D’Arblay, Mme. (Frances Burney.) 1752-1840. English 

novelist. Evelina ; Cecilia ; Camilla. 

Darboy, Georges. 1813-1871. Archbishop of Paris. 

Darius I. (Darius Hystaspis.) --435 B.c. King of Persia. 

II.-405 b.c. III. (Codomannus), ....-330 b.c.; defeated by 

Alexander. 

Darius the Mede. Supposed to be Cyaxares II. 

Darley, Felix O. C. 1822-- American artist. 

Darling, Grace. 1815-1842. English heroine. 

Darnley, Henry Stuart, Lord. I 545 ? “ I S 6 7 - Husband of 
Mary Queen of Scots; assassinated. 


Darwin, Charles Robert. 1809-1882. English naturalist and 
originator of the theory of evolution. In his “ Origin of Species by 
means of Natural Selection,” published in 1859, he propounds the 
theory that all forms of life, animal or vegetable, past or present, have 
been produced by a series of gradual changes in natural descent. In 
his “ Descent of Man,” he infers that “man is descended from a hairy 
quadruped furnished with a tail and pointed ears, probably arboreal in 
its habits.” 

Darwin, Erasmus. 1731-1802. English physician and poet. 
D’Aubigne, Jean Henri Merle. 1794-1872. Swiss historian. 
D’Aubigne, Theodore. 1550-1630. French soldier, poet 
and historian. 

Daudet, Alphonse. 1840-.... French novelist. Jack. 
Davenport, Edward L. 1816-1877. American actor. 

David. 1019-1015 B.C. King of Israel; prophet and poet. 
David, Saint. 4907-544. Patron of Wales. 

David, Jacques Louis. 1748-1825. French historical painter. 
David, Pierre J. 1789-1856. French sculptor. 

Daviess, Joseph Hamilton. Jo Daviess. 1787-1854. Am- 

erican statesman. 

Da Vinci, Leonardo. See Vinci. 

Davis, Henry Winter. 1817-1865. American politician. 
Davis, Jefferson. 1808-. ... American statesman and presi¬ 
dent of the Confederacy. Born in Kentucky ; graduate of West Point; 
served in the Black Hawk war and Mexican war: elected to U. S. 
Senate from Mississippi in 1847; secretary of war 1853-7; re- 
elected senator in 1857 ; inaugurated provisional president of the Con¬ 
federate States in 1861, and elected for six years in 1862. Imprisoned 
in Fortress Monroe for two years after the fall of Richmond. History 
of the Civil War. 

Davoust (or Davout), Louis Nicholas, Duke of Auerstadt and 
Prince of Eckmuhl. 1770-1823. Marshal of France. 

Davy, Sir Humphrey. 1778-1829. English chemist. Dem¬ 
onstrated that the fixed alkalies are metallic oxides. Inventor of the 
safety lamp. Researches Chemical and Philosophical. 

Dayton, William Lewis. 1807-1864. American statesman. 
Dearborn, Henry. 1751-1829. Am. general and statesman. 
Decatur, Stephen. 1779-1820. American naval commander. 

Defeated the Algerines. Killed in a duel. 

De Foe (or Defoe), Daniel. 1661-1731. English novelist. 
Son of James Foe, a butcher, he assumed the prefix “ de.” Took part 
in the insurrection against James II. Imprisoned and pilloried in 1702 
for publishing The Shortest Way with Dissenters , an ironical 
pamphlet. His works are over two hundred in number, and show 
great versatility and originality. _ Robinson Crusoe; The True-born 
Englishman ; The History of the Union , Memoirs of a Cavalier; 
Religious Courtship. 

De Kalb, John, Baron. 1732-1780. German general; ac¬ 
companied Lafayette to America in 1777, and served under Washington. 
Killed at the battle of Camden. 

De Haas, Maurice F. H. 1830?—.... Dutch marine painter, 
Delacroix, Ferdinand V. E. 1799-1863. French painter. 

De la Rame, Louisa. Ottida. 1840?-.... Eng. novelist. 
Delaroche, Paul. 1797-1856. French painter. 

Delavvare, Thomas West, Lord.-1618. Gov. of Virginia. 

Delmas, Antoine Guillaume. 1768-1813. French general. 
Delorme, Marion. 1612-1650. French beauty and courtesan. 
Del Sarto, Andrea Vannuchi. 1488-1530. French painter. 
Demetrius Phalereus. 3457-284? B.c. Attic orator and 

philosopher. 

Demetrius Poliorcetes. 3357-284? B.c. Macedonian 

general. 



z 

















































200 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Democritus. The Laughing Philosopher. 460-361 B.c. 

Greek philosopher. 

Demosthenes. 385?-322 b.c. Athenian orator. Conquered an 
impediment in his speech, and by perseverance and determination be¬ 
came the greatest of orators. Opposed Philip of Macedon, against whom 
he delivered his Philippics. It being proposed to reward his public ser¬ 
vices with a golden crown, a bitter contest ensued with his rival TEschines, 
in which Demosthenes, however, was triumphant. This led to the 
oration On the Crown, considered his greatest achievement. Con¬ 
demned to death by Antipater, he committed suicide by poison. He 
left sixty orations. 

Denis, Saint.272. Apostle and patron of France. 

De Quincey, Thomas. 1785-1859. Eng. author. The son 

of a wealthy merchant. Contracted the opium habit while pursuing his 
studies at Oxford— a habit which he overcame, in 1820, after a severe 
and prolonged struggle. His Confessions of an Opium-Eater, written 
as an autobiography, and published in 1821, created a great sensation. 
De Quincey was a brilliant writer, and left numerous works. 

Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, Earl of. 1799-1869. 

English statesman and orator. Translator of Homer’s Iliad. 

Derby, Edward Henry Smith Stanley, Earl of. 1826-.... 

English statesman. 

Descartes, Rene. 1596-1650. Fr. philosopher and mathe¬ 
matician. Discourse on the Method of Reasoning Well, and of In¬ 
vestigating Scientific Truth ; Meditationes de Pritna Philosophia ; 
Principles of Philosophy. “ I think, therefore I am.” 

Desfontaines, Rene Louiche. 1752-1833. French botanist. 

De Smet, Peter John. 1801-1873. Jesuit missionary to the 

Indians. 

Des Moulins, Camille. 1762-1794. Fr. Jacobin; guillotined. 

De Soto, Ferdinand. 1460-1542. Spanish explorer; discov¬ 

ered the Mississippi river. 

Dessalines, Jean Jacques. 1760-1806. Negro emperor of 

Hayti. 

De Vigny, Alfred, Count. 1799-1863. Fr. novelist and poet. 
De Witt, Jan. 1625-1672. Dutch statesman. 

Diaz, Porfirio. 1830-.... President of Mexico. 

Dibdin, Charles. 1745-1814. English song writer. 

Dick, Thomas. 1772-1857. Scottish author. 

Dickens, Charles. 1812-1870. English novelist. After study¬ 
ing at college, he was articled to an attorney, but found the study of law 
uncongenial, and became a reporter for the press. Sketches by Boz 
appeared in the London Morning Chronicle in 1836. Pickwick Papers; 
Oliver Twist; Dornbey Co Son ; Bleak House ; Hard Times ; Nicho¬ 
las Nickleby ; David Copperfield; A Tale of Two Cities ; Great 
Expectations, etc. 

Dickinson, Anna Elizabeth. 1842-.... Am. lecturer. 
Diderot, Denis. 1712-1784. Fr. philosopher and novelist. 

Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth. 1843-.... English states¬ 

man, editor and author. Greater Britain. 

Diocletian. 284-305. Roman emperor. 

Diogenes. Died 323 B.c. Greek Cynic philosopher. Lived 

in a tub, affecting great contempt for the comforts of life. 

Dionysius. The Elder. 4307-367 B.c. Tyrant of Syracuse. 

Dionysius. The Younger. 398-340? Tyrant of Syracuse. 

Dionysius of Halicarnassus. 7o?-7? b.c. Greek historian. 
Disraeli, Benjamin. See Beacondfield. 

Disraeli, Isaac. 1766-1848. Father of preceding. English 

litterateur; born of a Jewish family. Curiosities of Literature. 

Dix, John Adams. 1798-1879. Am. general and statesman. 
Dixon, William Hepworth. 1821-1879. English traveller 

and historian. 

Dodge, Mary Abigail. Gail Hamilton. 1838?-.... Ameri¬ 

can authoress. 


Dodsley, Robert. 1709-1764. English author and bookseller. 

For some time employed as a footman. The Footman’s Miscellany. 
Doellinger, John Joseph Ignatius. 1799-.... German theolo¬ 
gian and historian ; leader of the “ Old Catholic” movement. 
Domenichino. (Zampieri). 1581-1641. Italian painter. 

Dominic, Saint. 1170-1221. Spanish preacher, and founder of 

the order of Dominicans 

Domitian. 517-96. Rom. emperor. Cruel and depraved. 
Donatus. FI. 300. Founder of the Donatists. 

Donizetti, Gaetano. 1798-1848. Italian composer. Lucia 

di Lammermoor; Lucrezia Borgia. 

Donne, John. 1573-1631. English poet and divine. 

Dore, Paul Gustave. 1832-1883. French artist. 

Doria, Andrea. 1468-1560. Genoese patriot and commander. 
Dorr, Thomas Wilson. 1805-1854. American politician. 
Dorset, Charles Sackville, Earl of. 1637-1706. English poet 

and wit. 

Dorset, Thomas Sackville, Earl of. 1536-1608. English poet 

and statesman. 

Dorsey, John Syng. 1783-1818. American surgeon. 
Douglas, Archibald. Bell-the-Cat .-1514? “ The great 

earl of Angus." Lord chancellor. 

Douglas, James, Earl of. ....-1330. Scottish patriot. 
Douglas, Stephen Arnold. The Little Giant. 1817?—1861. 

American statesman. Native of Vermont; admitted to the bar in New 
York ; removed to Illinois and gained destinction as an orator. Judge 
of Illinois Supreme Court 1841 ; elected to Congress 1843 '• senator 1847. 
Supported the compromise measures of Henry Clay, and advocated the 
doctrine known as ‘‘squatter sovereignty” Re-elected to the Senate 
1853, and reported the bill repealing the Missouri compromise. Candi¬ 
date for the Democratic nomination for the presidency in 1856. De¬ 
feated Lincoln for the U. S. senate in 1858, they canvassing the state to¬ 
gether. Candidate of one wing of the Democratic party for president in 
i860. Supported the Union party in 1861. 

Douglass, Frederick. 1817?-.... Am. orator; formerly a 

slave; native of Maryland His father was a white man and his mother 
a negro slave. Sold to a shipbuilder in 1832, but escaped to Massachu¬ 
setts and assumed the name of Douglass. Exhibiting rare powers as an 
orator, he was aided by Wm. L. Garrison and others, and employed, in 
1841, by the American Anti-Slavery Society. 

Dow, Lorenzo. 1777-1834. American preacher. 

Downing, Andrew J. 1815-1852. Am. landscape gardener. 
Draco (or Dracon). FI. 624 b.c. Athenian lawgiver. 
Drake, Sir Francis. 1540-1595. English naval hero; first 

English circumnavigator of the globe, captured or destroyed one hundred 
vessels in the port of Cadiz in 1587, and contributed in 1588 to the defeat 
of the Spanish Armada. 

Drake, Joseph Rodman. 1795-1820. American poet. 
Draper, John William. 1811-1882. American scientist. 
Drayton, Michael. 1563-1631. English poet. 

Dreyse, Johann Nikolaus von. 1787-1867. Prussian inventor 

of the needle-gun. 

Drusus, Claudius Nero. 38-9 B.c. Roman general. 

Dryden, John. 1631-1700. English poet, critic and dram¬ 
atist. Educated at Cambridge. Wrote some spirited heroic stanzas in 
memory of Cromwell. After the accession of Charles II., he became a 
staunch royalist. His first drama. The Wild Gallant, was published 
in 1662; Annus Mirabilis and The Indian Emperor, 1667. Appointed 
poet-laureate in 1668. He next wrote his Essay on Dramatic Poetry 
and several comedies and tragedies. Absalom and Achitopliel, 1681. 
Became a Roman Catholic in 1686 and wrote The Hind and Panther, 
a poetical allegory. His ode on Alexander’s Feast, considered the 
finest English lyric, appeared in 1696, after he had completed his trans¬ 
lation of Virgil. Lord Macaulay calls Dryden “ an incomparable rea- 
soner in verse.” 






























s> 


\ 


/ 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


201 


Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni. 1835-.... French traveller. 
Dudevant, Mme. Amantine Lucille Aurore ( nee Dupin). 
George Sand. 1804-1876. French novelist. Married at the age of 18 
to a retired army officer, she separated from him ten years later. She 
was at one time a zealous Catholic, but later adopted most liberal views, 
adopting man’s attire and denouncing the marriage system. She edited 
a democratic paper during the revolution of 1848. She has left numer¬ 
ous novels and several dramas. 

Dudley, Benjamin Winslow. 1785-1870. Am. physician. 
Dudley, Charles Edward. 1780-1841. American senator. 
Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas. 1798-.. .. Fr. statesman. 
Dufferin, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, Earl of. 

1826-.... English statesman. Governor-general of Canada. 

Dumas, Alexandre. 1803-1870. French novelist. 

Dumas, Alexandre. 1824-.... Son of above. Fr. novelist. 
Dumouriez, Charles Frangois. 1739-1823. French general. 

Duncan I .-1040. Scottish king. Killed by Macbeth. 

Dundonald, Thomas Cochrance, Earl of. 1775-1860. Brit¬ 
ish admiral. 

Dunglison, Robley. 1798-1869. American physician. Medi¬ 
cal Dictionary. 

Dunois, Jean de. Bastard of Orleans. 1402-1468. French 
national hero. Natural son of the Duke of Orleans. Defeated the 
English at Montargis in 1427, and assisted at the siege of Orleans in 
1429. Expelled the English from Normandy and Guienne, and was 
created Count d’Orleans. 

Duns Scotus. The Subtle Doctor. 1265?-!308. Scottish 

theologian. 

Dunstan, Saint. 925-988. English prelate. 

Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Filibert. 1802-1878. Fr. prelate. 
Dupleix, Joseph, Marquis. 1695-1763. Fr. governor in India. 
Dupont, Samuel Francis. 1803-1865. Am. rear-admiral. 
Duquesne, Abraham. 1610-1688. Fr. naval commander. 
Durer, Albrecht. 1471-1528. German painter and engraver. 
Crucifixion; Adoration 0/the Magi; The Knight and Death ; Reve¬ 
lation of St. John. 

Dwight, Timothy. 1752-1817. Am. author and divine. 
•^ ARLY, Jubal A. 1818?-.... Confederate general. 

Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock. 1793-1865. English painter. 
Eaton, Amos. 1777-1842. American naturalist. 

Eaton, William. 1764-1811. American soldier. 

Eble, Jean Baptiste. 1758-1812. French general. 

Edes, Benjamin. 1732-1803. Am. patriot and journalist. 
Edgeworth, Maria. 1767-1849. English novelist. 
Edgeworth, Richard Lovell. 1744-1817. English author; 

father of preceding. 

Edison, Thomas Alva. 1847-_ American electrician and 

inventor. 

Edmund I. 922?-946. Anglo-Saxon king. II., Ironside, 

989-1016. 

Edmunds, George F. 1828-.... American lawyer and 
statesman. Born in Vermont; admitted to the bar 1849 : became U. S. 
senator in 1866 to fill an unexpired term, and has since been three times 
re-elected. Elected president of the Senate in March, 1883. 

Edward I .-925. King of the Anglo Saxons. II., 

The Martyr, ; assassinated by order of his stepmother. III., 

The Confessor, 1004-1066. 

Edward I. Longshanks. 1239-1307. King of England; 
conquered Wales and Scotland. II., 1284-1327 ; defeated by Bruce at 
Bannockburn; dethroned by the Queen and her favorite, Roger de 


Mortimer, in 1326; was murdered the following year. III., 1312- 
1377; son of Edward II. ; proclaimed king in 1327 ; executed Mortimer, 
and imprisoned the queen-mother; carried on war with France and 
won the great victory of Crecy. IV., 1441-1483. V., 1470-1483 ; 

ascended the throne at the age of 13, but assassinated two months later. 

VI., iSST-^SS- 

Edward, Prince of Wales. The Black Prince. 1330-1376. 

Son of Edward III. Participated in the invasion of France, command¬ 
ing the main body of the English at Crecy. Won the battle of Poitiers. 
Edward the Confessor. 1004-1066. King of England. 
Edwards, Amelia Blandford. 1831-.... English novelist. 
Edwards, Jonathan. 1703-1758. American theologian and 
metaphysician. Freedom of the Will. 

Edwin. 586P-633. King of Northumbria. 

Edwy. 938—958. King of the Anglo-Saxons. 

Effingham. See Howard, Charles. 

Egbert. The Great. 775?—838. Saxon king of Wessex. 
Egmont, Lamoral, Count. 1522-1568. Flemish statesman 

and soldier. Tried for treason and executed. 

Elbee, Gigot d’. 1752-1794. Vendean general. 

Eldon, John Scott, Earl of. 1751-1838. English statesman. 
Elgin, James Bruce, Earl of. 1811-1863. British statesman. 
Governor-general of Canada. 

Elgin, Thomas Bruce, Earl of. 1777-1841. British diplo¬ 
matist. The “ Elgin Marbles,” in the British museum, were obtained 
by him at Athens and sold to the government for .£35,000. 

Eliot, George. See Evans, Marian C. 

Eliot, John. Apostle of the Indians. 1604-1690. English 
clergyman. Translated the Bible into the Indian language. 

Eliot, Sir John. 1590-1632. Eng. orator and statesman. 
Elizabeth. 1533-1603. Queen of England. Daughter of 
Henry VIII. Proclaimed Queen 1558 ; restored the Protestant religion. 
During her reign the Spanish Armada was repulsed, and Mary Stuart 
executed. Essex, Leicester and Raleigh were among her favorites. 
Elizabeth Petrovna. 1709-1762. Empress of Russia. 
Daughter of Peter the Great. Ascended the throne in 1741; took up 
arms against Frederick the Great, and her armies in 1760 captured 
Berlin. Though unmarried, she was the mother of a large family. 
Elizabeth, Saint. 1207-1231. Queen of Hungary. 
Ellenborough, Edward Law, Lord. 1748-1818. English 
chief justice. 

Ellenborough, Edward Law, Earl of. 1790-1871. English 
statesman. 

Ellery, William. 1727-1820. American patriot. 

Elliot, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield of Gibraltar. 1718- 
1790. British commander. 

Elliott, Ebenezer. The Corn Law Rhymer. 1781-1849. 
English poet. 

Elliott, Jesse Duncan. 1782-1845. American commodore. 
Ellsworth, Ephraim Elmer. 1837-1861. American officer. 
Ellsworth, Oliver. 1745-1807. Am. jurist and statesman. 
Ellwood, Thomas. 1639-1713. English Quaker author. 

Elssler, Fanny. 1811-_ Viennese dancer. 

Elzevir. A celebrated family of printers and publishers at 

Leyden, 1570-1680. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. 1803-1882. American essayist, 
philosopher and poet. Born in Boston; graduate of Harvard; or¬ 
dained Unitarian minister in 1829, but retired from the ministry in 
1832 ; travelled in Europe, and on his return began lecturing. The 
first volume of his Essays appeared in 1841, and his Representative Men, 
regarded by some as his greatest work, in 1850. 

Emmanuel. The Great. 1469-1521. King of Portugal. 




-H 




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1 


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£ 


202 A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Emmet, Robert. 1780-1803. Irish patriot and orator. 
Early in life became a leader of the “ United Irishmen,” and in 1803 
became implicated in the killing of Lord Kilwarden, chief justice of 
Ireland, and others. Although defending himself with great eloquence, 
he was sentenced to death and executed. 

Emmet, Thomas Addis. 1764-1827. Brother of the preced¬ 
ing. A leader of the “ United Irishmen,” and imprisoned from 1798 
till 1801. Removed to America in 1804, and was in 1812 elected at¬ 
torney-general of New York. 

Empedocles. 475-.... B.c. Greek philosopher. 

Encke, Johann Franz. 1791-1865. German astronomer. 
Endi'cott, John. 1589-1665. Colonial governor of Mass. 
Enghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, Due d’. 1772- 

1804. French prince. Charged with conspiracy, and executed by order 
of Napoleon. 

Ennius, Quintus. 239-169 B.c. Roman epic poet. 

Enoch (or Henoch). 3378-- b.c. Father of Methuselah. 

Translated at the age of 365. 

Epaminondas. 4127-362 b.c. Theban statesman, oratorand 
general. Defeated the Spartans at Leuctra ; died after his victory at 
Mantinea, from a wound received in battle. 

Epictetus. 60-.... Greek Stoic philosopher. Enchiridion. 
Epicurus. 3407-270 B.c. Greek philosopher; founder of the 

■ Epicurean school. 

Erasmus, Desiderius. 1465-1536. Dutch scholar. 

Erastus, Thomas. 1524-1583. Ger. physician and writer. 
Eratosthenes. 276-196? B.c. Greek geometer. Considered 
the founder of the science of astronomy. 

Eric XIII. 1382-1450. King of Sweden (VII. or VIII. 
of Denmark). XIV., i535?-i577. 

Eric the Red. FI. 1000. Scandinavian navigator; discov¬ 
ered Greenland. 

Ericsson, John. 1803-.... Swedish engineer and inventor. 
Constructed the “ Monitor” which destroyed the Confederate iron-clad 
Merrimac. 

Erigena, Joannes Scotus. FI. 850. Irish philosopher. 
Ernesti, Johann August. 1707-1781. German scholar. 
Erskine, Ebenezer. 1680-1754. Scottish theologian. 
Erskine, Henry. 1746-1817. Scottish lawyer and orator. 

Erskine, Thomas, Baron. 1750-1823. Scottish lawyer and 
orator. Recognized as the greatest advocate of his time. “ He spoke 
as his clients would have spoken, being endowed with his genius.” 
Admitted to the bar in 1778 ; successfully defended Lord George Gor¬ 
don in 1781; elected to the House of Commons in 1783, and again in 
1790; secured the acquittal of Hardy and John Horne Tooke in the 
state trials of 1794; was made lord chancellor, and created a peer in 
1806 ; retired from office in 1807. 

Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio. 1589-1669. Spanish Jesuit 

and casuist. Cases 0/ Conscience. 

Espartero, Joaquin Baldomero, Duke de la Vittoria. 1792- 
1879. Spanish statesman and general; defeated the Carlists. 

Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl of. 1567-1601. Favor¬ 
ite of Queen Elizabeth; beheaded for high treason. 

Essex, Robert Devereux, third Earl of. 1592-1647. English 

Parliamentary general. 

Estaing, Charles Hector, Count d’. 1729-1794. French 

admiral; beheaded. 

Esterhazy de Galantha, Paul. 1635-1713. Hungarian 

governor-general. 

Ethelbeld .-860? King of Wessex. 

Ethelbert. 4557-616. King of Kent. 

Ethelbert .-866. King of the Anglo-Saxons. 


Ethelred I .-871. King of the Anglo-Saxons. II., 

The Unready, 968-1016; ordered massacre of Danes in 1002. 

Ethelwulf. ... .-858. King of Wessex. 

Euclid of Alexandria. FI. 300 B.c. Greek mathematician. 
Eudoxie (or Eudocia). 3947-461. Roman empress. 
Eugene of Savoy. (Prince Frangois Eugene de Savoie- 

Carignan). 1663-1736. Austrian general. Defeated the Turks at Zenta ; 
associated with Marlborough at Blenheim, Oudenard and Malplaquet; 
defeated the Turks at Peterwaradin in 1716, and at Belgrade in 1717. 
Eugenie Marie de Montijo. 1826-. ... Empress of the 

French; wife of Napoleon II-I. 

Eugenius I. Pope; ruled from 654 to 658. II., 824-827. 

III., 1145-1153. IV., 1431-1438; deposed; died in 1447. 

Euler,Leonard. 1707-1783. Swiss mathematician. 
Euripides. 480-406 7 b.c. Greek tragic poet. 

Eusebius of Nicomedia. FI. 325. Arian prelate. 
Eusebius Pamphili. 266-340? Ecclesiastical historian, and 
bishop of Caesarea. 

Evald, Johannes. 1743-1781. Danish poet. 

Evans, Marian C. George Eliot. 1820-1881. English nov¬ 
elist. The daughter of a clergyman. Lived with George H. Lewes, as 
his wife, for several years, and after his death married J. W. Cross. 
Adam Bede; Kontola; Middlemarch ; Daniel Deronda. 

Eustachi, Bartolommeo. 1510-1574. Italian anatomist. 
Evarts, William Maxwell. 1816-. ... American lawyer and 
statesman Leading counsel for the defence in the impeachment trial 
of President Johnson, attorney-general 1868-9; counsel for the 
United States in 1872 before the Geneva Arbitration Tribunal. 

Evelyn, John. 1620-1706 English author. Sylva. 

Everett, Edward. 1794-1865. American scholar, orator and 
statesman. Graduated at Harvard, 1811, and ordained a minister in 
1814. Appointed professor of Greek at Harvard 1815, but did not occupy 
the chair until 1819, after completing a course of study at Gottingen and 
travelling extensively in Europe. Elected to Congress in r824, remain¬ 
ing in that body for ten years, and in 1835 became governor of Massa¬ 
chusetts. Minister to England, 1841-5. Secretary of state, 1852. 
Elected to the United States Senate, 1853, but resigned on account of ill¬ 
ness. Defeated for the vice-presidency in i860. Supported the Federal 
government during the civil war. 

Ewing, Thomas. 1789-1871 American statesman. 

Exmouth, Edward Pellew, Viscount. 1 757—1 833. English 

admiral 

Eyck, van, Hubert. 1366-1426 Flemish painter. 

Eyck, van, Jan. John of Bruges. 13907-1440? Brother of 
preceding. Flemish painter Adoration 0/the Magi. 

Eyre, Edward John. 1818?-. ... Eng. explorer in Australia. 

Ezekiel. FI. 7th century b.c. Hebrew prophet 
Ezra. FI. 5th century B.c. Hebrew law-maker. 

ABER, Frederick William. 1815-1S63. English priest 

and writer. 

Fabius Maximus, Quintus. Cunctator. 203 b c. Roman 
consul and general. As opponent of Hannibal he inaugurated the 
“ Fabian” policy, carrying on only a defensive war. 

Faed, Thomas. 1826- ... Scottish painter. 

Fahrenheit, Gabriel Daniel. 1686-1740 German natural 
philosopher and inventor of the Fahrenheit thermometer. 

Fairfax, Thomas, Lord. 1611-1671. Parliamentary general 
As commander-in-chief in 1645, won the battle of Naseby. 

Falconer, William. 17357-1709. Scot. poet. The Shipwreck. 
Faliero (or Falieri), Marino. 1278-1350. Doge of Venice; 

the hero of Byron’s tragedy. 




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A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


203 


Faneuil, Peter. 1700-1743. American merchant. 

Faraday, Michael. 1791-1867. English chemist and natural 
philosopher. Founder of the science of magneto-electricity. 

Farnese, Alessandro, Duke of Parma. 1546-1593. It. general. 
Farquhar, George. 1678-1707. Irish dramatist. The Beaux' 
Stratagem ; The Constant Couple. 

Farragut, David Glascoe. 1801-1870. American admiral. 
Passed the New Orleans forts and captured New Orleans in 1862, and 
was made rear-admiral same year. Congress created for him the office 
of vice-admiral in 1864, and he was made admiral in 1866. 

Faust, Karl. 1825-.... German composer. 

Faust, Dr. Johann. FI. 1500. German necromancer. 

Faust, Johann.-1466? One of the inventors of printing. 

Fawkes, Guy.-1606. English conspirator; executed. 

(“ Gunpowder plot.”) 

Fearne, Charles. 1749-1494. English jurist. 
Featherstonhaugh, George William.-1866. American 

traveller and geologist. 

Fechter, Charles Albert. 1824-1879. English actor. 
Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de la Mothe. 1651-1715. 
French prelate and author. Telemachus. 

Fenwick, Sir John.-1697. English conspirator. 

Ferdinand I. 1503-1564. Emperor of Germany. II., 
1578-1637; king of Bohemia and Hungary. III., ....-1657. 

Ferdinand IV. 1751-1825. King of Naples. (I. of the 


two Sicilies.) 

Ferdinand II. 1810-1859. King of the two Sicilies. 
Ferdinand I. The Great. 1000-1065. King of Castile. V., 
The Catholic (II. of Aragon, III. of Naples, II. of Sicily), 1452- 
1516; founded the Spanish monarchy. VI., The IVise, 1713-1759. VII., 
1784-1833. 

Ferguson, Adam. 1724-1816. Scottish philosopher. 
Ferguson, James. 1710-1776. Scottish astronomer. 
Fergusson, James. 1808-.... Scottish architect. 
Fernandez, Diniz. FI. 1446. Portuguese navigator. 

Fernandez, Juan.-1576. Spanish navigator. 

Fernel, Juan. 1497-1558. French physician and writer. 
Ferry, Jules Francois Camille. 1832-. ... Fr. statesman. 
Fersen, Axel von, Count. 1755-1810. Swedish field-marshal. 
Fesch, Joseph, Cardinal. 1763-1836. French prelate. 
Fessenden, William Pitt. 1806-1869. Am. statesman. 
Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm. 1775-1833. German jurist. 
Reformer of the criminal law. 

Feuillet, Octave. 1812-_ French author. 

Fichte, Immanuel Hermann. 1797-1879. Ger. philosopher. 



Fichte, Johann Gottlieb. 1762-1814. Ger. metaphysician. 

Field, Cyrus West. 1819-_ American merchant and 

financier. Established the first telegraph cable between America and 
Europe, via Newfoundland. 

Field, David Dudley. 1805-- American jurist. 

Fielding, Henry. 1707-1754. Eng. novelist and dramatist. 

Son of Edmund Fielding, a lieutenant-general under Marlborough. 
Commenced reading law at 18, but discontinued this study in a few 
years, and began to lead a dissolute life. About this time, however, he 
produced several successful plays. After marrying, and squandering his 
wife’s fortune, he resumed the study of law, but, gout preventing his 
practicing, he turned his mind to literature. In 1749 his great novel, 
Tom Jones, was published. In 1750 he was appointed a magistrate, and 
endeared himself to the inhabitants of the London suburbs by suppress¬ 
ing numerous bands of robbers. Among Fielding’s novels, besides 
Tom Jones, may be mentioned Amelia send. Joseph Andrews. 


Fieschi, Joseph Marco. 1790-1836. Corsican conspirator; 

inventor of the so-called infernal machine. Leader in a conspiracy to 
kill Louis Philippe. Executed. 

Fiesco (or Fieschi), Giovanni Luigi, Count of Lavagna. 
I 5 2 S* I 547 - Genoese conspirator. Having sent some of his adherents to 
capture the palace of the Dorias, he made a night attack on the Doria 
galleys in the harbor, but fell while passing from one galley to another, 
and was drowned before help could reach him. 

Fiesole, Giovanni da. Fra Angelico. 1387-1455. It. painter. 

Fillmore, Millard. 1800-1874. American statesman; thir¬ 
teenth president of the United States. Born in New York; learned 
fuller’s trade ; read law and acquired a lucrative practice in Buffalo. 
Elected to Congress 1832, and continued a member of that body till 
1842. Elected vice-president 1848, and became president on the death 
of Taylor, in 1850. Approved the Fugitive Slave Law and the com¬ 
promise measures of Henry Clay, and made Daniel Webster secre¬ 
tary of state. 

Fish, Hamilton. 1808-.... American statesman. 

Fisher, John. 1459-1535. English prelate; executed. Op¬ 
posed the Reformation. .. 

Fitch, John. 1743-1798. Am. inventor. (Steamboat.) 

Fitzgerald, Edward, Lord. 1763-1798. Irish revolutionist. 

Flaminius, Caius.-217 B.c. Rom. general and consul. 

Flaminius, Titus Quintius. 230-174 B.c. Roman general 
and consul. 

Flamsteed, John. 1646-1719. Eng. astronomer. 

Flaxman, John. 1755-1826. English sculptor. 

Fleetwood, Charles ... .-1692. Eng Parliamentary general. 

Fletcher, Andrew (of Saltoun). 1653-1716. Scottish author. 

Fletcher, John. 1576-1625. English poet and dramatist; 
associate of Beaumont. The Maid’s Tragedy; The Faithful Shep¬ 
herdess. 

Flotow, Frederick Ferdinand Adolphus von. 1812-1883. 

German composer. Martha. , 

Fontenelle, Bernard de Bovier de. 1657-1757. Fr. author. 

Foote, Andrew Hull. 1806-1863. American rear-admiral. 

Foote, Samuel. 1720-1777. English wit and comedian. 

Ford, John 1586-1639. English dramatist. 

Forrest, Edwin. 1806-1872. American tragedian. 

Forster, John. 1812-1876. English biographer. 

Forster, William Edward. 1S18-.... English statesman. 

Forsyth, John. 1780-1841. American statesman. 

Fortescue, Sir John. 1395?—14S5? English jurist. 

Fortuny, Mariano. 1839-1874. Spanish painter. 

Foscari, Frandesco. 1373-1457. Doge of Venice. 

Foster, Birket. 1812-.... English engraver. 

Foster, Stephen Collins. 1826-1864. Am. song-writer. 

Fourier, Francois Charles Marie. 1772-1837. French social- 
ist; founder of Fourierism. Theory of Universal Unity. 

Fowler, Orson Squire. 1809-. . . . Am. phrenologist. 

Fox, Charles James. 1749-1806. English orator and states¬ 
man. Entered Parliament in 1768 as a Tory, but joined the opposition 
in 1773, and became leader of the Whigs, in which capacity, and also as 
foreign secretary and secretary of state, he opposed the policy of Pitt. 

Fox, George. 1624-1690. English founder of the society of 
Friends, or Quakers. 

Fox, John. 1517-1587. English Protestant clergyman and 
author. Book of Martyrs. 

Foy, Maximilian Sebastian. 1775-1825. French orator and 

general. 

Fra Bortolommeo di San Marco. See Baccio della Porta. 

































A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 




204 


Fra Diavolo. (Michael Rozzo.) 1769-1806. Neapolitan 

brigand. 

Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez. i757?-i 840. Dictator of 
Paraguay; adopted a policy cutting off all intercourse with other 
nations. 


Francis I. 1494-1547. 

It-. I 543 _I 5 b°. 

Francis I. 1708-1765. 

Austria), 1768-1835. 

Francis II. 1836-.... 
Francis Borgia, Saint. 


King of France; defeated at Pavia. 
Emperor of Germany. II. (I. of 


King of the Two Sicilies. 

1510-1572. Duke of Gandia and 
Viceroy of Catalonia ; joined the Society of Jesus and became a zealous 
preacher; elected general of the order in 1565, 

Francis de Paula, Saint. 1416-1507. Italian Franciscan 


monk; founded the order Fratres Minimi. 

Francis de Sales, Saint. 1567-1622. French Jesuit, writer 

and orator ; bishop of Geneva. Treatise on the Love 0/ God. 

Francis of Assisi, Saint. 1182—1226. Italian founder of the 


Franciscan order. 

Francis Joseph Charles. 1830-.... Emperor of Austria. 

Francis, John Wakefield. 1789-1861. Am. physician. 

Francis, Sir Philip. 1740-1818. British statesman and 

writer. Believed to have been the author of the Letters of Junius. 

Francis Xavier, Saint. See Xavier. 

Franklin, Benjamin. 1706-1790. American statesman and 
philosopher. Born in Boston; the youngest of a family of seventeen 
children. His father was a tallow-chandler and soap-boiler. Learned 
the trade of a printer and studied diligently. Removed to Philadelphia, 
where he established the Pennsylvania Gazette. Began the publica¬ 
tion of Poor Richard’s Almanac in 1735. Discovered the identity of 
lightning and electricity in 1752, by means of a kite. Franklin occupied 
many positions of public trust and was the recipient of many honors. 
He was deputy postmaster-general of the colony; delegate to the Con¬ 
tinental Congress; minister to France, 1776-85; president of Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 1785-8 ; member of the convention of 1787. 


Franklin, Sir John. 1786-1847. English Arctic explorer; 

perished in the Arctic regions. 

Fredegonde. 5467-596. Wife of Chilperic I. of France. 
Frederick I. Barbarossa. 1121-1190. Emperor of Ger¬ 
many. Crowned by Pope Adrian IV. Reduced Milan in 1158, but 
was defeated by the Lombards near Legnano. Joined the third crusade 
in 1189 with 150,000 men, and defeated the Turks at Iconium. Died in 
the Holy Land. II., 1194-1250. Opposed by the-*Guelphs and the 
pope in his project to unite Italy and Germany in one empire. Began a 
crusade against the Moslems in 1227, but turned back, and was excom¬ 
municated by Pope Gregory IX. Resumed the crusade in 1228, cap¬ 
tured Jerusalem and made peace with the pope. Defeated the Guelphs 
at Cortenuova, 1237, and renewed war with the pope. 


Frederick William. The Great Elector. 1620-1688. 

Elector of Brandenburg ; founder of the Prussian monarchy. 

Frederick I. 1657-1713. First king of Prussia. II. (Fred¬ 
erick the Great), 1712-1788. Subjected to inhuman treatment in youth 
by his father, he gave but little promise of his future greatness. As¬ 
cended the Prussian throne in 1740, and invaded Silesia, which was 
ceded to him by Maria Theresa in 1742. An alliance having been 
formed against him by Austria, Russia and France, he began the Seven 
Years’ War in 1756 by invading Saxony. Gained a great victory at 
Prague in 1757, but was defeated at Kolin soon afterward. His affairs 
were now in a desperate condition, but in the same year he defeated a 
French army twice as large as his own at Rossbach, and won a brilliant 
and decisive victory over the Austrians at Leuthen. In 1759 he was de¬ 
feated at Kunnersdorf, and Berlin was captured by the allies, but in 1760 
he gained the victories of Liegnitz and Torgau, and peace was made in 
1763, Prussian Poland being added to Frederick's dominions. Besides 
being a great general and monarch, Frederick was a voluminous writer. 




Frederick William I. 1688-1740. King of Prussia. 
Father of Frederick the Great. II., 1744-1797. III., 1770-1840 ; founded 
the Zollverein. IV., 1795-1861. 

Frederick William Nicholas Charles. 1831—.... Crown 

prince of Prussia and of the German empire. 

Frederick VI. 1768-1839. King of Denmark. VII., 

1808-1863. 

Freeman, Edward Augustus. 1823-.... English historian. 
The Norman Conquest; Historical Essays; History of Federal 
Government. 

Freiligrath, Ferdinand. 1810-1876. German lyric poet. 
Frelinghuysen, Theodore. 1787-1862. Am. statesman. 
Frelinghuysen, Frederick Theodore. 1817—.... Nephew 
of preceding. American statesman. 

Fremont, John Charles. 1813-_ American politician, 

explorer and general. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1856. 
Freytag, Gustav. 1816-.... German novelist. Soil und 
Haben. 

Froebel, Frederick. 1782-1852. German educator; founder 

of the “ Kindergarten.” 

Froila I. 722-768. King of Spain. 

Froissart, Jean. 1337-1410? French historian. Chronicles. 
Froude, James Anthony. 1818-.... English historian. Short 

Studies on Great Subjects; History of Henry VIII. 

Fry, Elizabeth (nee Gurney). 1780-1845. Eng. philanthropist. 
Fugger. A rich Augsburg family. FI. 15th and 16th centuries. 
Fuller, Sarah Margaret, Countess d’Ossoli. 1810-1850. Am. 

authoress. 

Fulton, Robert. 1765-1815. American engineer and inven¬ 
tor of the steamboat. Born in Pennsylvania. After spending some years 
in London as an artist, he turned his attention to civil engineering and 
inland navigation. In 1796 he published a treatise on Canal Navigation. 
Went to Paris, and there invented a submarine torpedo. He returned 
to New York in 1801 and, with the assistance of Robert Livingston, dis¬ 
covered steam navigation. In 1806 he built the steamer Clermont, which 
made regular trips between Albany and New York at a speed of five 
miles an hour. Although he spent a large amount of money on his inven¬ 
tion, the patent did not prove of pecuniary value to him. 

Fuseli, John H. 1742-1825. Swiss historical painter. 


ADSDEN, Christopher. 

man. 

Gadsden, James. 1788-1858. 

Gadsden purchase.) 

Gage, Thomas. 17207-1787 
Gaines, Edmund Pendleton. 
Gaines, Myra Clark. 1805 ?- 

heiress. 

Gainsborough, Thomas. 
Galba, Servius Sulpicius. 


1724-1805. American states- 

American statesman. (The 

British general in America. 
i 777-i 849 > American general. 
Wife of E. P. G. American 

English painter. 

Roman emperor. 



1727-1788. 

B.C. 4 ?—A.D. 69. 


Galen. 131-205? Greek physician, medical writer and phil¬ 

osopher, living at Rome. De Locis Affectis. 

Galerius, Caius Valerius Maximianus.—311. Roman 


emperor. 

Galilei, Galileo. Galileo. 1564-1642. Italian astronomer. 

Discovered, about 1584, the isochronism of the vibrations of a pendulum, 
and the law by which the velocity of falling bodies is accelerated. 
Adopted in astronomy the system of Copernicus, and constructed his 
wonderful telescope in 1609. Through it he discovered the satellites of 
Jupiter, and was enabled to explore the surface of the moon and view 
the phases of Venus. He also ascertained that the “ milky way ” was 
composed of myriads of stars. In 1632 he produced his Dialogues on 
the Ptolemaic and Copermcan Systems, but was compelled by the 


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A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


205 


Inquisition to abjure the theory of the motion of the earth. He was 
detained in prison for several years, but it does not seem that he was 
severely treated, as he was allowed to pursue his studies until prevented 
by blindness. 

Gall, Franz Joseph. 1758-1828. German physician; founder 
of phrenology. 

Gallatin, Albert. 1761-1849. American statesman; native 

of Switzerland. Secretary of the treasury, 1801-13. 

Gallaudet, Thomas Hopkins. 1787-1851. American clergy¬ 
man and instructor of deaf-mutes. 

Gallienus, Publius Licinius Valerius. 233 P-268. Roman 

emperor. 

Gallitsin, or Galitzin. An illustrious family of Russian princes. 
Galt, John. 1779-1839. Scottish novelist. 

Galvani, Aloisio. 1737-1789. Italian discoverer of galvanism. 
Gama, Vasco da. 14507-1524. Portuguese navigator. 
Gambetta, Leon. 1838-1882. French radical orator and 
statesman. 

Gambier, James, Baron. 1756-1833. British admiral. 
Garcilaso de la Vega. 1503-1536. Spanish poet. 
Gardiner, Stephen. 1483-1555. Eng. prelate and statesman. 
Garfield, James Abram. 1831-1881. Twentieth president of 
the United States. Bom in Ohio ; worked on a farm in boyhood, and 
learned the trade of a carpenter; afterward became driver and helms¬ 
man of a canal-boat; graduated at Williams College in 1856; appointed 
professor of Latin and Greek at Hiram College, Ohio, and chosen 
president of that institution in 1858. About this time he married Miss 
Lucretia Randolph, and occasionally acted as a Campbellite minister. 
Elected to the state senate in 1859, an< J > n 1861 was chosen colonel of an 
Ohio regiment; promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. Elected to 
Congress in 1862, and remained in that body until 1880, when he was 
made senator. Nominated for the presidency by the Republican party in 
1880, and elected the following November. Shot by Charles J. Guiteau, 
in Washington, July 2, 1881, and died on September 19 of same year. 
Garibaldi, Giuseppe. 1807-1882. Italian patriot and general. 
Garrick, David. 1716-1779. English actor. 

Garrison, William Lloyd. 1804-1879. Am. abolitionist. 
Garth, Sir Samuel. 16727-1719. Eng. physician and poet. 
Gascoigne, George. 1535 - 1537 - English poet. 

Gaslcell, Elizabeth Cleghorn. 1810-1865. English authoress. 
Gassendi, Pierre. 1592-1655. French savant. 

Gates, Horatio. 1728-1806. American Revolutionary general; 
born in England. Captured Burgoyne’s army at Saratoga. 

Gatling, Richard Jordan. 1818-_ American inventor. 

Gauss, Carl Friedrich. 1777-1855. German mathematician. 
Gautama Booddha. 624-543 7 B.c. Hindoo reformer, and 
founder of Buddhism. See Buddha. 

Gautier, Theophile. 1811-1872. French poet and novelist. 

Gaveston, Piers de.-1312. Favorite of Edward II. of 

England; executed by the nobles. 

Gay, John. 1688-1732. English poet. 

Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis. 1778-1850. French chemist 

and natural philosopher ; discovered cyanogen. 

Gellert, Christian Fiirchtegott. 1715-1769. German poet. 
Genevieve, Saint. 4227-512. French religious, said to have 
converted Clovis to Christianity. Patron of Paris. 

Genghis Khan. 1163-1227. Mogul conqueror; subdued 
China and Persia. 

Genseric. 4067-477. King of the Vandals. Invaded Africa, 

429; defeated the Romans in numerous battles; captured Carthage, 
439 ; captured and sacked Rome, 455 ; defeated the navy of the Emper¬ 
or Marjorian in 457. 


Geoffroy of Monmouth. 11007-1154. Eng. chronicler. 

George I. (Lewis.) 1660-1727 King of Great Britain. II. 

(Augustus), 1683-1760. Defeated the French at Dettingen in 1743. 
Charles Edward Stuart was defeated at Culloden, 1746, by the Duke of 
Cumberland, and the latter part of the reign of George II. was marked 
by victories over the French in Canada, in India, and on the ocean. III. 
(William Frederick), 1738-1820. Arbitrary and ignorant, and through 
his obstinacy lost the American colonies. Became insane in 1810. IV. 
(Augustus Frederick), 1762-1830. “ The First Gentleman of Europe.” 
Led a dissipated life and incurred an immense debt. Married, in 1786, 
Mrs. Fitzherbert. She being a Roman Catholic, the marriage was ille¬ 
gal. As his father refused to pay his debts unless he contracted a regu¬ 
lar marriage, he was induced, in 1795, to marry his cousin, whom he 
regarded with great dislike, a separation being the result. Became 
regent 1811. Took little interest in public affairs. One year before his 
death, an act was passed relieving Roman Catholics from political dis¬ 
abilities. 

George, Saint. FI. 3d century. Bishop of Alexandria. Patron 
saint of England. To him is attributed the destruction of a terrible 
dragon. 

Gerard-Thom, or Tenque. 10407-1121. Founder of the 
Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 

Germanicus, Caesar, b.c. 14-A.D. 19. Roman general. 

Gerome, Jean Leon. 1824-.... Fr. painter. 

Gerry, Elbridge. 1744-1812. Am. Revolutionary statesman; 
signer of the Declaration of Independence. Governor of Massachusetts, 
1810; vice-president, 1812. 

Gessler .—1307. Austrian bailiff killed by Tell. 

Gesner, Conrad. 1516-1565. Swiss naturalist. 

Ghiberti, Lorenzo. 1378-1455. Florentine sculptor. 

Gibbon, Edward. 1737-1794. English historian. Educated 
at Oxford. The first volume of his great work, History 0/ the Decline 
and Fall 0/ the Roman Empire, appeared in 1776; the next two in 
1781, and in 1783 he retired to Lausanne, in Switzerland, where he com¬ 
pleted the last three volumes, which appeared in 1788. Gibbon has 
been justly criticised for the antagonism to the Christian faith shown in 
this work. 

Gibson, John. 1791-1866. English sculptor. 

Giddings, Joshua Reed. 1795-1864. Am. abolitionist. 

Gifford, Sanford Robinson. 1823-.... American painter. 

Gifford, William. 1757-1826. English writer and critic; 

founder of the Quarterly Review. Studied at Oxford, after serving five 
years as a shoemaker’s apprentice. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. 1539-1583. English navigator. 

Gilbert, Sir John. 1817-.... English artist. 

Gilbert, William Schwenck. 1836-.... English humorous 
author and librettist. Bab Ballads ; Pygmalion and Galatea ; Pina¬ 
fore ; Patience ; Pirates of Penzance ; Iolanthe ; Princess Ida, etc. 

Giles, Wm. Branch. 1762-1830. American statesman. 

Gilray, James. 1785-1815. English caricaturist. 

Girard, Stephen. 1750-1831. American merchant and banker, 
born in France. Founded Girard College. 

Girardin, Emile de. 1806-.... French journalist. 

Giulio Romano. 1492-1546. Italian painter and architect. 

Gladstone, William Ewart. 1809-.... English statesman. 

Glauber, Johann Rudolph. 1604-1668. German chemist. 

Glendower, Owen. 13497-1415. Welsh chieftain. 

Gluck, Christoph Wilibald von. 1714-1787. Ger. composer. 

Gobelin, Gilles and Jean. FI. 1450. French dyers. 

Godfrey of Bouillon. 1058 ?-i 100. Leader of first crusade. 

Godiva. Lady Godiva. FI. 1 Ith century. English heroine ; 
wife of Leofric, Earl of Leicester. 




























<2. 




206 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Godman, John D. 1794-1830. Am. physician and naturalist. 

Godunoff, Boris Fedorovitch. 1552-1605. Czar of Russia. 

Godwin, William. 1756-1836. Eng. novelist. Caleb Williams. 

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. 1749-1832. German poet 
and author, dramatist, scientist and statesman. Faust: Wilhelm 
Meister; F.gmont; Sorrows 0/ IVerther; Iphigenia in Tauris; 
West-Eastern Divan. 

Goffe, William. i6o5?-i67p. Eng. Puritan and regicide. 

Goldsborough, Lewis M. 1805-1876. Am. rear-admiral. 

Goldsmith, Oliver. 1728-1774. Irish poet and miscellaneous 
writer. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterward studied 
medicine. Squandered in dissipation a large portion of the funds fur¬ 
nished for his education. In London, he became the intimate friend of 
Dr. Johnson. His Vicar 0/ Wakefield was written while he was under 
arrest for debt. The Traveller; The Deserted Village; She Stoops to 
Conquer. 

Gomez, Sebastiano. 1616-1690. Spanish painter. A slave 
of Murillo, who liberated him and took him into his studio, 

Gonsalvo de Cordova, Hernandez. The Great Captain. 
i443?-i5i5. Spanish commander. 

Goodrich, Samuel Griswold. Peter Parley. 1793-1860. 
American author. 

Goodyear, Charles. 1800-1860. American inventor. (Vul¬ 
canized india-rubber.) 

Gordon, George, Lord. 1750-1793. English agitator. 

Gorgey, Arthur. 1818-.... Hungarian general. 

Gore, Catherine Grace. 1799-1861. English novelist. 

Gortschakoff, Alexander Michaelovitch, Prince. 1798-1883. 
Russian statesman and diplomatist. 

Gottschalk, Louis Moreau. 1829-1869. Am. composer. 

Gough, John 1 ). 1822-.... American temperance lecturer, 

born in England. 

Gould, Augustus Addison. 1805-1S66. American naturalist. 

Gould, Hannah Flagg. 1789-1865. American poetess. 

Gould, Jay. 1836-.... American railway manager. 

Gounod, Charles Francois. 1818-.... French composer. 
Faust; La Reine de Saba ; Romeo and Juliet. 

Gower, John. I320?-I402. English poet. 

Gracchus, Caius Sempronius. 159-126B.C. Rom. statesman. 

Graham, John, Viscount Dundee. Claverhotise. 1650?- 
1689. Scottish officer, noted for merciless severity toward the Cov¬ 
enanters. 

Graham, Sylvester. 1794-1851. American vegetarian. 

Granger, Gideon. 1767-1822. American statesman. 

Grant, James. 1822-.... Scottish novelist. 

Grant, Ulysses Simpson. 1822-.... Eighteenth presi¬ 
dent of the United States. Born in Ohio ; graduated at West Point, 
18431 served in Mexico; became a captain in 1853. Resigned in 
1854, and after passing some time in St. Louis, removed to Galena, Ill., 
in 1859, and engaged : n business. In 1861 he was made aide-de-camp 
to the governor of Illinois, but soon after was chosen colonel of the 
Twenty-first Illinois Volunteers, and in July of same year was made 
brigadier-general. His war record is history. Made commander-in- 
chief of the Union armies in March, 1864. Elected to the presidency in 
1868, and again in 1872, and after the expiration of his second term he 
travelled extensively in Europe and Asia, being received everywhere 
with the highest honors. He was a prominent candidate for the presi¬ 
dential nomination before the Republican convention in 1880. 

Grattan, Henry. 1746-1820. Irish orator and statesman. 

Gray, Asa. 1810-. _ American botanist. 

Gray, Thomas. 1716-1771. English poet. Declined the 

position of poet-laureate. Elegy. 


Greeley, Horace. 1811-1872. American journalist. Born in 

New Hampshire ; learned the printer’s trade, and worked as a journey¬ 
man printer in New York for one year. Founded the Neiu i'ork Trib¬ 
une in 1841. A staunch Whig and Republican, he favored Fremont for 
the presidency in 1856, and Lincoln in i860. Accepted the Democratic 
nomination in 1872, but was defeated at the election by Grant. 

Green, John Richard. 1874-1883. English historian. Short 
History ofi the English People. 

Green, Seth. 1817-.. .. American pisciculturist. 

Greene, Nathaniel. 1742-1786. Am. Revolutionary general. 

Greenleaf, Benjamin. 1786-1864. American mathematician. 

Greenleaf, Simon. 1783-1853. American jurist. 

Greenough, Horatio. 1805-1852. American sculptor. 

Gregory I. (Saint.) The Great. 540-604. Pope, ascending 
the pontifical chair in 590. II., ruled 715-731. III., 731-741. IV., 
827-844. V., 997-999 VI. 1044-1047. VII. (St. Hildebrand), 1073- 

1085; excommunicated Henry IV. VIII., 1187; died same year. XI., 
1227-1241; excommunicated Frederick II. X., 1271-1276. XI., 1370- 
1378; condemned the doctrines of Wyclifife. XII., 1406-1409, when he 
and the anti-pope, Benedict XIII., were deposed by the council of Pisa ; 
died 1417. XIII., 1572-1585; reformed the Julian calendar. XIV., 
1590-1591 ; excommunicated Henry IV. of France. XV., 1621-1623. 
founded the Propaganda. XVI., 1831-1846; succeeded by Pius IX. 

Gregory of Nyssa, Saint. 332-394. Greek father of the 
church. 

Gregory of Tours, Saint. 540-595. French prelate and 
historian. 

Gregory, James. 1638-1674. Greek geometer. 

Gregory Nazianzen, Saint. 326P-389- Bishop of Constanti¬ 
nople. 

Grenville, George. 1712-1770. Eng. statesman. (Stamp act.) 

Grevy, Frangois Paul Jules. 1813-.... French president. 

Grey, Charles, Earl. 1764-1845 English statesman. 

Grey, Lady Jane. 1537-1554. Gifted English lady; executed. 

Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, Baron. 1723-1807 Ger. writer. 

Grimm, Jakob Ludwig (1785-1863), and Wilhelm Karl (1786- 
1859). German philologists ; brothers. 

Grisi, Giulia. 1812-1869. Italian singer. 

Griswold, Rufus Wilmot. 1815-1857. American author. 

Grotius (De Groot), Hugo. 1583-1645. Dutch jurist and 

theologian. 

Grouchy, Emmanuel de, Marquis. 1766-1847. Fr. general. 

Guarneri, Giuseppe A. 1683-1745. Italian violin-maker. 

Guatemozin. 1497-1525. Last Aztec emperor of Mexico 

Guelph (or Welf). Noble German family, originally Italian. 

Guiccioli, Teresa Gamba, Countess. 1801-1873. Friend of 
Byron. 


Italian painter. 

1738-1814. French physician; 


Guido Reni. 1575-1645. 

Guillotin, Joseph Ignace. 

advocate of the guillotine. 

Guiscard, Robert. 1015-1085. Norman commander. 

Guise, Charles de. 1525-1574. Cardinal of Lorraine. 
Guise, Claude de Lorraine de, Duke. 1496-1550. French 

general and statesman. 

Guise, Frangois de Lorraine de, Duke. 

Guise, Henry I. of Lorraine de, Duke. 

Guizot, Frangois Pierre Guillaume. 

statesman and historian. 

Gustavus I. (Gustavus Vasa.) 1496-1559. King of Sweden. 
II. (Gustavus Adolphus), 1594-1632. Defeated the Polish and Russian 
armies invading Sweden. Became the head of the Protestant league in 


1550-1588. 

1787-1874. 


French 


)L 


-? <r 

" 






V 


< 5 " 










































A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


\ 


Germany and defeated Tilly at Leipsic in 1631, and on the banks of the 
Lech in 1632. At the great battle of Liitzen, Wallenstein now com- | 
manding the imperial army, Gustavus was killed, but his troops | 
nevertheless gained a complete victory. III., 1746-1792 ; assassinated. 
IV., 1778-1837 ; ascended the throne in 1792, but was deposed in 1809. 

Gutenberg, Johann. (Gansfleisch.) 1400-146S. German | 

inventor of printing. 

Guzman, Alfonso Perez de. 1258-1309. Spanish commander. 

TTACKLANDER, Friedrich Wilhelm von. 1816-1878. 1 

. - German novelist. Military Life in Time of War. 

Hadrian (or Adrian). 76-138. Roman emperor. 

Hafiz, Mohammed Sherns ed-Deen. I300?-I390? Persian 

poet. Divan. 

Hagedorn, Friedrich von. 1708-1754. German poet. 

Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich. 1755-1843. Ger¬ 

man physician andfounderof homoeopathy. 

Hale, Edward Everett. 1822-._Am. clergyman and author. 1 

Hale, Sir Matthew. 1609-1676. English jurist. 

Hale, Nathan, Captain. 1755-1776. American patriot. 

Halevy, Jacques F. F. E. 1799-1862. French composer. 

Haliburton, Thomas Chandler. Sam Slick. 1802?—1865. j 

Nova Scotian jurist and humorous writer. 

Halifax, Charles Montague, Earl of. 1661-1715. English 

statesman. 

Halifax, George Saville, Marquis of. 1630-1695. 

Hall, Charles Francis. 1821-1871. Am. Arctic explorer. 

Hall, James. 1811— .... American author and judge. 

Hall, Mrs. S. C. (Anna Maria Fielding.) 1805-. . .. Irish I 

authoress. Sketches of Irish Character; The Outlaw, etc. 

Hallam, Arthur Henry. 1811-1S33. English critic and 

essayist. 

Hallam, Henry. 1777-1859. Father of preceding. English 

historian and critic. 

Halleck, Fitz-Greene. 1790-1867. American poet. Marco 

Bozzaris; Fanny. 

Halleck, Henry Wager. 1714-1872. American general and 

lawyer. 

Halley, Edmund. 1656-1742. English astronomer. 

Hamilcar Barca .-229 B.c. Carthaginian general; 

father of Hannibal. 

Hamilton, Alexander. 1757-1804. American orator, states¬ 
man, financier and general. Born in the West Indies. Secretary and aide- 
de-camp to Washington in Revolutionary war ; chosen to the Conti¬ 
nental Congress in 1782, but resigned in order to practice law ; leading 
member of the convention of 1787; secretary of the treasury, 1789-95 ; 
became recognized leader of the Federal party. Hamilton died from 
a wound received in a duel with Aaron Burr, and his death was deeply 
deplored. 

Hamilton, Sir William. 1788-1856. Scottish inetaphysician. 

Hamilton, Sir William Rowan. 1805-1865. Irish astronomer. 

Hamlin, Hannibal. 1809- _ American statesman. 

Hampden, John. 1594-1643. English statesman and re¬ 
former. Entered Parliament in 1620. Denied the authority of the crown 
to levy tonnage without the consent of Parliament, and refused to con¬ 
tribute to the forced loan ordered by King Charles, for which he was 
imprisoned. Regaining his liberty and re-entering Parliament, he ably 
and firmly resisted the arbitrary measures of the crown. Intending, 
with his cousin, Oliver Cromwell, to emigrate in 1638, they were detained 
by order of council. In 1640 he was leader of the opposition in the Long 
Parliament, and the most popular public man in England. Impeached 
for high treason in 1642, together with four other members, the Commons 
refused to surrender them, the king himself going so far as to personally 
lead his guard in an attempt to arrest them in their seats. This caused 


-9 

-Tf 

207 


the greatest excitement and indignation, so that the Commons were 
soon enabled openly to defy the regal authority. Hampden afterward 
raised a regiment for the Parliamentary army, and, after displaying great 
courage in numerous engagements, was slain in a skirmish with Prince 
Rupert’s forces. 

Hampton, Wade. 1755—1835. American general. 

Hampton, Wade. 1818-.... Confederate general. Elected 

governor of South Carolina in 1876, and U. S. senator in 1878. 

Hancock, John. 1737—1793- American statesman; presi¬ 

dent of the Continental Congress. 

Hancock, Winfield Scott. 1824—. ... American general; 
second in command at Gettysburg. Democratic candidate for president 
in 1880. 

Handel, George Frederick. 1684-1759. German composer. 
Composed sonatas at 10; produced Almeria at 18; settled in England 
in 1712, after spending some years in Italy, and became chapel-master of 
George I. The oratorio of Saul was produced 1740, and his greatest 
work. The Messiah, the greatest of oratorios, in 1741 Handel was 
stricken with blindness in 1751, but continued to conduct his oratorios. 
Buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Hannibal. 247-183 B.C. Carthaginian general. Sworn by 
his father, Hamilcar Barca, to eternal enmity toward Rome; became 
commander of the Carthaginian forces, 221 b.c.; subdued several power¬ 
ful Spanish tribes, and in 219 captured Saguntum; crossed the Alps, 218 ; 
defeated the Romans near the Ticinus and on the banks of the Trebia ; 
routed Flaminius at Lake Thrasymene, 217; almost destroyed a supe¬ 
rior Roman army near Cannse, 216 ; captured Capua. Recalled to 
Carthage to repel a Roman invasion under Scipio Africanus, he was 
defeated at Zama in 202. Banished from Carthage about 194, through 
the enmity of the aristocracy. Finally ended his life by taking poison, 
to escape falling into the hands of the Romans. 

H ans Sachs. 1494-1576. German poet and shoemaker. 

Hardee, William J. 1818-1873. Confederate general. 

Hardenberg, Friedrich von. See Novalis. 

Hardicanute. ioi7?-io42. King of England and Denmark. 

Hardinge, Henry, Viscount. 1785-1856. English general. 

Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, Earl of. 1690-1764. Eng. jurist. 

Hardy, Thomas. 1840-.... English novelist. Far from 

the Madding' Crowd; Under the Greenwood Tree. 

Harley, Robert, Earl of Oxford. 1661-1724. P’ng. statesman. 

Harney, William Selby. 1798-.... American general. 

Harold I. Harefoot .-1041 King of England. II. 

... .-1066. Defeated by William the Conqueror, and slain. 

Haroun-al-Raschid. 766?-8o9. Caliph of Bagdad. 

Harrison, William Henry. 1773-1841. American general 
and ninth president. Born in Virginia , entered thearmy in 1791 ; aide- 
de-camp to Gen. Wayne in Indian war; delegate to Congress, 1799; 
governor of Indiana, 1801-13 < defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe, 1811 ; 
was made major-general in 1813, and defeated the British in Canada; 
elected to Congress, 1816; senator, 1824; minister to Colombia, 1828; 
Whig candidate for presidency, 1836 ; elected president, 1840. 

Harte, Francis Bret. 1839-.... American writer and 
humorist. Born in New York ; removed to California at 15, where he 
was successively miner, school-teacher and editor. Removed to Boston, 
and was appointed in 1878 consul to a German port. Heathen Chinee ; 
Luck of Roaring Camp, etc. 

Hartington, Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquis of. 1833— 

.... English statesman. 

Harvard, John. i6o8?-l688. Founder of Harvard College. 

Harvey, William. 1578—1657. English physician and anato¬ 

mist. Discovered the circulation of the blood. 

Hasdrubal.-207 B.c. Punic general; brother of Han¬ 

nibal. Defeated the Scipios in Spain ; slain at the Metaurus. 




































208 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Hastings, Warren. 1732-1818. British general and states¬ 
man ; president of the Council of Bengal, and governor-general of 
India. Defeated Hyder Ali, king of Mysore. After perpetrating 
great outrages against the Rajah of Benares and the Begums of Oude, 
in order to replenish the treasury, he resigned in 1875 and returned to 
England. Impeached soon afterward, and opposed in his trial by Burke, 
Sheridan and Fox, but acquitted. 

Havelock, Sir Henry. 1795-1857. British general. De¬ 
feated the Sepoys in India, and relieved Lucknow. 

Hawke, Edward, Lord. 1715-1781. English admiral. 

Hawkins, Sir John. 1520-1595. English naval officer. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. 1804-1864. American author. 
Twice-told Tales; Mosses from an Old Manse; House of Seven Ga¬ 
bles; Scarlet Letter ; The Marble Faun ; The Blithedale Romance. 

Haydn, Joseph. 1732-1809. German musical composer. 

Born of extremely poor parents; served some years as a chorister in 
Vienna; appointed in 1760 chapel-master to Prince Esterhazy, who 
became his patron ; visited London 1791, where six of his symphonies 
were received with great enthusiasm. His masterpiece, the oratorio of 
The Creation , was produced in 1798. 


pope for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his wife; favored the 
Reformation; deposed Wolsey and elevated Thomas Cranmer; had 
himself declared head of the church ; married Anne Boleyn after the 
convocations of York and Canterbury had declared his marriage with 
Catherine invalid ; declared the English Church independent of the papal 
see and abolished the monasteries ; had Anne Boleyn executed in 1536, and 
married Jane Seymour the day after the execution ; excommunicated by 
the pope, 1538 ; his third wife having died in 1537, he married Anne of 
Cleves in 1540; was divorced from her the same year and married 
Catherine Howard, who was executed on a charge of adultery in 1542 ; 
married Catherine Parr in 1543, she surviving him. 

Henry I. ioc>5?-io6o. King of France. II., 1518-1559; 
married Catherine de’Medici. III., Henri de Valois, 1551-1889 ; last 
of the Valois. IV., Le Grand. 1553-1610; king of Navarre ; first of the 
Bourbons; assassinated. 

Henry I. The Fowler. 876-936. Emperor of Germany. 
Defeated the Hungarians. II. (Saint), 972-1024. III., The Black, or 
The Bearded, 1017-1056. IV., 1050-1106 ; excommunicated by Gregory 
VII. V., 1081-1125; last °f ffi e Salic line. VI., 1165-1197. VII., 
1262-1313. 

Henry, Patrick. 1736-1799. American patriot and orator. 


Haydon, Benjamin Robert. 1786-1848. English painter. 
Hayes, Isaac Israel. 1832-1881. American Arctic explorer. 
Hayes, Rutherford Birchard. 1822-.... Nineteenth presi¬ 
dent of the United States. Born in Connecticut; admitted to the bar, 
1845 ; brigadier-general in civil war ; Congress, 1865-8 ; governor of 
Ohio, 1868-76. Republican candidate for the presidency in 1876; 
inaugurated president in 1877, the electoral commission to determine 
the result of the election of 1876 having decided, by a vote of eight to 
seven, that Hayes had received 185 electoral votes as against 184 for 
Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candidate. 

Hayne, Robert Young. 1791-1840. American orator and 

statesman ; opponent of Webster in discussing the constitution ; gov¬ 
ernor of South Carolina. 

Heath, William. 1737-1814. Am. Revolutionary general. 
Heber, Reginald. 1783-1826. English prelate and author; 

bishop of Calcutta. Hymns ; Journey through India. 

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1770-1831. German 

philosopher, metaphysician and pantheist. His system of philosophy 
is developed in the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 

Heine, Heinrich. 1799-1856. German lyric poet and author. 
Heloise. 1101-1164. French nun; pupil and friend of 
Abelard. 

Helps, Sir Arthur. 1817-1875. English author. 

Helvetius, Claude Adrian. 1715-1771. Fr. philosopher. 
Hemans, Felicia Dorothea {nie Browne). 1794-1835. Eng¬ 
lish poetess. Published her first volume of poems in 1808, and in 1812 
married Capt. Hemans, but separated from him in 1818, she retaining 
all their children. Restoration of the Works of Art to Italy 

Hendricks, Thomas Andrews. 1819-.... Am. statesman. 

Hengist.-488. Jutish chief; founded kingdom of Kent. 

Hennepin, Louis. 1640-1702? French Catholic missionary 

and explorer of the Mississippi. 

Henrietta Maria. 1609-1669. Queen of England. 

Henry I. Beauclerc. 1068-1135. King of England. Defeated 

his brother Robert and usurped the throne. II., 1133-1189 ; first of the 
Plantagenets; issued constitutions of Clarendon, which were, however, 
repealed about ten years later; conquered Ireland. During his reign 
Thomas & Becket was killed. III. {of Winchester), 1207-1272 ; warred 
with the barons. IV., Bolingbroke, 1366-1413; first king of the house 
of Lancaster. V. {of Monmouth), 1388-1422 ; conquered France. VI. 
{of Windsor), 1421-1471 ; his reign was made memorable by the war of the 
Roses. VII., 1456-1509 ; founded the Tudor dynasty. VIII., 1491-1547 ; 
defeated the French at Guinegaste and the Scotch at Flodden, 1513; 
made Thomas Wolsey prime minister; applied unsuccessfully to the 



Member of the Continental Congress ; governor of Virginia. 
Heraclitus. FI. 500 b.c. Greek philosopher. 

Herbert, George. 1593-1632. British poet and divine. 
Herder, Johann Gottfried von. 1744-1803. German author. 
Hermann (or Arminius). B.c. 16- A.D. 21. German hero. 

Defeated the Romans A.D 9, near the Lippe. 

Herod. The Great. B.c. 73 - a.d. i. King of Judea. 
Herodotus. 4847-408? B.c. Greek historian. 

Herrick, Robert. 1591-1674. English divine and poet. 

Hesperides, or Poems Human and Divine. 

Herschel, Sir John Frederick William. 1790-1871. English 

astronomer and philosopher. 

Herschel, Sir William. 1738-1822. Father of preceding. 

German astronomer. Born in Hanover, but removed to England at 21; 
discovered Uranus. 

Hesiod. FI. 800 B.c. Greek poet. Works and Days. 
Hezekiah. 750-698 B.c. King of Judah. 

Hicks, Elias. 1748-1830. American Quaker preacher. 
Hildreth, Richard. 1807-1865. Am. journalist and historian. 
Hill, Sir Rowland. 1795-1879. Author of the English penny 

post system. 

Hipparchus. FI. 150 B.c. Bithynian astronomer. 
Hippocrates. The Father of Medicine. 460-360? B.c. Greek 

physician. 

Hoar, George Frisbie. 1826-.... Am. lawyer and statesman. 
Hobart, Augustus Charles. Hobart Pasha. 1822-.... 
Turkish naval commander, born in England. 

Hobbes, Thomas. 1588-1679. English philosopher. 

Hoche, Lazare. 1768-1797. French general. 

Hoe, Richard March. 1812-.... American inventor of print- 

ing presses. 

Hofer, Andreas. 1767-1810. Tyrolese patriot; executed. 
Hoffman, Charles Fenno. 1806-. . .. American author. 
Hogarth, William. 1697-1764. Eng. painter and engraver. 
Hogg, James. The Ettrick Shepherd. 1772-1835. Scottish 

poet. 

Hohenlohe, Hohenstaufen, Hohenzollern. Princely families 

of Germany. 

Holbein, Hans. The Younger. 1497-1554. German painter. 

The Dance of Death ; Last Supper, etc. 

Holland, Josiah Gilbert. 1819-1881. American author. 

Timothy Titcomb's Letters ; The Bay Path, etc. 


y 
































Kr 


7 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


209 


Holmes, Oliver Wendell. 1809-.... American physician, 
author and poet. The Autocrat 0/ the Breakfast-table ; Elsie Venner ; 
The Guardian Angel; The Poet at the Breakfast-table ; Poems, etc. 

Holt, Sir John. 1642-1709. English judge. 

Homer. FI. 1000 B.c. Greek poet, about whose life scarcely 
anything is known. Regarded as the greatest of poets. Supposed to have 
been blind and poor. Some doubt his existence, maintaining that the 
Iliad and Odyssey, the two great epics ascribed to him, are collections 
of songs from various poets. 

Honorius, Flavius. 384-423. Roman emperor. 

Hood, Thomas. 1799-1845. English poet and humorist. 

Song of the Shirt; Bridge of Sighs; Dream of Eugene Aram ; 
Whims and Oddities. 

Hook, Theodore Edward. 1788-1841. English author. 

Hooker, Joseph. 1819-1879. American general. 

Hooker, Richard. 1553-1600. English theologian. 

Hopkins, Johns. 1795-1873. American philanthropist. 

Hopkinson, Francis. 1738-1791. American author; signed 
the Declaration of Independence. The Battle of the Kegs. 

Hopkinson, Joseph. 1770-1842. Son of F. H. American 
lawyer ; author of Hail Columbia. 

Horace. (Quintus Horatius Flaccus.) 65-8 B.c. Latin poet. 
Odes ; Epistles ; Satires. 

Hosmer, Harriet Goodhue. 1830-. ... American sculptor. 

Houdin, Robert. 1805-1871. French conjurer. 

Houdon, Jean Antoine. 1741-1828. French sculptor. 

Houston, Sam. 1793-1863. American general and states¬ 
man. Governor of Tennessee, 1827-9; passed a number of years with 
the Cherokee Indians ; commander-in-chief of the Texan forces in re¬ 
volt against Mexico, and defeated and captured Santa Anna in 1836; 
elected president of Texas same year, and re-elected 1841 ; elected sen¬ 
ator from Texas after its admission to the Union, in 1845, and governor 
in 1859. 

Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey. 1516-1547. Eng. poet. 

Howard, John. 1726-1790. English philanthropist. 


Howard, Oliver Otis. 1830-. 


American general. 


Howe, Elias. 1819-1867. American inventor. 

Howe, Samuel Gridley. 1801-1876. Am. philanthropist. 
Howells, William Dean. 1837-.... American author. 
Howitt, William. 1795-1879. English author. 

Hoyle, Edmund. 1672-1769. English author. Games. 
Huck, Evariste Regis, Abbe. 1813-1860. Fr. missionary. 


. ...-1611. Eng. navigator. 
English author and barrister. 


Hudson, Henry (or Hendrik). 

Hughes, Thomas. 1823-.... 

Tom Brown's School-days. 

Hugo, Aictor Marie, Vicomte. 1802-.... French poet, novel¬ 
ist and dramatist. Les Miserables ; Notre Dame. 

Hull, Isaac. 1775-1843. American commodore. 

Hull, William. 1753-1825. American Revolutionary general. 

Humbert IV. 1844-- King of Italy. 

Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von, Baron. 1769- 
1859. German scientist. Cosmos : An Essay of a Physical Description 
of the Universe. 

Hume, David. 1711-1776. Scottish historian and philoso¬ 
pher. History of England. 

Hunt, James Henry Leigh. 1784-1859. English poet and 
author. The Seer. 

Hunt, William Henry. 1790-1864. English painter in water- 
colors. 

Hunt, William Holman. 1826-- English painter. 

Hunter, David. 1802-_ American general. 


Hunter, John. 1728-1793. Scottish surgeon. 

Huss, John. 1373-1415. Bohemian reformer. Burned at the 
stake by order of Emperor Sigismund. 

Huxley,Thomas Henry. 1825-... . Eng. scientist. Physiology. 

Hyacinthe, Pere. See Loyson. 

Hyder-Ali. 1718-1782. Hindoo prince. 

Hypatia. FI. 500. Female philosopher at Alexandria. 

'TBERVILLE, Pierre le Moyne d’, Sieur. 1661-1706. 

• Canadian military and naval commander. 

Ibrahim Pasha. 1789-1848. Viceroy of Egypt. 

Ibrahim Bey. 1735?—1816. Mameluke chief. 

Ignatieff, Nicholas Pavlovitch. 1832-.... Russian general 
and diplomatist. 

Ignatius, Saint. Theophorus .-107. Bishop of Antioch. 

Ignatius, Saint. 799-877. Patriarch of Constantinople. 

Ignatius de Loyola, Saint. See Loyola. 

Inchbald, Elizabeth, Mrs. 1753-1821. English authoress 
and actress. 

Ingelow, Jean. 1830-.... English poetess and novelist. 

Ingersoll, Jared. 1749-1822. American lawyer. 

Ingersoll, Robert G. 1833-. . .. Am. lawyer, author and lecturer. 

Ingres, Jean A. D. 1781-1867. French painter. 

Inman, Henry. 1801-1846. American portrait painter. 

Inness, George. 1825-.... American landscape painter. 

Innocent I. Pope, ruling from 402 to 417. During his reign 
Rome was sacked by Alaric. II., 1130-1143. III. (Lotharius.) Born 
in 1161, and chosen pope 1198. Put France under the ban, 1199, be¬ 
cause Philip Augustus had repudiated his wife; promoted the fourth 
crusade, the result of which was the capture of Constantinople ; de¬ 
posed Otho, emperor of Germany, transferring the crown to Frederick 
of Sicily; subjected John of England to the papal see, compelling him 
to pay an annual tribute ; crushed the Albigenses in 1214, and died two 
years later. IV. (Sinibaldo de Fieschi), 1243-1254. V., assumed the 

pontificate in 1276 and died same year. VI., 1352-1362. VII., 1404- 
1406. VIII., 1484-1491. IX., 1591 ; died same year. X., 1644-1655. 
XI., 1676-1686. XII., 1692-1700. XIII., 1721-1724. 

Iredell, James. 1751-1799. American jurist. 

Irenaeus, Saint. i40?-202? Bishop of Lyons ; martyr. 

Irene. 7527-803. Empress of Constantinople. 

Irving, Edward. 1792-1834. Eloquent Scottish divine. 

Irving, John Henry Brodribb. 1838-.... English actor. 

Irving, Washington. 1783-1859. American author. Born 
in New York city. Read law, travelled in Europe, and on his return 
was admitted to the bar, but devoted himself exclusively to literary pur¬ 
suits. Knickerbocker s History of New York was published in 1809. 
In 1815 he sailed for Europe, remaining there a number of years and 
becoming an intimate friend of Walter Scott. About this time Irving 
lost all his property by the failure of his brother in New York, in whose 
business he was a silent partner. The Sketch-Book was written in Eng¬ 
land and appeared in 1818. Secretary of legation at London, 1829 ; 
minister to Spain, 1842-6. Bracebridge Hall: Tales of a Traveller; 
Conquest of Granada; Life of Washington ; Columbus; Wolfert’s 
Roost, etc. 

Isabella I. The Catholic. 1451-1504. Queen of Castile. 

Wife of Ferdinand of Aragon ; patroness of Columbus. II. (Maria 
Isabel Luisa), 1830-.... Ex-Queen of Spain. 

Isabelle of France. 1292-1358. Queen of England, wife 

of Edward II., whom her adherents deposed, and with whose assassi¬ 
nation she is charged. Her son, Edward III., ascended the throne and 
ordered her arrest, and she died after twenty years’ incarceration. 

Isaiah. FI. 740 b.c. Hebrew prophet. 

Iturbide, Don Augustin de. 1790-1824. Emperor of Mexico. 


\ 


e> 


































* 



Ivan III. (Vasilievitch). 1438-1505. 
(Vasilievitch), The Terrible, 1529-1584. 


Czar of Russia. IV. 


'VACKSON, Andrew. 1767-1845. American general and 

statesman; seventh president. Bom in South Carolina; son of an 
Irishman; received but little education; served against the British in 
1781- began the practice of law at Nashville, 1788; Congress, 1796; 
U. S. Senate, 1797 ; judge Tennessee Supreme Court, 1798-1804 ; fought 
several duels, killing Chas.Dickinson in 1806; defeated the Creek Indians, 
1814, and was commissioned brigadier-general; defeated the British at 
New Orleans, 1815; successfully carried on war against the Seminoles, 
1817-18; Senate, 1823, and nominated for the presidency, the opposing 
candidates being Clay, J. Q. Adams and W. H. Crawford. Although 
Jackson had the highest number of votes, he did not have the necessary 
majority, and Adams was elected by the House of Representatives. 
Clay’s advocacy of Adams in this contest caused a bitter enmity between 
that gentleman and Jackson. Jackson was elected to the presidency, 
however, in 1828. He was the first president to remove public officers on 
account of their politics. Re-elected in 1832. In that year, the conven¬ 
tion of South Carolina having declared the tariff laws of 1828 null and 
void, Jackson issued a proclamation declaring his intention to check 
by force of arms all movements tending to disunion. 

Jackson, Thomas Jonathan. Stonewall. 1824-1863. Con¬ 
federate general, native of Virginia Defeated Gen. Banks at Cedar 
Mountain, and captured Harper’s Ferry with 10,000 prisoners, 1862. 
Killed by a company of his own men, mistaking him and his staff for 
Federal cavalry. 

Jacquard, Joseph Marie. 1752-1834. French inventor. 
Jamblichus. FI. 320. Syrian Neo-Platonic philosopher. 
James I. 1566-1625 King of England (VI. of Scotland). 

Executed Raleigh. A translation of the Bible was made under his 
direction. II., 1633-1701. (VII. of Scotland.) Deposed by revolution. 

James I. 1394-1431. King of Scotland. Assassinated. II., 

1430-1460. III., 1453-1488. IV., 1473-1513; defeated and slain at 
Flodden. V., 1512-1542. VI. (I. of England). VII. (II. of England). 

James, Henry, Jr. 1843-.... American novelist. 

Jameson, Robert. 1774-1854. Scottish naturalist. 
Janauschek, Fanny. 1830-.. . 

Jansen, Cornelis. 1585-1638. 

of the Jansenists. 

Januarius, Saint. 272-305. Patron saint of Naples. 

Jasper, William. 1750-1779. Brave American soldier. 

Jay, John. 1745-1829. Am. 

Jeanne d’Albret. 1528-1572. 

Jean Paul. See Richter. 

Jefferson, Joseph. 1829-.... 

Jefferson, Thomas. 1743-1826. American statesman; 
third president. Born in Virginia; admitted to the bar, 1767 ; elected 
to Virginia House of Burgesses, 17^9; Continental Congress, 1775 ; draft¬ 
ed the Declaration of Independence ; governor of Virginia, 1779-81; 
minister plenipotentiary, 1784, to negotiate treaties with European 
powers; minister at Paris, 1785-9 ; secretary of state, 1789-93; elected 
vice-president 1796, and president in 1800, holding that office from 1801 
to 1809. 

Jeffrey, Francis. 1773-1850. Scottish critic and judge. 

Jeffreys, George, Lord. 1650-1689. Infamous British judge; 

lord high chancellor under James II.; died in the Tower. 

Jenkins, Edward. 1838-,... Eng author. Ginx's Baby. 
Jenner, Edward. 1749-1823. English physician; introduced 
vaccination. 

Jenner, Sir William. 1815-.... English physician and 

anatomist. 

Jerome, Saint. 3407-420. Latin father of the church. 


Bohemian tragedienne. 
Dutch theologian; founder 


statesman; first chief justice. 

Queen of Navarre. 

» 

American actor. 


Jerome of Prague. 1378-1416. Bohemian religious re¬ 

former; follower of Huss. Burned at the stake. 

Jerrold, Douglas William. 1803-1857. English humorist and 
satirical writer. Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures; Chronicles 0/ 
Clovernook. 

Jervis, John, Earl of St. Vincent. 1734-1823. Eng. admiral. 
Joan of Arc. (Jeanne d’Arc.) The Maid of Orleans. 1411 7 - 

1431. French heroine. Born in Lorraine, of an humble peasant family. 
Believing herself commissioned by Heaven to liberate France, and con¬ 
vincing Charles VII. of her divine authority, she was given command 
of a considerable force, and by the victories she gained enabled Charles 
to be crowned at Rheims. Although desirous of returning home and 
resuming her former humble peasant life, she was induced to retain her 
command in the army. She was captured in 1840, by the Burgundians, 
and delivered to the English. Charged with sorcery, she was burned at 
the stake after a mock trial. 

Joel. FI. 775 b.c. Hebrew prophet. 

John I. (Saint). Pope, ruling from 523-526. IL, 533-535. III., 

560-573. IV., 640-642. V., 685-687. VI., 701-705. VII., 705-707. VIII., 
872-882. IX.,898-900. X.,915-928. XI.,931-936. XII., 956-964. XIII., 
965-972. XIV., 984-985. XV., died in 985, only a few days after his 
accession. XVI.,986-996. XVII. (Rival of Gregory V. in 997.) XVIII., 
1003. XIX. 1004-1009. XX., 1024-1033. XXI., 1276. XXII., chosen 
1316; deposed 1327; died 1334. XXIII., chosen in 1410; deposed 1414. 
John. 1166-1216. King of England ; granted Magna Charta. 
John II. The Good. 1319-1364. King of France. 

John II. (Casimir V.) 1609-1672. King of Poland. III. 

(Sobieski), 1625-1696. 

John I. The Great. 1357-1433. King of Portugal. 

John. 1801-1873. King of Saxony. 

John of Austria, Don. 15477-1578. Spanish general. 

John of Gaunt (Ghent). 1340-1399. Duke of Lancaster. 

Son of Edward III. 

John the Baptist, b.c. 5-A.D. 28. Prophet. 

John the Evangelist. (St.John.) ....-100? Apostle. 
Johnson, Andrew. 1808-1875. American statesman; seven¬ 
teenth president. Born in N. C.; learned the trade of a tailor in Tenn.; 
Congress, 1843-53; governor, 1853-7 ; senator, 1857 ; military governor, 
1862; elected vice-president in 1864, and succeeded to the presidency on 
the death of Lincoln, 1865. Johnson became involved in a bitter quarrel 
with the leaders of the Republican party, and was impeached in 1868, 
but acquitted, although thirty-five senators voted or conviction to only 
nineteen against, a two-thirds majority being necessary. He was subse¬ 
quently elected to he Senate from Tennessee as a Democrat. 

Johnson, Reverdy. 1796-1876. American statesman. 
Johnson, Richard Mentor. 1780-1850. Ninth vice-president 
of the United States. 

Johnson, Samuel. 1709-1784. Eng. writer and lexicographer. 
Johnston, Albert Sydney. 1S03-1862. Confederate general. 
Johnston, Joseph Eccleston. 1807-.... Confederate general. 
Joliet, Louis. 1645-1700? Fr. explorer of the Mississippi. 
Jomini, Henri, Baron. 1770-1869. Swiss military writer. 
Jonah. FI. 800 b.c. Hebrew prophet. 

Jones, Inigo. 1572-1652. English architect. 

Jones, John Paul. 1747-1792. American Revolutionary 

naval commander ; born in Scotland. Captured the Serapis. 

Jones, Sir William. 1746-1794. English orientalist. 

Jonson, Ben. 1574-1637. English poet and dramatist. Too 

poor to graduate at Cambridge, he became a mason, and afterward 
served as a soldier in Flanders. Returned to England and joined a com¬ 
pany of actors, but killed one of them in a duel and barely escaped death. 
Every Man in His Humor, his first drama, appeared in 1598. Appointed 


<S 




























o_ 


/ 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


21 I 


poet-laureate by James I. Died in poverty. Sejanus ; The Alchemist; 
Catiline's Conspiracy. 

Joseffy, Raffaele, 1852-. Hungarian pianist. 

Joseph I. 1676-1711. Emperor of Germany. II., 1741- 

1790; abolished feudal serfdom. 

Josephine. (Marie Josephe Rose Tascher de la Pagerie.) 

1763-1814. Empress of France; wife of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
Josephus, Flavius. 37 ?—95 7 Jewish historian. 

Joshua. 1537-1427 B.c. • Hebrew leader. 

Jovian. 331-364. Roman emperor. 

Juarez, Benito Pablo. 1806-1872. Mexican Aztec statesman. 

Judas Maccabaeus . -160 B.c. Hebrew leader. 

Judson, Adoniram. 1788-1850. Am. Baptist missionary. 
Julian. The Apostate. 331-363. Roman emperor. 

Julius I. Pope, 336-352. II., 1503-1513. III., 1550-1555. 
Junot, Andoche, Due d’Abrantes. 1771-1813. Fr. general. 
Justin. The Martyr. 103-165? Church father in Palestine. 
Justin I. 450-527. Byzantine emperor. II., ... .-578. 
Justinian I. The Great. 4827-565. Byzantine emperor. 
Juvenalis, Decimus Junius. 407-125? Latin poet. 

'^|'ALAKAUA, David. 1836-.... King of Hawaii. 

Kamehameha IV. 1834-1863. King of Hawaii. 

Kames, Henry Home, Lord. 1696-1782. Scottish judge and 
writer. Elements of Criticism. 

Kane, Elisha Kent. 1820-1857. American Arctic explorer. 
Kant, Immanuel. 1724-1804. German metaphysician; founder 
of the transcendental school of philosophy. Critique of Pure Reason. 
Kean, Edmund. 1787-1833. English tragedian. 

Kearney, Philip. 1815-1862. American general. 

Keats, John. 1795-1821. English poet. Eve of St. Agnes. 
Keble, John. 1792-1866. Eng. divine. The Christian Year. 
Keene, Laura. 1820-1873. American actress. 

Kellermann, Francois Christophe de. 1735-1820. Fr. general. 
Kellogg, Clara Louise. 1842-. ... American vocalist. 
Kemble, Charles. 1775-1854. Brother of J. P. K. Eng. actor. 
Kemble, Frances Anne. 1809-.... English actress. 
Kemble, John Philip. 1757-1823. English tragedian. 
Kempis, Thomas a. 1380-1471. German ascetic writer. 
Imitation of Christ. 

Kent, James. 1763-1847. American jurist. Commentaries. 
Kepler, Johann. 1571-1630. German astronomer. 

Key, Francis Scot. 1776-1843. American poet; author of 
The Star-spangled Banner. 

Khosru I.- 579 - King of Persia. II..-628. 

Kidd, William. 1650-1701. American pirate ; executed. 

Kilpatrick, Hugh Judson. 1836-- American general. 

King, Rufus. 1755-1827. American statesman. 

King, William Rufus. 1786-1853. American statesman. 
Kingsley, Charles. 1819-1875. English divine and author. 
Kitto, John. 1804-1854. English Biblical scholar. 

Kleber, Jean Baptiste. 1754-1800. French general. 
Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb. 1724-1803. German poet. 
Kneller, Sir Godfrey. 1648-1723. English portrait painter. 
Knowles, James Sheridan. 1784-1862. English dramatist 

and actor; subsequently became a Baptist minister. The Hunchback ; 
Virginius. 


Knox, Henry. 1750-1806. American general and statesman. 
Knox, John. 1505-1572. Leader of the Scot, reformation. 
Koerner, Karl Theodor. 1791-1813. German soldier-poet. 
Kosciusko, Thaddeus. 17467-1817. Polish patriot and 
general; commanded the Polish insurgent army; bravely defended 
Warsaw, but was defeated. 

Kossuth, Louis. 1802-.. .. Hungarian patriot, orator and 

statesman. Leading spirit in the insurrection of 1848-49. 

Kotzebue, August F. F. von. 1761-1819. German dramatist. 
V ABLACHE, Luigi. 1794-1858. Italian singer. His 

A voice was of phenomenal range and unusual sweetness. 

La Chaise d’Aix, Francois. Plre la Chaise. 1524-1700. 
French Jesuit. 

Lactantius. The Christian Cicero. 2607—325. Latin father 
of the church. Institutiones Divines. 

La Fayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier de, 
Marquis. 1757-1834. French general and patriot. Came to America 
in 1777 to aid the Americans in their struggle for independence, and was 
commissioned major-general; fought at Brandywine, where he was 
wounded, and in numerous other engagements ; visited France and 
obtained supplies and munitions, returning in 1779; commanded the 
advance guard at Yorkstown, 1781; returned again to France; chosen 
commandant of the French National Guard in 1789 ; visited America in 
1824, and was enthusiastically received; took a prominent part in the 
revolution of 1830. 

La Fontaine, Jean de. 1621-1694. Fr. poet and fabulist. 
Lagrange, Joseph Louis. 1736-1813. Fr. mathematician. 
Lamartine, Alphonse de. 1792-1869. Fr. poet and statesman. 
Lamb, Charles. 1775-1834. Eng. essayist. Essays of Elia. 
Lambert, Daniel. 1769-1809. English giant. 

Lambert, John. 1621-1694. Eng. Parliamentary general. 
Lamotte-Fouque, Friedrich Heinrich Karl de, Baron. 1 777— 
1843. German novelist and poet. Undine. 

Landon, Letitia E. 1802-1838. L. E. L. English author¬ 
ess. Romance and Reality. 

Landor, Walter Savage. 1775-1864. English author. /magi- 

nary Conversations. 

Landseer, Sir Edwin. 1802-1873. English animal painter. 
Langlande (or Longland), Robert. FI. 1360. English 

monk and poet. Vision of Piers Plowman. 

Langton, Stephen.-1228. English prelate. 

Lannes, Jean, Duke of Montebello. 1769-1809. French 

marshal. 

Lansdowne, William Petty, Marquis of. 1737-1805. Eng¬ 
lish statesman. 

Laplace, Pierre Simon, Marquis. 1749-1827. French astron¬ 
omer and mathematician. 

La Rochefoucauld, Francois de, Duke. 1613-1680. French 

moralist and statesman. 

La Salle, Jean Baptiste. 1651-1719. Founder of the Chris¬ 
tian Brothers. 

La Salle, Robert Cavelier de. 16357-1687. Fr. explorer. 
Lasker, Eduard. 1829-1884. German statesman. 

Latimer, Hugh. 1480-1555. English reformer; burned. 
Latour d’Auvergne, Theophile Malo Corret de. 1743-1800. 

French officer, called by Napoleon “The First Grenadier of France." 
Lauderdale, John Maitland, Duke of. 1616-1682. English 
cabal minister. 

Laurens, Henry. 1724-1792. American statesman. 
Lavater, Johann Caspar. 1741-1801. Swiss physiognomist. 


























<2 


212 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent. 1743-1794. French chemist. 
Law, John. 1671-1729. Scottish financier in France; pro¬ 
moted the “ South Sea Bubble.” 

Lawrence, Amos. 1786-1852. American philanthropist. 
Lawrence, James. 1781-1813. American naval hero ; com¬ 
manded the Chesapeake and engaged the British frigate Shannon off 
Boston. He was killed in the action, and his last words were : “ Don’t 
give up the ship.” 

Lawrence, Sir Thomas. 1769-1830. English painter. 

Lawrence, Saint.-258. Roman martyr. 

Layard, Austen Henry. 1817-_ English orientalist. 

Lebrun, Anne Charles, Duke of Piacenza. 1 775 —1 ^ 59 - 

French general. 

Lebrun, Charles. 1619-1690. French painter. 

Lebrun, Charles Francois, Duke of Piacenza. 1739-1824. 
French statesman. 

Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. 1838-.... Eng. author. 
Lecouvreur, Adrienne. 1690-1730. French actress. 
Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre Auguste. 1808-1874. Fr. socialist. 
Ledyard, John. 1751-1788. American traveller. 

Lee, Arthur. 1840-1792. American statesman. Brother of 
R. H. and F. L. Lee. 

Lee, Charles. 1775-1782. Am. general; native of Wales. 
Lee, Francis Lightfoot. 1734-1797. American patriot. 

Lee, Henry. Light-Horse Harry. 1756-1818. American 
general and statesman. Governor of Virginia. 

Lee, Richard Henry. 1732-1794. Am. orator and patriot. 
Lee, Robert Edmund. 1806-1870. American general; com- 
mander-in-chief of the Confederate army. Son of Henry Lee. Born in 
Virginia; graduate of West Point; chief engineer of Gen. Scott’s army 
in Mexico; Confederate brigadier-general 1861, and appointed to the 
chief command in 1862. Surrendered at Appomattox, April 9, 1865. 
Subsequently chosen president of Washington College, at Lexington, 
Va., where he died. 

Leech, John. 1816-1864. English caricaturist. 

Lefebvre, Frangois Joseph, Duke of Dantzig. 1755-1820. 

French general. 

Legare, Hugh Swinton. 1797-1S43. American statesman. 
Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, Baron. 1646-1716. Ger¬ 
man philosopher and mathematician. 

Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of. 1 5.32?—!588. Favorite of 
Queen Elizabeth. 

Leidy, Joseph. 1823-.... American naturalist. 

L’Enclos, Ninon de. 1616-1706. French beauty. 

Leo I. 4007-474. Byzantine emperor. III., 68o?~74i. V., 

... .-820. VI., 865?-gu. 

Leo I. (Saint). The Great. Pope, ruling from 440 to 461. 
II., 682-6S4. III. (Saint), 795-816. IV., 847-855. V., 903; reigned 

only two months. VI., 928-929. VII., 937-939. VIII., 963-965. IX., 
1049-1054. X. (Giovanni de’ Medici), 1513-1521. XI., 1605 ; died 
twenty-four days after his accession. XII., 1823-1829. XIII. (Gioa- 
chimo Pecci.) Born at Carpineto, in the Papal States, 1810, the son 
of Count Ludovico Pecci; ordained a priest in 1837, and created Arch¬ 
bishop of Damietta in 1843; nuncio to Belgium three years; car¬ 
dinal, 1853 ■' cardinal camerlengo, 1877 ; elected to the papacy, to succeed 
Pius IX., February 20, 1878. 

Leonidas.-480 B.c. King of Sparta; leader of the 

brave three hundred at Thermopylae. 


Lerdo de Tejada, Sebastian. 1825-.... President of 
Mexico. 

Le Sage, Alain Rene. 1668-1747. Fr. novelist. Gil Bias. 

Leslie, Alexander, Earl of Leven.-1661. Scot, general. 

Lesseps, Ferdinand de, Viscount. 1805-.... French en¬ 
gineer and diplomatist. Planned the Suez canal, and the inter-oceanic 
canal across Panama. 

Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. 1729-1781. German author. 
Leutze, Emanuel. 1816-1868. German historical painter. 
Lever, Charles James. 1806-1872. Irish novelist. Charles 
O'Malley; Tom Burke 0/ Ours; Harry Lorrequer. 

Leverrier, Urbain J. J. 1811-1877. French astronomer. 
Lewes, George Henry. 1817-1878. English author; hus¬ 
band of “ George Eliot.” Biographical History of Philosophy. 

Lewis, Matthew Gregory. 1775-1818. English novelist. 
Lewis, Meriwether. 1774-1809. American explorer. 
Leyden, Lucas van. 1494-1533. Dutch painter. 

Lieber, Francis. 1800-1S72. German historical writer. 
Liebig, Justus von, Baron. 1803-1873. German chemist. 
Lincoln, Abraham. 1809-1865. Sixteenth president of the 
United States. Born in Kentucky ; removed to Indiana when eight years 
old ; captain in the Black Hawk war, 1832; elected to the Indiana legis¬ 
lature, 1834 ; admitted to the bar, 1836, and removed to Springfield, 111 .; 
elected to Congress in 1846; Republican candidate for U. S. senator in 
1854, his opponent being Stephen A. Douglas ; nominated for the presi¬ 
dency and elected, i860 ; re-elected 1864, but assassinated April 14, 1865, 
by John Wilkes Booth. His death was universally deplored, for his wise 
administration of affairs during the civil war had won for him the regard 
of both factions of the bloody controversy. 

Lincoln, Benjamin. 1733-1810. American general. 

Lind, Jenny. (Mrs. Goldschmidt.) 1821-.... Swedish vocalist. 
Linnaeus, Charles. 1707-1778. Swedish botanist. 

Lippi, Filippo. 1412-1469. Italian painter. 

Liszt, Franz, Abbe. 1811-... . Hungarian pianist. 

Littleton (or Lyttleton), Sir Thomas. I420?-I48 i. English 

jurist. Tenures . 

Liverpool, Robert B. J., Earl of. 1770-1828. Eng. statesman. 
Livingston, Edward. 1764-1836. American jurist. 
Livingstone, David. 1817-1873. Scottish explorer in Africa. 

Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi . 

Livy. (Titus Livius.) 59 B.c.- 17 A.D. Roman historian. 
Locke, John. 1632-1704. English philosopher. Essay on 
the Human Understanding. 

Lockhart, John Gibson. 1794-1854. Scottish author. 

Logan. Tah-gah-jute. 1725 7-1780. American Indian chief. 
Logan, Benjamin. 17427-1862. Kentucky pioneer. 

Logan, John Alexander. 1826-.... American general and 

statesman. 

Lola Montez. 1820-1861. Creole ballet dancer. 

Long, Roger. 16807-1770. English astronomer. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. 1807-1882. American poet. 
Born in Portland, Me.; graduated in 1825 at Bowdoin College, at which 
institution he took the chair of modern languages after travelling four 
years in Europe ; held the same position at Harvard 1836-54. Hyperion; 
Voices of the Night; The Spanish Student; Evangeline; Song of 
Hiawatha; Miles Standish ; Tales of a Wayside Inn, etc. 

Longinus. FI. 3d century. Greek philosopher. 


Leopold I. The Great. 1640-1705. Emperor of Germany. 
II., I 747 -I 79 2 - 

Leopold I. 1790-1865. King of Belgium. II., 1835-.... 



Longstreet, James. 1821-.... Confederate general. 

Lome, John George Edward Henry Sutherland Campbell, 
Marquis of. 1845-.... Governor-general of Canada. 





























<*■ 


p_ 

3 


& 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


213 


Lorraine, Charles IV., Duke of. 1604-1679. German general. 
V., 1643-1690. 

Lossing, Benson John. 1813-. . .. American historian. 

Louis I. Le Debonnair. 778-840. Emperor of the West 
and king of France ; divided the empire among his sons. VI., The Fat, 
io78?-ii 37. King of France. IX. (Saint), 1215-1270; led a large 
army against the Saracens in 1248; defeated and taken prisoner in 
Egypt, but effected his ransom; led another crusade in t27o, but died the 
same year near Tunis. He was a wise ruler, and noted for many virtues. 
XI., 1423-1483; established post-offices. XII., 1462-1515. XIII., 
1601-1643. XIV., Le Grand, 1638-1715. (“ I am the State.”) XV., 
1710-1774. XVI., 1754-1793; guillotined. XVII. (Dauphin), 1785-1795. 
XVIII., Monsieur, 1755-1824. 

Louis I. 1786-1868. King of Bavaria. 

Louis IV. The Bavarian. I285?-I345. Ger. emperor. 

Louis Philippe. 1773-1850. “ The citizen king ” of France; 

abdicated 1848. 

Louvois, Frangois Michel Letellier de, Marquis. 1641-1691. 

French statesman ; caused revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 

Lover, Samuel. 1797-1868. Irish novelist. Handy Andy; 

Rory O' Moore, etc. 

Lowell, James Russell. 1819-.... American poet and 

critic ; minister to Spain and to England. The Bigelow Papers : Under 
the Willows: The Vision 0/Sir Launfal; Commemoration Odes; 
Fable for Critics ; Among my Books ; My Study Windows, etc. 

Lowell, John. 1799-1836. American statesman. 

Loyola, Ignatius de. Saint Ignatius. 1491-1566. Spanish 
founder of the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits. Entered the army at an 
early age ; crippled by a wound in 1520, he turned his attention to 
religion ; made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1523, and subsequently 
studied at the University of Paris, where he met Francis Xavier and 
James Lainez, in conjunction with whom, in 1543, he formed the society 
which has since become so celebrated. 

Loyson, Charles. Pere Hyacinthe. 1827-.... French 

reformer and ex-Carmelite. 

Lubbock, Sir John. 1834-.... English antiquarian. 

Lucanus, Marcus Annaeus. 38-65. Roman epic poet. 

Lucian. 120?-.... Greek satirist. 

Lucilius, Caius. I48 ?-ioo? B.c. Roman satiric poet. 

Lucretius. (Titus Lucretius Carus.) 95-.... b.c. Latin poet. 

Lucullus, Lucius Licinius. 110-57 b.c. Roman general. 

Luther, Martin. 1483-1546. Leader of the Protestant 
Reformation. Born at Eisleben, in Germany, the son of a miner; edu¬ 
cated at the University of Erfurt, and in 1505 entered the Augustine 
convent at that place; ordained a priest, 1507; became professor of 
philosophy at Wittenberg, 1508 ; visited Rome, 1510; denounced the 
sale of indulgences, 1517, and became involved in numerous controver¬ 
sies; cited to appear before Leo X., he refused to comply; burned the 
papal bull containing an order to destroy certain of his works, and denied 
the authority of the pope; excommunicated; enjoyed the support of the 
Elector of Saxony; attended the Diet of Worms, convened for his 
trial, in 1521 ; laid aside his monastic dress in 1524, and married Cather¬ 
ine von Bora, an ex-nun, in 1525 ; enjoyed, during the latter part of his 
life, the greatest distinction from the princes of Germany. Luther com¬ 
pleted, in 1522, his translation of the New Testament, and in 1534 
that of the Old Testament. The central point of his theology is 
justification by faith. 

Luxembourg, Frangois Henri de Montmorenci de. 1628- 

1695. Marshal of France. 

Lycurgus. FI. 850 B.c. Spartan law-giver. 

Lyell, Sir George. 1797-1875. Scottish geologist. 

Lyndhurst, John Singleton Copley, Lord. 1772-1863. Lord 

chancellor of England ; born in Boston, Mass. 


Lyon, Nathaniel. 1819-1861. American general. Born in 
Connecticut; graduate of West Point; appointed commander of the De¬ 
partment of the Missouri, 1861 ; killed at the battle of Wilson’s Creek. 

Lysander . “395 B.c. Spartan general. 

Lysias. 458-378 B.c. Athenian orator. 

Lysimachus. 3557-281 B.c. King of Thrace. 

Lysippus. FI. 330 B.c. Greek sculptor. 

Lytton. See Bulwer. 

WACAULAY, Thomas Babington, Baron. 1800-1859. 

English historian, critic and essayist. History of England; Es¬ 
says ; Lays of A ncient Rome. 

Macbeth .-1056? King of Scotland. 

McCarthy, Justin. 1830-.... Irish writer and Home Rule 
member of Parliament. Came to America in 1868 and visited thirty-five 
of the United States. My Enemy's Daughter ; A Fair Saxon ; History 
of Our Own Times, etc. 

Macchiavelli, Nicolo di Bernardo dei. 1469-1527. Italian 

statesman and author. Among his numerous writings are his History 
of Florence and The Prince, the latter of which (not intended for publi¬ 
cation, but for the private perusal of the Medici) has rendered the name 
Macchiavelli the synonym of perfidy. 

MacClellan, George Brinton. 1826—.... American general. 
Born in Philadelphia ; graduate of West Point; served in the Mexican 
war, and in 1855 served on a commission sent by the government to make 
observations on the Crimean war; became chief engineer of the Illinois 
Central railroad in 1857 ; re-entered the army in 1861, taking command 
of the Federal troops in Western Virginia, and gained the victories of 
Rich Mountain and Cheat River; made commander of the army at 
Washington, and in November, 1861, became commander of the armies 
of the United States ; gained a victory at Fair Oaks, 1862, but was forced 
to relinquish the plan of reducing Richmond ; superseded by Gen. Pope, 
but recalled, and defeated the Confederates under Lee at Antietam; re¬ 
lieved of command about six weeks later; Democratic candidate for the 
presidency in 1864, and afterward elected governor of New Jersey. 

McCosh, James. 1811-.... Scottish theologian. 
Macdonald, Etienne Jacques Joseph Alexandre, Duke of 
Tarentum. 1765-1840. Marshal of France. 

Macdonald, Flora. 1720-1790. Scottish heroine; saved the 

life of “ The Young Pretender.” 

Macdonald, George. 1824-.... Scottish poet and novelist. 
DavidElginbrod; The Portent; Wilfred Cumbermede; Malcolm; 
Unspoken Sermons ; The Miracles of our Lord, etc. 

Macdonald, Sir John A. 1814-. Canadian statesman. 

McCloskey, John. 1810-.... First American cardinal. 
McDowell, Irvin. 1818-. . .. American general. 
MacMahon, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de, Due de Magenta. 

1808- . Marshal of France and president of the French republic. 

Macpherson, James. 1738-1796. Scottish poet. 
MacPherson, James Birdseye. 1828-1864. Am. general. 
Macready, William Charles. 1793-1873. Eng. tragedian. 
Madison, James. 1751-1836. Fourth president of the United 

States. Born in Virginia ; member of the Virginia legislature and dele¬ 
gate to the convention of 1787 ; joint author with Jay and Hamilton of 
the Federalist; Congress, 1789-97; secretary of state, 1801-9, president, 

1809- 17. 

Magellan, Fernando. 1470-1521. Portuguese navigator. 
Mahmood I. 1696-1754. Sultan of Turkey. 

Mahmood, Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dowlah. 967-1030. 

Mohammedan conqueror; founder of the Gaznevide dynasty. 

Mahomet. See Mohammed. 

Maintenon, Frangoise d’Aubigne de, Marquise. 1635-1719. 

Consort of Louis XIV. 




V£> 


V 




























214 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Malibran, Maria Felicita (nee Garcia). 1808—1836. French 
vocalist and actress. 

Malthus, Thomas Robert. 1766-1834. English writer on 

political economy, and author of the “ Malthusian theory.” 
Mandeville, Sir John. 1300-1372. English traveller. 
Manfred. 1234-1266. King of Naples. 

Manning, Henry Edward. 1808-.... English Catholic 
prelate and author. United with the Roman Catholic church in 1851 ; 
archbishop of Westminster, 1865 ; cardinal, 1877. 

Mansfeld, Ernst von, Count. 1585-1626. German general. 
Mansfield, William Murray, Earl of. 1704-1793. British jurist. 
Mantegna, Andrea. 1431-1506. Italian painter. 
Manteuffel, Edwin Hans Carl von, Baron. 1809-1883. Prus¬ 
sian field-marshal. 

Manuel I. Comnenus. H20?-ii8o. Byzantine emperor. II. 
Palaeologus, 1348-1425. 

Manutius, Aldus. I449?-I5I5. Venetian printer. 
Manutius, Aldus. 1547-1597. Venetian printer and author. 
Marat, Jean Paul. 1744-1793. French Jacobin demagogue, 
assassinated by Charlotte Corday. 

Marcellus, Marcus Claudius. 268?-2o8 B.c. Roman consul. 

Conquered Syracuse; killed in a skirmish with the Carthaginians. 
Margaret. Semiramis of the North. 1353-1412. Queen of 
Norway, Sweden and Denmark. 

Margaret of Anjou. 1429-1482. Queen of Henry VI. of 
England. 

Margaret of Angouleme. 1492-1549. Queen of Navarre 

and author. Heptameron. 

Margaret of Austria. 1480-1530. Regent of the Netherlands. 
Margaret of Valois. 1553-1615. Queen of France. 
Margaret, Saint. 1046-1093. Queen of Scotland. 

Margaret, Saint.-275. Virgin of Antioch; martyr. 

Maria Christina. 1806-1878. Queen dowager of Spain. 
Maria II. da Gloria. 1819-1853. Queen of Portugal. 
Maria de’ Medici. 1573-1642. Queen of France. 

Maria Louisa. 1791-1847. Empress of France. 

Maria Theresa. 1717-1780. Empress of Austria and Queen 
of Hungary and Bohemia. 

Marie Antoinette. 1755—1793. Wife of Louis XVI. of 

France; guillotined. 

Mario, Giuseppe, Marquis di Candia. 1810-1883. It. singer. 
Marion, Francis. 1732-1795. Am. Revolutionary general. 
Mariotte, Edme. 1620-1684. French phycisist. 

Marius, Caius. 157-86 B.c. Roman general and consul. 
Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of. 1650-1722. Eng¬ 
lish commander. Commanded the English forces in the Netherlands, 
1689; commanded in Ireland, 1690; accused of treason, deposed and 
confined in the Tower, 1692; reinstated 1696; commanded the allied 
armies in Holland, 1702 ; won the battle of Blenheim, 1704 ; Ramifies, 
1706; Oudenarde, 1708 ; Malplaquet, 1709. 

Marlowe, Christopher. 1564-1593. English dramatist. 
Marmont, Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse de, Duke of Ragusa. 
1774-1852. French marshal. 

Marquette, Jacques. 1637-1675. French missionary and 
discoverer ; explored the Mississippi river. 

Marryatt, Frederic. 1792-1748. English novelist and naval 
officer. Midshipman Easy; Peter Simple, etc. 

Marsh, George P. 1801-.... American philologist. 
Marshall, John. 1755-1835. American jurist and states¬ 
man ; chief justice of the United States. 


Martialis, Marcus Valerius. 43—104. Latin poet. 

Martel, Charles, Duke of Austrasia. The Hammer. 694- 

741. Conquered the Saracens in the great battle of Tours, or Poitiers, 
732 . 

Martineau, Harriet. 1802-1876. English writer. 

Marx, Karl. 1818-1883. German socialist. 

Mary I. Bloody Alary. 1516-1558. Queen of England. 
Married Philip II. of Spain; persecuted the Protestants. II., 1662- 
1694 ; wife of William III. 

Mary Stuart. 1542-1587. Queen of Scots. Daughter of 

James V. and Mary of Guise ; educated in France, where she was mar¬ 
ried to the Dauphin in 1558, who the following year ascended the French 
throne as Francis II., but died childless, 1560; invited to the throne of 
Scotland, and married her cousin. Lord Darnley; suppressed, 1565, a 
revolt of the Protestants instigated by Queen Elizabeth ; joined, 1566, 
a league to extirpate heresy, and, wearying of the arrogance and disso¬ 
luteness of Lord Darnley, bestowed her confidence on David Rizzio, an 
Italian musician, whose murder was instigated the same year by Mary’s 
jealous husband. Lord Darnley himself was killed in 1567, and Queen 
Mary married the Earl of Bothwell the same year. Public sentiment 
in Scotland against her became so intense that she was compelled to take 
refuge in England, where she was finally beheaded on an unproven 
charge of conspiracy. 

Masaniello. 1620-1647. Neapolitan insurgent leader. 
Mason, James M. 1797-1871. American statesman. 
Massasoit. 1580?-!661. Sachem of the Wampanoags. 
Massena, Andre, Prince of Essling. 1758-1817. Fr. marshal. 
Massinger, Philip. 1584-1640. English dramatist. 

Mather, Cotton. 1663-1728. American divine and writer, 

notorious for his persecution of witchcraft. 

Mathew, Theobald. Father Mathew. 1790-1856. Irish 
Catholic priest, called “ The Apostle of Temperance.” 

Maurice. 1521-1553. Elector of Saxony; German general 

and Protestant leader. 

Maurice of Nassau. 1567-1625. Dutch warrior; Prince of 

Orange. 

Maximilian I. 1459-1519. Emperor of Germany. 
Maximilian. (Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph.) 1832-1867. 
Archduke of Austria, and emperor of Mexico. Executed by the 
Mexicans. 

Mazarin, Giulio, Cardinal. 1602-1661. Fr. prime minister. 
Mazeppa, Ivan Stepanovitch. 1644-1709. Polish nobleman, 
and hetman of the Cossacks. Hero of Byron’s poem. 

Mazzini, Giuseppe. 1807-1872. Italian patriot. 

Meade, George Gordon. 1815-1872. American general; won 
the battle of Gettysburg. 

Medici, Alessandro de’. 1510-1537. First duke of Florence; 

assassinated. 

Medici, Cosimo de’. The Elder. 1389-1464. Chief of the 

Florentine republic. 

Medici, Cosimo de’. The Great. 1519-1574. First grand 

duke of Tuscany. 

Medici, Lorenzo de’. The Magnificent. 1448-1492. Prince 

of Florence ; scholar, and patron of literature and art. 

Mehemet Ali. 1769-1849. Viceroy of Egypt. 

Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest. 1812-.... French painter. 
Melanchthon, Philip. 1497-1560. German reformer; leader 

of the Reformation after Luther’s death. The Augsburg Confession. 
Melikoff, Loris. 1824-.... Russian general. 

Melville, Andrew. 1545-1622. Scottish religious reformer. 
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix. 1809-1847. German com¬ 
poser. The Midsummer Night's Dream and The Wedding of Ca- 
tnache, 1827; St. Paul, 1836; Elijah, 1846. Songs without Words. 
































A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Menno, Simonis. 1496-1561. Frieslandic founder of the 

Mennonites. 

Mercadante, Saverio. 1797-1870. Italian composer. 
Merimee, Prosper. 1803-1870. French novelist. 

Mesmer, Friedrich Anton. 1733-1815. German discoverer of 

“ mesmerism.” 

Metellus, Quintus Cmcilius. FI. 100 b.c. Roman general. 
Defeated Jugurtha, 109 b.c. 

Metternich, Clemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von. 1775— 

1859. Austrian statesman. 

Meyerbeer, Giacomo. (Jakob Meyer-Beer.) 1794-1864. Ger¬ 

man composer. Robert le Diable; Semiramide; Les Huguenots ; 

L‘ Atoile du Nord. 

Michael Angelo. (Michelangelo Buonarotti.) 1474-1563. 

Italian painter, sculptor, architect and poet. Patronized by Lorenzo the j 
Magnificent; invited to Rome by Pope Julius II., where he designed 
the church of St. Peter; became architect of that magnificent structure 
in 1546, and devoted the rest of his life almost exclusively to its comple¬ 
tion. Among his productions are the frescoes in the Sistine chapel, in¬ 
cluding The Last Judgntent ; The Holy Family ; a gigantic statue of 
David, and a marble group called Pieta, representing the Virgin as 
weeping over the dead body of the Savior. 

Mifflin, Thomas. 1744-1800. American patriot; president of 

the Continental Congress. 

Mill, James. 1773-1830. Scottish historian and writer. 

Mill, John Stuart. 1806-1873. English philosopher and 

political economist. The Principles 0/ Political Economy. 

Millais, John Everett. 1829-.... English painter. 

Miller, Hugh. 1802-1856. Scottish geologist. 

Miller, Joaquin. (Real name, Cincinnatus Hiner Miller.) 

1841-.... American poet. Born in Indiana, and emigrated to Oregon 
in boyhood. The One Fair Woman, a novel; Pacific Poems ; Songs 
0/ the Sierras, etc. 

Mills, Clark. 1815-1883. American sculptor. 

Miltiades. FI. 500 B.c. Athenian commander; gained the 

great victory of Marathon. 

Milton, John. 1608-1674. English poet; educated at Cam¬ 
bridge ; passed several years in travel ; visited Galileo, and gained the 
friendship of many eminent personages ; returning to England, he ad¬ 
vocated the popular party, opposing prelacy and the established church; 
wrote many political and controversial works in prose ; was appointed in 
1648 Latin secretary of the Council of State; in 1654 he had become 
entirely blind. His Paradise Lost was completed in 1655, and sold for 
half of which was not to be paid until after the sale of 1,300 copies. 
His sonnets are among the best in the language, and among his other 
works are Comus : II Penseroso: Samson Agonistes ; L'Allegro; 
Paradise Regained; Lycidas. Milton is justly considered one of the 
greatest poets of all time. 

Minie, Claude Etienne. 1810-1879. French inventor. 
Mirabeau, Honore Gabriel de Riquetti de, Comte. 1749-1791. 

French orator and statesman. Entered the army in 1776; exiled and 
imprisoned for debt; separating from his wife, he eloped with a young 
woman in 1776, for which offence he was condemned to death ; escaped, 
however, with four years’ imprisonment; led a wandering life for sev¬ 
eral years, engaging in numerous intrigues ; sent to Berlin on a secret 
mission in 1786, and elected to the States-General in 1789, and later to 
the National Assembly, of which he became president in 1791. Mira¬ 
beau possessed remarkable powers of oratory, and was one of the chief 
promoters of the French Revolution. 

Mitchel, Ormsby Macknight. 1810-1862. American gen¬ 

eral and astronomer. Captured Huntsville, 1862. 

Mitchell, Donald Grant. Ik Marvel. 1822-- American 

author. Reveries of a Bachelor ; My Farm at Edgewood, etc. 

Mitford, Marv Russell. 1786-1855. American authoress. 


7 

2I 5 


Mitford, William. 1744-1827. English historian. 
Mithridatus VI. The Great. 132-63 B.c. King of Pontus. 
Allied with Tigranes, king of Armenia, he defeated the Romans in sev¬ 
eral battles. 

Mohammed, or Mahomet. 569-... . Founder of the Mos¬ 
lem religion. Pretended, at the age of forty, to have received a revela¬ 
tion from Allah, and thenceforth devoted'himself to the propagation of 
his new religion. Previous to this time he had been an idolater. His 
new faith, which included the unity of God, was rejected at Mecca, 
where a conspiracy was formed against him, but was warmly embraced 
in Medina, to which place the prophet fled in 622. From this flight, 
called the Hegira, the Mussulmans compute their time. After this 
event, Mohammed ceased to advocate liberty of conscience, but prop¬ 
agated the faith of Islam by the sword, gaining numerous victories, and 
spreading his religion over a large portion of Western Asia. The Koran 
was composed in separate chapters, as occasion required. 

Mohammed II. The Victorious. 1430-1481. Turkish sul¬ 
tan. III., 1642-1692. 

Moliere. (Jean Baptiste Poquelin.) 1622-1673. French dra¬ 
matist and actor. Among his numerous comedies are The Misanthrope 
and The Hypocrite ( Tartujfe'). 

Moltke, Carl Bernhard Helmuth von, Count. 1800—.... 

Chief marshal of the German empire. Virtually commander-in-chief of 
the German armies in the Franco-German war, and designed the entire 
campaign. 

Mommsen, Christian Matthias Theodor. 1817-.... Ger¬ 
man historian. 

Monk, George, Duke of Albemarle. 1608-1670. English 

general; restored the monarchy. 

Monmouth, James Scott, Duke of. i649?-i 685. Natural 
son of Charles II.; rebelled, but was defeated and executed. 

Monroe, James. 1758-1831. Fifth president. Born in Vir¬ 
ginia; captain in the war of 1812; studied law under Jefferson; Con¬ 
gress, 1783; opposed the constitution; governor of Virginia, 1799; 
envoy extraordinary to France, 1802; re-elected governor, 1811 ; ap¬ 
pointed secretary of state same year by Madison; elected president, 
1816, and re-elected 1820. 

Montague, Lady Mary Wortley. 1690-1762. English 
authoress. 

Montaigne, Michel Eyquern de. 1533-1592. French philos¬ 
opher and essayist. Essays. 

Montalembert, Charles Forbes de, Comte. 1810-1870. Fr. 
publicist; leader of the liberal Catholic party. 

Montcalm, Louis J. de St. Veran, Marquis of. 1712-1759. 

French commander in Canada. 

Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de. 1689-1755. 

French jurist and philosopher. 

Montezuma II. I48o?-i520. Last Aztec emperor of 

Mexico. 

Montfort, Simon de. H50?-I2l8. Norman crusader. 

Montfort, Simon de, Earl of Leicester. 12007-1265. Son 
of preceding. Led the barons against Henry III. 

Montgolfier, Jacques Etienne (1745-1799) and Joseph Michel 

(1740-1810). French mechanicians ; invented air-balloon. 
Montgomery, James. 1771-1854. Scottish poet. 
Montgomery, Richard. 1736-1775. American general; 
killed at Quebec. 

Montgomery, Robert. 1807-1S55. English poet. 
Montmorenci, Anne de, Due. 1493-1567. Fr. constable. 
Montmorenci, Henri de, Due. 1534-1614. Constable of 
France. 

Montmorenci, Mathew de. 1175-1230. Constable of France. 





































A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 



Montpensier,’ Anne Marie Louise d’Orleans, Duchesse de. 

Mademoiselle. 1627-1693. French writer; adherent of Conde. Memoirs. 

Montrose, James Graham, Marquis of. 1612-1650. Scottish 

general. Executed. 

Moore, Sir John. 1761-1809. British general; fell at 

Corunna. 

Moore, Thomas. 1779-1852. Irish poet. LallaRookh; Irish 

Melodies; The Loves of the Angels, etc. 

Morales, Luis. El Divino. 1509-1586. Spanish painter. 

More, Hannah. 1745-1833. English authoress. Calebs in 

Search of a Wife. 

More, Sir Thomas. 1480-1535. English statesman and phil¬ 
osopher ; educated at Oxford ; entered Parliament, 1504 ; produced 
History of Richard III., 1513 ; Utopia, 1516 ; became a great favorite 
of Henry VIII., who made him lord chancellor in 1530; being an ardent 
Catholic, he refused to sanction the divorce of Queen Catherine and re¬ 
signed his office in 1532 ; imprisoned in i534for declining to take an oath 
acknowledging the validity of the king’s marriage to Anne Boleyn, and 
executed the following year for denying the king’s supremacy as head of 
the church. 


Moreau, Jean Victor. 1763-1813. French general. Victor 

at Hochstadt and Hohenlinden ; fell at Dresden. 

Morelos, Jose Maria. 1780-1815. Mexican revolutionist. 
Morgan, John Hunt. 1825-1863. Confederate cavalry offi¬ 
cer and major-general. (“ Morgan’s raid.”) 

Mornay, Philippe de, Seigneur du Plessis-Marly. Du Plessis 

Mornay. 1549-1623. French Protestant statesman. 

Morris, George P. 1802-1864. American journalist and 

poet. Woodman, Spare That Tree. 

Morris, Gouverneur. 1752-1816. American statesman. 
Morris, Robert. 1734-1806. Am. statesman and financier. 
Morris, William. 1834-.... English poet. 

Morse, Samuel Finley Breese. 1791-1872. Am. inventor of 
the magnetic telegraph; graduate of Yale College; studied painting in 
England, returning to America in 1832 ; constructed small recording 
electric telegraph in 1835 ; finally obtained aid from Congress in 1843, 
and constructed a line between Washington and Baltimore in 1844. 

Mortimer, Roger, Earl of March. I287 ?-I330. Favorite of 

Isabella of England ; executed. 

Morton, James Douglas, Earl of. 1530-1581. Regent of 

Scotland. Executed as accessory to Darnley’s murder. 

Morton (or Moreton), John. 1410-1500. English prelate. 
Morton, Oliver Perry. 1823-1877. American statesman. 
Moscheles, Ignaz. 1794-1870. Hungarian pianist. 

Moses. 1570-1450. Hebrew law-giver. Led the Israelites 

out of Egypt. 

Motley, John Lothrop. 1814-1877. American diplomatist 

and historian. The Rise of the Dutch Republic ; History of the United 
Netherlands. 

Mott, Lucretia ( nee Coffin). 1793-- . • • Am. social reformer. 
Mott, Valentine. 1785-1865. American surgeon. 

Moultrie, William. 1731-1805. Am. Revolutionary general. 
Mozart, Johann Chrysostomus Wolfgang Amadeus. 1656- 
1791. German composer. Composed short pieces at the age of six, and 
at seven gave concerts in Paris and London. Distinguished for the 
universality of his genius. Don Giovanni; The Magic Flute; The 
Marriage of Figaro ; Requiem. 

Muhlenberg, Henry Melchior. 1711-1787. Founder of the 

German Lutheran church in America. 


Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel. 
Mukhtar Pasha, Ghazi Ahmed. 

and statesman. 


/ 




1746-1807. Am. general. 
1837-.... Turkish general 


| Muller, Friedrich Maximilian ( Max Muller ). 1823-.... 

German scholar and writer in England. Chips from a German Work¬ 
shop. 

Mulock, Dinah Maria. See Craik. 

Munchausen, Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von, Baron. 1720- 

1797. German soldier and romancist. 

Munzer, Thomas.-1526. German Anabaptist fanatic. 

Murat, Joachim. 1771-1815. Fr. marshal and king of Italy. 
Murillo, Bartolome Esteban. 1618-1682. Spanish painter. 
Excelled as a colorist, and regarded as the greatest of the Spanish 
school of painters. His virgin saints and beggar boys are famous. 

Murray (or Moray), James Stuart, Earl of. 1533-1570. Re¬ 

gent of Scotland. Opponent of Mary Stuart. Assassinated. 

Murray, Lindley. 1745-1826. American grammarian. 
Musset, Louis Charles Alfred de. 1810-1857. French poet. 

Nadir Shah. (Kouli Khan.) 1688-1747. King of Persia. 

Expelled the Afghans and dethroned the Shah ; conquered part of India. 

Nana-Sahib. 1824-.... Leader of Sepoy mutiny. 

Napier, Sir Charles James. 1782-1853. Eng. general in India. 
Napier, Sir Charles John. 1786-1860. British admiral. 
Napier, John, Laird of Merchiston. 1550-1614. Scottish 
mathematician. 

Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick. 1785-1860. British 

1 general and writer. 

! Napier of Magdala, Robert Cornelis Napier, Baron. 1810- 

1876. British general. 

Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 

Nash, Richard. Beau Nash. 1674— 1 76 1 . English fop. 
Nash, Thomas. i564?-i6oo? English satirist and dramatist. 
Neander, Johann August Wilhelm. 1789-1850. German 

theologian and historian. History of the Christian Religion. 

Nebuchadnezzar.-561 b.c. Chaldean king of Babylon. 

Conquered Jerusalem, Tyre and Egypt. 

Necker, Jacques. 1732-1804. French statesman and financier. 

Father of Mme. de Stael. 

Neilson, Adelaide. 1853-1881. American actress. 


Nelson, Horatio, Viscount. 1758-1805. The greatest of 

Britain’s naval commanders. Entered the navy at 13 ; post-captain, 
1779 ; rear admiral, 1797, his promotion having been earned by his share 
in the victory of St. Vincent; lost his right arm in an unsuccessful at¬ 
tack on Teneriffe ; won the battle of the Nile in 1798, for which he was 
raised to the peerage as Baron Nelson of the Nile ; became separated 
from his wife, owing to an infatuation with Lady Hamilton which lasted 
until his death ; created a viscount for the victory of the Baltic, where, 
being second in command, he disobeyed the orders directing him to re¬ 
treat; fell at Trafalgar, where his fleet gained a decisive victory over 
the French and Spanish. 

Nepos, Cornelius. FI. 5 b.c. Roman historian. 

Neri, Filippo de, Saint. St. Philip Neri. 1 515— 1 595. Italian 

founder of the order of " Priests of the Oratory.” 

Nerva, Marcus Cocceius. 32-98. Roman emperor, 76-98. 

Nesselrode, Charles Robert von, Count. 1780-1862. Rus¬ 

sian diplomatist; minister of foreign affairs for forty years. 

Nestorius.-440? Syrian prelate ; patriarch of Constan¬ 

tinople, and founder of the Nestorian schism. 

Newman, John Henry, Cardinal. 1801-.... English theo¬ 
logian. Graduated at Oxford; founded an ascetic community in 1842, 
over which he presided for three years; a recognized leader of the 
High Church party until 1845, when he became a Catholic ; appointed 
rector of Catholic University at Dublin 1854, and made a cardinal by 
Pope Leo XIII. in 1879. A Grammar of Assent. 



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Newton, Sir Isaac. 1642-1727. English philosopher and 

mathematician. The son of a farmer; graduated at Cambridge 1665, 
about which time he invented the “ method of fluxions,” and discovered 
the attraction of gravitation; discovered, in 1668, that light is not homo¬ 
geneous, but consists of rays of different refrangibility ; published his 
Theory of Light and Color in 1675, and his greatest work. The Prin- 
cipia, in 1687. 

Ney, Michel, Duke of Echlingen and Prince of the Moskwa. 

1796-1815. French marshal ; the son of a cooper; entered the army at 
18 as a private, and was gradually promoted. Napoleon called him “the 
bravest of the brave," and his titles were conferred upon him lor his 
victory at Echlingen in 1805, and his services at the battle of Borodino. 
Commanded the rear guard in the retreat from Moscow ; defeated by 
Bernadotte, at Dennewitz, 1813 ; submitted to Louis XVIII. upon the 
abdication of Napoleon, against whom he was sent with an army in 
1815, but united his army with that of his old commander; had five 
horses shot underhim at Waterloo, where he fought with his usual valor; 
was captured soon after, and executed on a charge of treason. 

Nicholas I. Pope, ruling from 858 to 867. II., 1059-1061. 

III., 1277-1280. IV., 1288-1292. V., 1447-1455. 

Nicholas I. 1796-1855. Emperor of Russia; at war with 
Persia and Turkey; subdued Polish insurrection, 1831; engaged in 
Crimean war. 

Nicholas, Saint.-340? Bishop of Myria. 

Niebuhr, Barthold Georg. 1776-1831. German historian. 
Nicot, Jean. 1530-1600. Fr. scholar; introduced tobacco. 
Nightingale, Florence. 1820-.... English philanthropist. 

Notes on Hospitals. 

Nilsson, Christine. (Mme. Rouzaud.) 1843-. • • • Swedish 
vocalist. 

Noailles, Adrian M., Duke of. 1678-1766. French general. 
Nordenskjold, Adolf Erik. 1832-.. .. Swedish explorer. 
Nordhoff, Charles. 1830-. ... Am. author and journalist. 
North, Christopher. See Wilson, John. 

North, Frederick, Lord. 1732-1792. English statesman. 
Northcote, Sir Stafford Henry. 1818-.... Eng. statesman. 
Norton, Caroline Elizabeth Sarah {nee Sheridan). 1808- 
1877. English authoress. Stuart of Dunleith. 

Nostradamus. (Michel de Notredame.) 1503-1566. French 
astrologer. Centuries. 

Nottingham, Heneage Finch, first Earl of. 1621-1682. Eng¬ 
lish jurist and statesman. 

Novalis. (Friedrich von Hardenberg.) 1772-1801. Ger¬ 
man author. 

Novello, Vincent. 1771-1861. English composer. 

Noyes, George Rapall. 1798-1868. American theologian. 
Noyes, John Humphrey. 1811-. ... American communist. 

O ATES, Titus. 1620-1705. English informer; contriver 
of the celebrated “Popish Plot.” 

Oberlin, Jean Frederic. 1740-1816. French-German re¬ 
former and philanthropist. 

O’Brien, William Smith. 1803-1864. Irish political agitator. 
Leader of “ Young Ireland ” party ; banished for treason. 

O’Connell, Daniel. 1775-1847. Irish patriot and orator. 

Advocated Catholic emancipation, but opposed resort to arms ; elected 
to Parliament in 1828, but not allowed to take his seat until 1829, when 
the bill for Catholic emancipation was passed ; gave up his large law 
practice and gave his entire attention to public duties ; began advocating 
the repeal of the union in 1840, and was convicted in 1844 on a charge of 
treason, but the sentence, one year’s imprisonment and ,£2,000 fine, was 
reversed by the House of Lords. 

O’Conor, Charles. 1804-1S83. American lawyer. 


Occam, William of. The Invincible Doctor. 1280 ?-i347. 
English theologian. 

Odoacer.-493. Gothic king of Italy; executed. 

O’Donnell, Leopold, Count of Lucena, Duke of Tetuan. 

1809-1867. Spanish general and statesman. 

Oehlenschlager, Adam Gottlob. 1779-1850. Danish poet. 
Oersted, Hans Christian. 1777-1851. Danish natural phil¬ 
osopher ; founder of the science of electro-magnetism. 

Offenbach, Jacques. 1819-1880. German-French composer. 
La Belle Hellne; Orphee aux Enfers; Bluebeard; La Grande 
Duchesse; LaJjlie Par/umeuse, etc. 

Oglesby, Richard J. 1824-.... American statesman. 
Oglethorpe, James Edward. 1698-1785. English general; 
colonized Georgia. 

Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham. 1360-1407. English re¬ 
former ; head of the Lollards ; executed. 

Oldfield, Anne. 1683-1730. English actress. 

Oliphant, Margaret. 1818-... .English novelist. 

Ollendorff, Henri Godefroy. 1803-1865. German educator. 
Ollivier, Olivier Emile. 1825-.... French statesman. 

Omar I. 581-644. Arabian caliph. Conquered Jerusalem. 
Omar Pasha. (Michael Lattas.) 1806-1871. Turkish com¬ 
mander in the Crimean war; born in Croatia. 

O’Meara, Barry Edward. 1780-1836. Irish physician and 
author. Napoleon in Exile. 

Opie, Mrs. Amelia. 1769-1853. English authoress. 

Orange, William, Prince of. The Silent. 1553-1584. Founder 

of the Dutch republic ; leader of the insurrection which broke out when 
it was attempted to introduce the Inquisition into the Netherlands. 
Assassinated. 

Origen. 1867-253. Greek theologian and preacher. Endeav¬ 
ored to harmonize the teachings of Christ and Plato ; opposed the theory 
of eternal punishment. 

Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Due d’. 1747-1793. Took 

the popular side on the assembling of the States-General, renounced his 
titles and assumed the name of Egalite (Equality). Voted for the death of 
his cousin, Louis XVI. Condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and 
executed. His son, Louis Philippe, afterward became king of France. 

Orleans, Philippe, Due d’. 1674-1723. Regent of France. 

Orloff, Alexis, Count. 1787-1861. Russian general. 
Ormond, James Butler, Duke of. 1610-1688. Irish statesman; 
put down the Irish rebellion. 

Orsini, Felice. 1819-1858. Italian conspirator; leader in the 
attempted assassination of Napoleon III., in 1858 ; executed. 

Osceola. 1804-1838. Seminole chief. 

Osman I. 1259-1326. Founder of Ottoman dynasty. 

Ossoli, Margaret Fuller, Marchioness. 1810-1850. Ameri¬ 
can authoress. 

Otho I. The Great. 912-973. Emperor of Germany. 
Christianized the Danes; deposed Pope John XII. II., 955-983. III., 
980-1002. IV., 1174-1218. 

Otho I. 1815-1867. King of Greece. 

Otis, James. 1725-1783. Am. lawyer, orator and patriot. 
Opposed “ writs of assistance ”; leader of the popular party. 

Otway, Thomas. 1651-1685. English dramatist. 

Oudinot, Nicholas Charles. 1767-1847. French general. 
Outram, Sir James. 1802-1863. English general in India. 
Overbury, Sir Thomas. 1581-1613. English poet. 

Ovid. (Publius Ovidius Naso.) B.c. 43- 18 a.d. Roman poet. 
Owen, Richard. 1804-.... Eng. zoologist and anatomist. 


Al 




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2l8 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Owen, Robert. 1771-1858. English socialist; founder of the 
community of New Harmony. 

Oxenstiern, Axel, Count. 1583-1654. Swedish statesman. 

*T\ADILLA, Don Juan Lopez de.-1521. Spanish 

A patriot and general; executed. 

Paganini, Niccolo. 1784-1840. Italian violinist. 

Paine, Robert Treat. 1731-1814. Am. lawyer and statesman. 

Paine, Thomas. 1737-1809. American political writer and 
free-thinker ; born in England. Common Sense ; Rights 0/ Man ; The 
Age of Reason. 

Pakenham, Sir Edward.-1815. Bridsh general; fell 

at New Orleans. 

Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da. 15247-1594. Italian com¬ 
poser of church music. Mass 0/ Pope Marcellas. 

Paley, William. 1743-1805. English theologian. 

Palissy, Bernard. 1506-1589. Fr. potter and enameller. 

Palladio, Andrea. 1518-1580. Italian architect. 

Palmaroli, Pietro.-1828. Italian painter. 

Palmerston, Henry John Temple, Viscount. 1784-1865. 

English statesman ; minister of foreign affairs and prime minister. 

Paoli, Pasquale di. 1726-1807. Corsican general. 

Papin, Denis. 1647-1712. French physician. (Digester.) 

Papineau, Louis Joseph. 1789-1871. Canadian politician. 

Paracelsus, Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von 
Hohenheim. 1493-1541. Swiss alchemist and empiric. 

Parepa-Rosa, Euphrosyne. 1836-1874. Scottish vocalist. 

Paris, Louis Albert Philippe d’Orleans, Comte de. 1838-.... 
French prince ; grandson of Louis Philippe. 

Park, Mungo. 1771-1805. Scottish traveller and explorer. 

Travels in the Interior of Africa. 

Parker, Matthew. 1504-1575. English prelate. 

Parker, Theodore. 1810-1860. Am. rationalistic theologian. 

Parkman, Francis. 1823-.... American historian. 

Parnell, Charles Stewart. 1843-- Irish agitator; leader 

of the Land League movement. 

Parr, Catherine. 1509-1548. Surviving queen of Henry VIII. 

Parrhasius. FI. 400 B.c. Greek painter. 

Parrott, Robert Parker. 1804-1877. . American inventor. 

Parry, Sir William Edmund. 1790-1855. English Arctic 
explorer ; discovered Barrow's Strait. 

Parsons, Theophilus. 1750-1813. American jurist. 

Parsons, Theophilus. 1797-1882. American jurist. 

Pascal, Blaise. 1623-1662. French philosopher and mathe¬ 
matician. At the age of twelve, he had acquired, without books, a 
knowledge of geometry ; established the theory of atmospheric pressure, 
1848 ; entered the cloister of Port Royal, and there produced, in 1656, 
his Provincial Letters against the Jesuits. 

Patrick, Saint. 3727-460? Apostle of Ireland. 

Patti, Adelina Maria Clorinda, Marquise de Caux. 1843-. • • • 
Operatic singer, of Italian descent; born in Madrid. 

Paul, Saint, of Tarsus. Saul. io?-66? Apostle. 

Pauli. Pope from 757 to 767. II., 1464-1471. III. (Alessan¬ 
dro Farnese), 1534-1549 ; excommunicated Henry VIII.; called Council 
of Trent. IV., 1555-1559- V., 1605-1621. 

Pauli. 1754-1801. Emperor of Russia ; assassinated. 

Paul Veronese. (Paolo Cagliari.) 15307-1588. It. painter. 

Pausanias. FI. 479 B.c. Spartan general. 

Paxton, Sir Joseph. 1803-1865. English architect. 


Payne, John Howard. 1792-1852. American dramatist and 
poet. Home, Sweet Home. 

Peabody, George. 1795-1869. American philanthropist. 

Acquired great wealth as a banker in London; expended over five 
millions in benevolent enterprises. 

Peale, Rembrandt. 1778-1860. American painter. 

Pedro (de Alcantara) I. 1798-1834. Emperor of Brazil; 
king of Portugal as Pedro IV. II., 1825-.... 

Peel, Sir Robert. Orange Peel. 1788-1850. English states¬ 
man and prime minister ; repealed the Corn Laws. 

Peirce, Benjamin. 1809-.... American mathematician. 

Pelham, Henry. 1694-1754, English statesman. 

Pellegrini, Pellegrino. 1527-1595. It. painter and architect. 

Pellico, Silvio. 1789-1854. Italian poet and patriot. 

Pemberton, John Clifford. 1814-1881. Confederate general. 

Penn, William. 1644-1718. English Quaker; statesman, 
courtier, author and philanthropist; founder of Pennsylvania. Son of 
Sir William Penn, an English admiral. 

Pepin. The Short. 7147-768. King of France. Son of 

Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne. Mayor of the palace under 
Childeric III.; usurped the throne in 752. 

Pepys, Samuel. 1632-1703. English author and scholar; 
secretary of the admiralty. Diary ; Memories of the Navy. 

Pepperell, Sir William. 1696—1759. Am. colonial general. 

Perceval, Spencer. 1762-1812. Eng. statesman; assassinated. 

Percival, James Gates. 1795-1856. American poet. 

Percy, Thomas. 1728-1811. English prelate and author. 

Pereire, Emile (1800-1875) and Isaac (1806-....). French 
financiers. Founded the “Credit Mobilier.” 

Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista. 17107-1737? Italian composer. 

Pericles. 4957-429 B.c. Athenian orator, statesman and 
general. Became the leader of the democratic party and the first man in 
Athens; greatly increased Athenian influence; erected many noble 
public works, including the Parthenon. 

Perrault, Claude. 1613—1688. French architect. 

Perry, Matthew Calbraith. 1794-1858. American commodore ; 
commanded expedition to Japan. 

Perry, Oliver Hazard. 1785-1819. American commodore; 
defeated the British on Lake Erie. 

Persius Flaccus, Aulus. 34-62. Roman satirist. 

Perugino, Pietro. (Vannucci.) 1446-1524. Italian painter. 

Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich. 1745-1827. Swiss educationist. 

Peter, Saint.-66. Apostle. 

Peter I. The Great. 1672-1725. Czar of Russia. Organ¬ 
ized an army and entered it as a private ; studied practical seamanship, 
and formed a navy ; travelled incognito in Western Europe; worked as. 
a ship-carpenter in Holland ; founded schools and effected a number of 
reforms ; defeated Charles XII. of Sweden, at Pultowa, 1709 ; founded 
St. Petersburg. His second wife, Catherine, was a prisoner of war, of 
obscure parentage. The crown prince, Alexis, opposing the czar's 
policy, was forced to renounce the succession and is said to have been 
poisoned by his father. 

Peter the Hermit. 10507-1115. Preacher of first crusade. 

Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, Earl of. 1658-1735. 
English general; able but eccentric. Captured Barcelona and Valencia. 

Petion, Alexandre. 1770-1818. First president of IIayti. 

Petrarch. (Francesco Petrarca.) 1304-1374. Italian poet 

and scholar. Enamored of Laura de Sade, whose name has been ren¬ 
dered immortal by over three hundred sonnets and fifty canzoni ad¬ 
dressed to her. 

Pettie, John 1839-... . Scottish artist. 






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A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


219 


Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. 1815-1852. American authoress. 

The Sunny Side. 

Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. 1844-.... Daughter of preceding 

American authoress. The Gates Ajar. 

Phidias. 490-432 B.c. The greatest of Greek sculptors. His 

Zeus at Olympia is counted among the wonders of the world. 

Philidor. Assumed name of a French family (Danican) of 
musicians. Francois Andre Danican (1726-1795) was a celebrated chess 
player. 

Philip. (Pometacom.) King Philip .-1676. New 

England Indian chief; sachem of Pokanoket. (King Philip’s war.) 

Philip II. 382-336 B.c. King of Macedonia; father of Alex¬ 

ander the Great. Assassinated. 

Philip II. (Augustus.) 1165-1223. King of France. An¬ 
nexed Normandy, Anjou and Lorraine; won the battle of Bouvines. IV., 
The Fair, 1268-1314 ; reduced the power of the feudal nobles; impris¬ 
oned Pope Boniface III. and caused him to remove his seat to Avignon ; 
suppressed the order of Knights Templars. VI. (of Valois), 1293- 
1350 . 

Philip II. 1527-1598. King of Spain. Son of Charles V. 

Provoked insurrection in the Netherlands by his attempt to introduce 
the Spanish Inquisition ; married, on the death of Mary Tudor, his 
second wife, Isabella of France, the betrothed of his son, Don Carlos; 
equipped the “ Invincible Armada " for the conquest of England. III., 
1578-1621. IV., 1605-1665. V., 1683-1746; first of the House of Bourbon. 

Philip. The Good. 1396-1647. Duke of Burgundy. The 

Bold, 1342-1404. 

Phillips, Adelaide. 1833-.... English-American vocalist. 

Phillips, Wendell. 1811-1884. American orator and abo¬ 

litionist. Speech in Faneuil Hall, 1836. 

Phips (or Phipps), Sir William. 1651-1695. Colonial gover¬ 
nor of Massachusetts. Captured Port Royal. 

Phocion. 402?~3I7 B.c. Athenian general and statesman. 

Piccolomini, Ottavio. 1599-1656. Austrian general; con¬ 
spirator against Wallenstein. Gained great distinction in the Thirty 
Years’ war ; led Spanish army in Flanders. 

Pickering, Timothy. 1745-1829. American statesman. 

Pierce, Franklin. 1804-1869. Fourteenth president of the 
United States. Born in New Hampshire ; Congress, 1832-7 ; senator, 
1837-42 ; brigadier-general in Mexican war ; elected president on the 
Democratic ticket, in 1852, holding that office from 1853-7 opposed co¬ 
ercion ol the South in 1863. 

Pilate, Pontius.-38. Roman governor of Palestine. 

Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth. 1746-1825. American states¬ 
man and soldier; leader of the Federalists. 

Pindar. 520 P-440? B.c. Greek lyric poet. 

Pinkney, William. 1764-1822. Am. lawyer and orator. 

Pisano, Andrea. 1270-1345. Italian sculptor and architect. 

Pisano, Nicola. I200?-I278? Italian sculptor. 

Pisistratus. 612-527 b.c. Tyrant of Athens. 

Pitcairn, Maj. John.- 1775 - English officer; fell at 

Bunker Hill. 

Pitman, Benn.-_ English phonographer. 

Pitman, Isaac. 1813-_ Eng. inventor of phonography. 

Pitt, William. 1759—1806. English statesman and orator. 
Son of the Earl of Chatham. Graduated at Cambridge ; admitted to 
the bar, 1780 ; entered Parliament, 1781 ; chancellor of the exchecquer, 
1782 ; first lord of the treasury and prime minister, 1783 ; head of the 
great coalition against Bonaparte. 

Pius I. Pope, 142-157. II., 1458-1464. III., 1503; died 

same year. IV. (Giovanni Angelo de’Medici), 1559-1565 ; convoked 
Council ol Trent. V., 1566-1572. VI., 1775-1799. VII., 1800-1823 ; 
taken from Rome in 1809 by Napoleon, and detained at Genoa and Fon¬ 


tainebleau. VIII., 1829-1830. IX. (Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti), 
born 1792 ; chosen to the pontificate, 1846 ; died, 1878. During his 
incumbency the dogmas of the Immaculate Conception and of Papal In¬ 
fallibility were promulgated; temporal power overthrown, 1870, and 
the Papal States annexed to Italy. 

Pizarro, Francisco. 14757-1541? Sp. conqueror of Peru. 

Plantagenet. Dynasty of English kings, 1154-1485. 

Plato. 428-347 b.c. Greek philosopher; disciple of Socrates. 

Held that the human soul has always existed, and that an idea is an 
eternal thought of the divine mind. 

Pleasonton, Alfred. 1824-.... American general. 

Pliny. The Elder. 23-79. Roman naturalist; perished at 

an eruption of Vesuvius. Natural History. 

Pliny. The Younger. 62?-ii 6. Roman orator and author. 

Plotinus. 205-270. Greek Neo-Platonic philosopher. 

Plunkett, William Conyngham, Lord. 1764-1854. Irish 

jurist. 

Plutarch. 50?-i20? Greek biographer and philosopher. 

Parallel Lives. 

Pocahontas. 15957-1617. Daughter of Powhatan. Saved 
the life of Capt. John Smith, an English explorer; was converted to 
Christianity, and married an English gentleman named Rolfe. 

Poe, Edgar Allan. 1809-1849. American author; extremely 
dissipated. The Raven; The Fall 0/ the House 0/ Usher; Tales of 
the Grotesque and Arabesque. 

Polk, James Knox. 1795-1849. American statesman; 
eleventh president. Born in North Carolina; removed to Tennessee ; 
admitted to the bar; Congress, 1825 ; speaker for two terms ; governor 
of Tennessee, 1839-41 ; elected president on the Democratic ticket, 
holding that office from 1845-9. During his term Texas was formally 
annexed to the Union, and the Mexican war prosecuted. 

Polk, Leonidas. 1806-1864. Episcopal bishop and Confed¬ 

erate general; prominent at Shiloh and Stone River. 

Pollok, Robert. 17987-1827. Scot. poet. Course of Time. 

Polo, Marco. 12527-1324? Venetian traveller. 

Polybius. 2067-124 B.c. Greek historian. 

Polycarp, Saint. 807-169? Bishop of Smyrna; martyr. 

Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Poisson, Marquise de. 1721- 
1764. Mistress of Louis XV. of France ; assumed complete control 
of public affairs. 

Pompey. The Great. 106-48 B.c. Roman general and 
triumvir; conquered Suetonius and Mithridates ; became leader of the 
aristocracy and opponent of Cxsar; defeated at Pharsalia. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan. 1460-1521. Spanish discoverer of 

Florida. 

Poniatowski, Jozef Antoni, Prince. 1762-1813. Polish com¬ 

mander; created field-marshal by Napoleon. 

Pontiac. 17127-1769. Chief of the Ottawas ; formed coali¬ 

tion of Indians against the whites, and attempted to capture Detroit. 

Pope, Alexander. 1688-1744. English poet. The son of a 
linen-draper; educated by a Catholic priest. Macaulay calls him “ a 
great master of invective and sarcasm.” Messiah; Pastorals ; Essay 
on Man ; Essay on Criticism ; The Dunciad; Rape of the Lock, and 
translations of Homer. 

Porter, David. 17S0-1843. American commodore. 

Porter, David Dixon. 1813-_ Son of preceding. Am¬ 

erican admiral; reduced Fort Fisher, 1865. 

Porter, Fitz John. 1823-_ Nephew of David Porter. 

American general. 

Porter, Jane. 1776-1850. Eng. novelist. Thaddeus of Warsaw. 

Poussin, Nicholas. 1594-1665. French painter. 

Powers, Hiram. 1805-1873. American sculptor. 

Powhatan. 15507-1618. Indian chieftain in Virginia. 

















































A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


220 


Praxiteles. FI. 360 B.c. Greek sculptor. 

Preble, Edward. 1761-1807. American naval officer. 
Prentice, George Denison. 1802-1870. American poet and 

journalist. 

Prentiss, Sergeant Smith. 1808-1850. American orator and 

lawyer. 

Prescott, William Hickling. 1796-1859. American historian. 
Ferdinand and Isabella. 

Price, Sterling.1867. Confederate general. 

Prim, Juan, Count de Reus and Marquis de los Castillejos. 

1814-1870. Spanish general and statesman; assassinated. 

Prior, Matthew. 1664-1721. English poet and diplomatist. 
Probus, Marcus Aurelius. 232—282. Roman emperor. 
Procter, Adelaide Anne. 1825-1864. .English poetess. 
Procter, Bryan Waller. Barry Cornwall. 1790-1874. Eng¬ 
lish poet. The Sea. 

Prout, Father. (Francis Mahony.) 1805-1866. Irish journal¬ 
ist and writer. 

Prynne, William. 1600-1669. English Puritan writer. 
Ptolemy I. Sober. 3977-283 B.c. Fing of Egypt. II., 

Philadelphia , 309-247 b.c. 

Ptolemy. (Claudius Ptolemseus.) FI. 2d century. Greek 
astronomer and geographer. Believed the earth to be at rest in the cen¬ 
tre of the universe, the heavenly bodies moving around it. 

Pugin, Augustus N. W. 1811-1852. English architect. 
Pulaski, Casimir, Count. 1747-1779. Polish patriot; general 
in the American Revolutionary army. Fell at the siege of Savannah. 
Putnam, Israel. 1718-1790. American Revolutionary general. 

Conspicuous at the battle of Bunker Hill. 

Pym, John. 1584-1643. English republican statesman and 
orator; popular leader in Parliament. 

Pyrrho. 3607-270 ? b.c. Greek skeptic and philosopher. 
Pyrrhus. 3187-272 b.c. King of Epirus and one of the 
greatest of ancient generals. Defeated the Romans and conquered 
Macedonia. 

Pythagoras. 6007-510? B.c. Greek philosopher. Taught 
the doctrine of transmigration of souls. 

UACKENBOS, George Payn. 1826-.... American 

educationist. 

Quarles, Francis. 1592-1644. English poet. Emblems. 
Queensberry, William Douglas, Duke of. 1724-1810. Scot¬ 
tish profligate. 

Quin, James. 1693-1766. English actor, famous as Falstaff. 
Quincy, Josiah. 1744-1775. American orator and patriot. 
Quincy, Josiah. 1772-1864. Son of preceding. American 

statesman and scholar. 

Quintilianus, Marcus Fabius. 5o7-ii8? Roman rhetorician. 
ABELAIS, Frangois. 1495 553 - French scholar and 

satirist. Joined the Franciscans, but left the order; afterward 
studied medicine. His great work, The Pleasant Story of the Giant 
Gargantua and his Son Pantagruel, is a satire upon the different 
branches of society of his age, more particularly the monastic orders. 

Rachel. (Elizabeth Rachel Felix.) 1821-1858. French 
actress, born in Switzerland ; daughter of a Jewish peddler. 

Racine, Jean. 1639-1699. French dramatist. Les Plai- 
deurs ; Britannicus ; Berenice ; Bajazet ; Iphigenie ; Phedre ; 
Esther ; Athalie. 

Racine, Louis. 1692-1763. French poet. Son of J. R. 
Radcliffe, Ann. 1764-1823. English novelist. 

Radcliffe, John. 1650-1714. English physician. 


Raglan, James Henry Fitzroy Somerset, Lord. 1788-1855. 

English general. Commanded British army in Crimean war. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter. 1552-1618. English courtier, states¬ 
man, navigator and author. A favorite of Queen Elizabeth; executed 
by James I. 

Rameau, Jean Philippe. 1683-1764. French composer. 
Ramsay, Allan. 1685-1758. Scottish poet. 

Ramsay, David. 1749-1815. American historical writer. 
Randolph, John (of Roanoke). 1773-1833. American poli¬ 
tician and orator. Entered Congress 1799; advocated extension of 
slavery; opposed Missouri Compromise; Senate, 1824; soon after fought 
a duel with Henry Clay ; minister to Russia, 1830. 

Randolph, Peyton. 1723-1775. President of first American 
Congress. 

Raphael. (Raffaelle Sanzio, or Santi d’ Urbino.) 1348-1520. 

Italian painter. Sistine Madonna ; Adoration of the Magi; Marriage 
of the Virgin ; Transfiguration , etc. 

Ravaillac, Frangois. 1578-1610. French fanatic ; assassin of 
Henry IV. 

Read, Thomas Buchanan. 1822-1872. American poet and 

artist. The House by the Sea ; The Wagoner of the Alleghanies. 
Reade, Charles. 1814-...-. English novelist. Peg Woffing¬ 
ton; Hard Cash; White Lies ; A Terrible Temptation ; Griffith 
Gaunt. 

Reaumur, Rene Antoine Ferchault de. 1683-1757. French 

naturalist and inventor of a thermometer. 

Recamier, Jeanne F. J. A. B. 1777-1849. French lady noted 

for beauty and accomplishments. 

Red Jacket. 1760-1830. Eloquent Seneca Indian chief. 
Reeves, Sims. 1821-.... English oratorio singer. 

Regulus, Marcus Atilius.-250 B.c. Roman general and 

statesman. Captured by the Carthaginians and sent to Rome to secure 
peace, but advised against it; returning to Carthage as he had 
promised, he was tortured and put to death. 

Reid, Capt. Mayne. 1818-1883. Irish-American novelist. 
Rembrandt van Ryn, Paul. 1607-1669. Dutch painter. 
Remusat, Charles Frangois Marie, Count. 1797-1875. French 

statesman and philosopher. Essays on Philosophy. 

Renan, Joseph Ernest. 1823-.... French philologist and 

writer. Life of Jesus. 

Retz, Jean Frangois Paul de Gondi, Cardinal. 1614-1679. 

French prelate; a leader of the Frondeurs. Memoirs. 

Reuter, Fritz. 1810-1874. Low-German poet and novelist. 
Reuter, Julius. 1815-.... German originator of Reuter’s 
Telegraphic Agency. 

Revere, Paul. 1735-1818. American engraver andRevolu- 
tionary patriot. Carried the news of Gage’s impending attack to 
Concord. 

Reynolds, John Fulton. 1820-1863. American general. 
Reynolds, Sir Joshua. 1723-1792. English painter. 
Ricardo, David. 1772-1823. English political economist. 
Richard I. Coeur de Lion. 1157-1199. King of England. 

Led a large army into Palestine, where he exhibited great personal 
prowess ; conquered Acre and defeated Saladin. II., 1366-1400. III., 
1452-1485, last of the Plantagenets. 

Richardson, Samuel. 1689-1761. English novelist. 
Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal. 1585-1642. 
French prelate and statesman. Made cardinal, 1622; prime minister, 
1624 ; curbed the nobility ; subdued the Calvinists ; restored balance of 
power in Europe; granted religious toleration to the Protestants; 
secured exile of his foe, Marie de Medici, the king’s mother, 1630 ; 
aided German Protestants against Austria; founded French Academy 
(1635); added Alsace, Lorraine, and Roussillon to France. 





















A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


221 


\ 


Richter, Johann Paul Friedrich. Jean Paul. 1763-1825. 

German author. Among his works, which are distinguished for quaint¬ 
ness and originality, may be named Greenland Lawsuits ; Hesperus ; 
The Invisible Lodge ; Parson in Jubilee ; Titan. 

Ridley, Nicholas. I500?-I555. English bishop and reformer. 
Burned at the stake. 

Rienzi, Nicola Gabrini. 1 3 1 3 ?—13 54 - Roman orator; made 
famous by his attempt to restore the Roman Republic. 

Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Earl de Grey and 
Marquis of. 1827-.... English statesman. 

Ristori, Adelaide, Marchioness del Grillo. 1821-.... Italian 

actress. 

Rittenhouse, David. 1732-1796. American astronomer. 
Riviere, Briton. 1840-.... English animal painter. 

Rizzio, David. 1540-1566. Italian musician; favorite and 
secretary of Mary Stuart; assassinated. 

Robert. Robert the Devil. ....-1035. Duke of Normandy; 
father of William the Conqueror. 

Robert I. Robert Bruce. 1274-1329. King of Scotland. 

II., 1316-1390; first of the Stuarts. 

Robert, Louis Leopold. 1794-1835. French painter. 
Robertson, Frederick William. 1816-1853. Eng. divine. 
Robespierre, Maximilien Joseph Marie Isidore. 1758-1794. 
French Jacobin revolutionist; ruler during the Reign of Terror; guil¬ 
lotined. 

Robin Hood. FI. 12th century. English outlaw. 

Rob Roy. (Robert McGregor.) 16607-1735? Scottish 

freebooter. 

Rochambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur de, Count. 

1725-1807. French marshal; general in America in 1781. 

Rochefort, Victor Henri de Rochefort-Lugay, Comte. 1830- 

.... French editor and communist. 

Rochefoucauld, Frangois, Due de la. 1613-1680. French 
wit and author. Maxims. 

Rochejaquelin, Henri de la, Comte. 1772-1794. French 

royalist; leader of the Vendeans. 

Rodney, George Bridges, Lord. 1718-1792. Brit, admiral. 
Roebling, John Augustus. 1806-1869. American engineer. 
Rogers, John. 1829-.... American sculptor. 

Rogers, John. 15007-1555. English divine; burned at 
Smithfield. 

Rogers, Samuel. 1763-1855. English poet. 

Roland, Marie Jeanne Philipon, Mme. 1754-1793. French 

Girondist and writer ; guillotined. Memoirs. 

Rollin, Charles. 1661-1741. Fr. historian. Ancient History. 
Rollo, or Hrolf. 8607-930? Norwegian viking. First duke 
of Normandy. 

Romanoff, Michael Feodorovitch. 15987-1645. Founder of 

the Russian dynasty. 

Romulus. FI. 750 b.c. Founder of Rome. 

Romilly, Sir Samuel. 1757-1818. English statesman. 
Rooke, Sir George. 1650-1709. British admiral. 

Rosa, Salvator. 1615-1673. Italian painter. 

Roscius, Quintus. 61 B.c.Roman actor. 

Rosecrans, William Starke. 1817-.... Am. general. 

Ross, Sir John. 1777-1856. British admiral and Arctic 

navigator. 

Ross, Sir James Clark. 1800-1862. Nephew of preceding. 

British Arctic navigator. 

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. 1828-1882. English painter and 
poet. House 0/ Life. 


Rossini, Gioacchimo. 1792-1868. Italian composer. Will¬ 
iam Tell; The Barber of Seville. 

Rothschild, Mayer Anselm. 1743-1812. Jewish banker at 
Frankfort; founder of the house of Rothschild. 

Rouget de l’Isle, Claude Joseph. 1760-1836. French poet 

and musician. Marseillaise. 

Rouher, Eugene. 1814-.... French politician. 

Rousseau, Jean Baptiste. 1670-1741. French lyric poet. 
Rousseau, Jean Jacques. 1712-1778. French philosopher 

and writer. Bom in Geneva; apprenticed to an engraver, but wan¬ 
dered about, and was successively a servant, a clerk, and a music 
teacher; went to Paris 1745, and met Diderot and Grimme; formed 
a connection with Therese le Vasseur, an ignorant woman, whom he 
afterward married. In 1760 appeared Julie, or The New Helo'ise; in 
1762, The Social Contract. His Emile, or Education, was burned at 
Geneva, and he was compelled to take refuge in England. His Con¬ 
fessions are an autobiography. 

Rubens, Peter Paul. 1587-1640. Flemish painter. 
Rubinstein, Anton. 1830-.... Rus. composer and pianist. 
Ruckert, Friedrich. 1789-1866. Ger. orientalist and poet. 
Rudolph I. (of Hapsburg). 1218-1291. Emperor of Ger¬ 
many. Founder of the Austrian empire. II., 1552-1612. 

Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, Count. 1753-1814. Am¬ 
erican natural philosopher in France. 

Rupert, Prince. (Prince Robert of Bavaria.) 1619-1682. 
German warrior. 

Ruskin, John. 1819-.... English writer on art. 

Russell, John, Earl. 1792-1878. English statesman. 
Russell, William, Lord. 1639-1683. English patriot. Be¬ 
headed on a charge of complicity in the “ Rye House Plot.” 
Rutledge, John. 1739-1800. American statesman and jurist. 
Ruyter, Michael Adrianzoon de. 1607-1675. Dutch admiral. 

ACKVILLE, George, Viscount. Lord George Germain. 
1716-1785. English statesman and general. 

Sadlier, Mary Anne, Mrs. 1820-_ Am. authoress. 

Saint Clair, Arthur. 1734-1818. American general. 

Sainte- Beuve, Charles Augustin. 1804-1869. French poet 
and critic. 

Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri Bernardin de. 1737-1814. Fr. 
author. Paul et Virginie. 

Saint Simon, Claude Plenri de, Count. 1760-1825. French 

socialist. 

Sala, George Augustus Henri. 1828-.... Eng. litterateur. 
Saladin. 1137-1193. Sultan of Egypt and Syria. Opposed 
the Crusaders. Defeated the Christians at Tiberias. 

Sale, George. 1680-1736. English orientalist. 

Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne Cecil, Marquis of. 
1830-.... English statesman. 

Sallust. (Caius Sallustius Crispus.) 86-34B.C. Rom.historian. 
Saltonstall, Sir Richard. 1586-1658? Puritan in Massachu¬ 
setts colony. 

Salvini, Tommaso. 1833-_ Italian actor. 

Samuel. 1170-1060 B.c. Last of the Israelite judges. 

Sand, George. See Dudevant. 

Sandeau, Leonard Sylvain Jules. 1811-1883. Fr. novelist. 
Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de. 1798-1876. Mexican gen¬ 
eral and statesman 

Sappho. FI. 600 B.c. Greek lyric poetess. 

Sardanapalus. FI. 900 B.c. King of Assyria. 

Sardou, Victorien. 1831-.... French dramatist. 

























222 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Saul . - io 55 b.c. First king of Israel. 

Savage, Richard. 1698-1743. Eng. poet. The Wanderer. 
Savonarola, Girolamo. 1452-1598. Italian religious re¬ 
former. 

Saxe, Hermann Maurice, Count of. 1696-1750. Marshal of 
France; native of Saxony. Captured Prague 1741. 

Saxe, John Godfrey. 1816-.... American humorous poet. 
Scanderbeg, George Castriota. i4io?-i467- Albanian chief. 
Defeated the Turks. 

Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von. 1775-1854. Ger¬ 
man philosopher. 

Schenck, Robert Cumming. 1809-.Am. statesman. 

Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von. 1759-1805. The 
most popular of German poets. Studied medicine and law, but 
couid not resist his inclination toward literature. His drama. The Robbers, 
appeared in 1777; Thirty Years’ War, 1791 ; Wallenstein, the work 
of many years, 1799. The Maid of Orleans, Mary Stuart and Will¬ 
iam Tell are among his best known dramas, and The Song of the 
Bell is considered the best of his minor poems. Schiller removed to 
Weimar in 1799, and there enjoyed the friendship of Goethe. 

Schlegel, August Wilhelm von. 1767-1845. German poet, 

critic and philologist. Lectures on Dramatic Literature. 

Schlegel, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von. Brother of preceding. 
1772-1829. German philosopher and scholar. Lectures on the Philoso¬ 
phy of History. 

Schliemann, Heinrich. 1822-.... German traveller. 
Schoeffer, Peter. 1430-1500. One of the inventors of print¬ 
ing ; partner of Johann Faust. 

Schofield, John McAllister. 1831-.... American general. 
Schomberg, Friedrich A. H., Duke of. 1616 7-1690. Protes¬ 
tant general. Born at Heidelberg; served in Swedish army during the 
Thirty Years’ war ; afterward marshal of France ; entered the service of 
the Prince of Orange, and fell at the battle of the Boyne. 

Schopenhauer, Arthur. 1788-1860. German pessimist 
philosopher. The World as Will. 

Schott, Andreas. 1552-1629. Dutch Jesuit scholar. 
Schubert, Franz. 1797-1828. German composer. 
Schumann, Robert. 1810-1856. German composer. 

Schurz, Carl. 1829-. ... German-American statesman. 
Schuvaloff, Peter, Count. 1828-. ... Russian diplomatist. 
Schuyler, Philip. 1733-1804. Am. general and patriot. 
Schwanthaler, Ludwig Michael. 1802-1848. Ger. sculptor. 
Schwarz, Berthold. FI. 14th century. German monk and 
alchemist : reputed inventor of gunpowder. 

SchWeinfurth, Georg August. 1836-. ... Ger. traveller. 
Scipio Africanus Major, Publius Cornelius. 235 B.C.-184? 

Roman general; invaded Africa and defeated Hannibal. 

Scipio ./Emilianus Africanus Minor, Publius Cornelius. 
185 ?-i2p b.c. Roman general; captured and destroyed Carthage. 

Scott, Sir Walter. 1771-1832. Scottish novelist and poet. 
Scott, Winfield. 1786-1866. American general. 

Sebastian, Saint. 2557-288. Roman soldier and martyr. 
Sebastian, Dom. 1554-1578. King of Portugal and warrior; 

invaded Morocco, but was defeated and slain. 

Secchi, Pietro Angelo. 1818-1878. Italian astronomer. 
Sedgwick, Catherine Maria. Daughter of T. S. S. 1789-1867. 

American authoress. 

Sedgwick, John. 1813-1864. American general. 

Sedgwick, Theodore. 1746-1813. American jurist. 

Selden, John. 1584-1654. English statesman. 


Selkirk, Alexander. 1676?-* 723. Scottish sailor whose ad¬ 
ventures suggested the story of Robinson Crusoe. 

Semiramis. FI. 1250 B.c. Assyrian queen. Built Babylon, 

and greatly increased her dominions ; invaded India, but was defeated. 

Semmes, Raphael. 1809-1877. Confederate naval officer. 
Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. 5 7-65. Roman statesman, moralist 
and Stoic philosopher. 

Sennacherib. FI. 700 b.c. Assyrian king. 

Sergius I. Pope from 687-701. II., 844-847. III., 904- 

913. IV., 1009-1012. 

Servetus, Michael. 1509-1553. Spanish theologian. Burned 

at the stake. On the Errors of the Trinity. 

Sesostris. (Rameses.) FI. 1400 b.c. King of Egypt. 

Severus, Alexander. 205-235. Roman emperor. 

Severus, Lucius Septimius. 146-211. Roman emperor. 
Sevigne, Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marquise de. 1627-1696. 

French lady celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments. 

Seward, William Henry. 1801-1872. American statesman. 
Secretary of state 1861-9. 

Seymour, Horatio. 1811-.... American statesman. Elected 
governor of New York 1852, and re-elected 1862; opposed the adminis¬ 
tration’s war policy , Democratic nominee for the presidency in i 863 . 

Sforza, Ludovico. II Moro. 1451-1510. Italian general. 
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, first Earl of. 1621- 

1683. English statesman. 

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, third Earl of. 1671- 
1713. English philanthropist, author and freethinker. 

Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, seventh Earl of. 1801- 
.... English philanthropist. 

Shakspere, Shakspeare, or Shakespeare, William. 1564- 

1616. The greatest English dramatist. Born at Stratford-on-Avon; 
married Anne Hathaway 1582 ; went to London about 1586 and became 
an actor and playwright; acquired a competence and retired to his native 
town about 1610. Venus and Adonis and Ttie Rape of Lucrece, the 
only works published under his own hand, appeared 1593-4. The first 
edition of his collected works appeared in 1623. Hamlet; Lear ; Mac¬ 
beth; Othello: The Tempest; Midsummer Night’s Dream, etc., etc. 

Shaw, Henry W. Josh Bi/lings. 1818-.... Am. humorist. 
Sheil, Richard Lalor. 1793-1851. Irish orator. 

Shelley, Percy Bysshe. 1792-1822. English poet. Expelled 

from Oxford, at the age of sixteen, for writing a treatise on the necessity 
of.atheism; married the daughter of a retired innkeeper against his 
father’s will ; became reconciled to his father, and eloped with Miss 
Westbrook, whom he married at Gretna Green; separated from her by 
mutual consent, and, hearing of his first wife’s suicide, married Mary 
Godwin, with whom he was travelling on the continent ; demanded at 
law the custody of the two children by his first marriage, but the guard¬ 
ianship was granted to their maternal grandfather, on the ground of the 
father’s atheism; removed to Italy, where he was accidentally drowned. 
Adonais ; The Cenci; Pro 7 netheus ; Revolt of Islam ; A last or ; The 
Witch of Atlas. The Cloud. Ode to the Skylark and The Sensitive 
Plant are among the most exquisite of his shorter poems. 

Sheppard, Jack.-1724. English burglar; hanged. 

Sheridan, Philip Henry. 1831-.... American general. 
Victorious at Winchester, Cedar Creek and Five Forks. Made lieuten¬ 
ant-general of the U. S. army 1869, and promoted to the chief command 
on the retirement of General Sherman, 1883. 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley. 1751-1816. Irish orator and 
dramatist. The Rivals; The School for Scandal; The Duenna. 
Sherman, John. 1823-.... American statesman. Secretary 
of the treasury, 1877-81 ; resumed specie payments. 

Sherman, Roger. 1721-1793. American statesman. 

^ 


<* 


c) 




























A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


22 3 


Sherman, William Tecumseh. 1820-.. .. Brother of John 

Sherman. American general. Made the celebrated “ March to the 
Sea.” Became general of the army in 1869, retiring in 1883. 

Sickingen, Franz von. 1481-1523. German Protestant 
general. 

Siddons, Sarah (nee Kemble). 1755-1831. English actress. 
Sidney, Algernon. 1622-1683. English republican; exe¬ 
cuted on false charge of complicity in “ Rye House Plot.” 

Sidney, Sir Philip. 1554-1586. English soldier and poet. 
Siemens, Ernst Werner. 1816-.... German inventor. 
Siemens, Charles William. 1823-.... Brother of preced¬ 
ing. German inventor. 

Sigismund. 1368-1437. German emperor and king of 

Hungary. 

Sigismund I. 1466—1548. King of Poland. II., 1518-1572. 
Sigourney, Mrs. Lydia Howard Huntley. 1791-1865. Am¬ 
erican poetess. Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse. 

Silliman, Benjamin. 1779-1864. American naturalist. 
Simeon Stylites. 3907-459. Syrian ascetic; lived for forty- 

six years on the tops of pillars. 

Simms, William Gilmore. 1806-1870. American author. 
Simon, Jules. 1814-.... French statesman. 

Sixtus I. Pope from H7to 128. II., 257-258; martyr. III., 

431-440. IV., 1471-1484. V. (Felice Peretti), 1585-1590. 

Skobeleff, Michael. 1843-1882. Russian general. 

Slocum, Henry Wadsworth. 1827-._ American general. 

Smiles, Samuel. 1816-.... Scottish author. 

Smith, Adam. 1723-1790. Scottish political economist. 

An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. 

Smith, Gerrit. 1797-1874. American philanthropist. 

Smith, Horace (17807-1849) and James (1775-1839). English 

poets and humorists ; brothers. Rejected Addresses. 

Smith, John, Captain. 1579-1631. English explorer; found¬ 
er of Virginia. History of Virginia. 

Smith, Joseph. 1805-1844. Founder of the Mormon church. 
Smith, Seba. Maj. Jack Downing. 1792-1868. Am. author. 
Smith, Sydney. 1771-1845. English divine and essayist. 
Smollett, Tobias George. 1721—1771. Scottish novelist. 

Roderick Random; Peregrine Pickle; Expedition of Humphrey 
Clinker. 

Sobieski, John. 1629-1696. King of Poland and patriot. 

Defeated the Turks, and raised the siege of Vienna. 

Socrates. 470 7-399 B.c. Gr. philosopher; teacher of Plato. 
Soliman II. The Magnificent. 1494-1566. Sultan of Tur¬ 
key. Conquered Persia and part of Hungary. 

Solomon. The Wise. 1033-97573.0. King of Israel. 
Solon. 638-558? B.c. Athenian law-giver and poet. 
Somers, John, Baron. 1650-1716. Eng. jurist and statesman. 
Sontag, Henriette, Countess Rossi. 1806—1854- German 

vocalist. 

Sophocles. 495-405 B.c. Gr. tragic poet. CEdipus Tyrannus. 
Sothern, Edward Askew. 1830-1881. English comedian. 
Soult, Nicholas Jean de Dieu. 1769-1851. French marshal. 
Southey, Robert. 1774-1843. English poet-laureate. Thai- 

aba ; The Curse of Kehajna ; Roderick, etc. 

Southworth, Emma D. E. (Nevitt). 1818—.... American 

novelist. Retribution; The Curse of Clifford; The Pearl of Pearl 
River, etc. 

Sparks, Jared. 1789-1866. American historian. 


Spartacus.-71 B.c. Thracian gladiator in Rome; in¬ 

augurated Servile war. 

Speke, John Hanning. 1827-1864. English explorer in Africa. 
Spencer, Herbert. 1820-.... English philosopher. Sociology. 
Spenser, Edmund. 1553 - 1599 - English poet. The Faerie 

Queen ; The Shephearde's Calendar. 

Spinola, Ambrosio, Marquis de. 1569-1630. Spanish general. 
Spinoza, Benedict. 1632-1677. Dutch philosopher and pan¬ 
theist. Ethics Demonstrated by Geometrical Method. 

Spurgeon, Charles Haddon. 1834-.... English pulpit-orator. 
Spurzheim, Johann Caspar. 1776-1832. German phrenologist. 
Stael-Holstein, Anne Louise Germaine Necker de, Baronne. 
Mine, de Stael. 1766-1817. French authoress, and a lady of remark¬ 
able genius. Corinne. 

Standish, Miles. 1584-1656. Captain of Plymouth Colony. 
Stanhope, Philip Henry, Earl of. 1805-1875. Eng. historian. 
Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn. Dean Stanley. 1815—1881. Eng¬ 
lish divine and author; dean of Westminster Abbey. 

Stanley, Henry M. (John Rowlands.) 1840-.... Ameri¬ 
can explorer in Africa; born in Wales. 

Stanton, Edwin McMasters. 1814-1869. American states¬ 
man ; secretary of war in President Lincoln’s cabinet. 

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady. 1816-.... American “Woman’s 

rights ” advocate. 

Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Ernst Rudiger, Count. 
1635-1701. Austrian general. 

Starhemberg (or Stahremberg), Guido Baldi, Count. 
1657-1737. Austrian general. 

Stark, John. 1728-1822. American Revolutionary general. 
Stedman, Edmund Clarence. 1833-. • • • American poet. 
Steele, Sir Richard. 1671-1729. British essayist and drama¬ 
tist. The Funeral; The Tender Husband; The Conscious Lovers; 
Essays in The Tatler, The Spectator and The Guardian. 

Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl von, Baron. 1757-1831. Prus¬ 
sian statesman. 

Stephen, Saint. Stoned 36? First Christian martyr. 

Stephen I. Pope, 253-257. II., 752. III., 752-757. IV., 

768-772. V., 816. VI., 885-891. VII., 896-897. VIII., 928-930. IX., 
939 - 942 - X., 1057-1058. 

Stephen I. (Saint.) 979-1038. King of Hungary. 
Stephen. 1105-1154. King of England. 

Stephens, Alexander Hamilton. 1812-1883. American 

statesman. Born in Georgia ; admitted to the bar, 1835 ; Congress, 1843; 
vice-president of the Confederate States ; elected to the U. S. Senate 
from Georgia, but not permitted to take his seat; member of the House 
of Representatives, however, from 1874 until his death. History of the 
War between the States; A Constitutional View of the Late War 
between the States. 

Stephenson, George. 1781-1848. English engineer; inventor 
of the locomotive engine. 

Stephenson, Robert. 1803-1859. Son of preceding. Eng¬ 
lish engineer; inventor of the tubular bridge. 

Sterling, John. 1806-1844. British essayist. 

Sterne, Laurence, Rev. 1713-1768. Irish humorous writer. 

Tristram Shandy ; The Sentimental Journey. 

Steuben, Frederick William Augustus von, Baron. 1730- 

1794. German American general in the Revolutionary war. 

Stevens, Thaddeus. 1793-1868. American abolitionist. 
Stewart, Alexander Turney. 1802-1876. Am. merchant. 
Stewart, Balfour. 1828-.... Scottish physicist. 

Stoddard, Richard Henry. 1825-.... American poet. 






























I 


o 


9 


\ 


3 


224 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Story, Joseph. 1779-1845. American jurist. 

Story, William Wetmore. 1819-.... American sculptor. 
Stowe, Mrs. Harriet Elizabeth Beecher. 1812-.... Ameri¬ 
can authoress. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 

Strabo. 54 B.C.-24 a.d. Greek geographer. 

Stradella, Alessandro. 1645-1678. Italian composer. 
Stradivari, Antonio. 1670-1735. Italian violin-maker. 
Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of. 1593-1641. English 

statesman ; beheaded. 

Strauss, Johann. 1804-1849. Ger. composer of dance music. 
Strauss, Johann. 1825-.... Son of preceding. German 

composer. 

Strickland, Agnes. 1806-1874. English authoress. 

Stuart, Gilbert C. 1756-1828. American portrait painter. 
Stuyvesant, Peter. 1602-1682. Last Dutch governor of 
New Netherland (New York). 

Sue, Marie Joseph Eugene. 1804-1857. French novelist. 
Sulla (or Sylla), Lucius Cornelius. 138-78 B.c. Roman 

statesman and general. 

Sullivan, Arthur. 1844-.... English composer. Pinafore, 
Patience, etc. See also Gilbert. 

Sumner, Charles. 1811-1874. American statesman, lawyer 
and abolitionist. True Grandeur of Nations. 

Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of. 1516?-!547. English poet. 
Suwarow, Alexander Vasilievitch. 1729-1874. Rus. general. 
Swedenborg, Emanuel. 1688-1772. Swedish theosophist. 

In his theosophy, the central point is the correspondence of the natural 
and the supernatural. The True Christian Religion ; The Mysteries 
of Heaven. 

Swift, Jonathan. 1667-1745. Irish divine and satirist. Gulli¬ 
ver's Travels; Tale of a Tub. 

Swinburne, Algernon Charles. 1837-._ English poet. 

Sylvester I. (Saint.) Pope, 314-335. II., 999-1003. III. 

(Anti-pope), 1013. 

VrVACITUS, Caius Cornelius. 55? after 117? Roman his- 

(-L, torian. Germania. 

Taglioni, Marie, Countess des Voisins. 1804-1873. Swedish 

opera dancer. 

Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe. 1828-.... French author. 
Talbot, William Henry Fox. 1S00-1877. English author 

and discoverer of photography. 

Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon. 1795-1854. Eng. author. Ion. 
Talleyrand-Perigord, Charles Maurice de, Prince of Bene- 
vento. 1754-1838. French diplomatist. 

Talmage, Thomas Dewitt. 1832-.... Am. clergyman. 
Tamerlane (or Timour). 1336-1405. Asiatic conqueror. 
Tancred. 1078-1112. Norman leader in the first crusade. 
Taney, Roger Brooke. 1777-1864. American jurist. 
Tannahill, Robert. 1774-1810. Scottish poet. 

Tarquinius Superbus. (Lucius Tarquinius.) ... .-495? b.c. 

Last king of Rome. 

Tasman, Abel Janssen. i6oo?-i645. Dutch navigator. 
Tasso, Torquato. 1544-1595. Italian poet. Jerusalem De¬ 
livered. 

Taylor, Bayard. 1825-1878. American traveller, novelist, 
poet and journalist; minister to Germany ; translated Goethe’s Faust. 
Among his works are Views Afoot, or Europe seen with Knapsack 
and Staff; Travels ; Poems of the Orient; Book of Romances ; Lyrics 
and Songs, and several novels. 

Taylor, Jeremy. 1613-1667. English bishop and author. 


Taylor, Thomas. ThePlatonist. 1758-1835. Eng. scholar. 

Taylor, Tom. 1817-. ... English dramatist. 

Taylor, Zachary. 1784-1850. American general and states¬ 
man; twelfth president. Born in Virginia; entered the army in 1808/ 
served in Seminole and Black Hawk wars; major-general in Mexican 
war, and won the battles of Resaca de la Palma and Buena Vista. 
Elected president by the Whigs in 1848. 

Tecumseh. 1770-1813. Chief of the Shawnee Indians; 
formed alliance of Western Indians, and was defeated by Harrison at 
Tippecanoe. 

Tell, Wilhelm. Flem. 1305. Legendary Swiss hero. 

Teniers, David. The Younger. 1610-1690. Flem. painter. 

Tennyson, Alfred. 1809-. ... English poet-laureate. hi 

Memoriam ; Enoch Arden ; The Princess ; The Idylls of the King ■ 
Locksley Hall; The Lotus Eaters ; The Holy Grail ; Harold, etc. 

Terence. (P. Terentius Afer.) I95?-i6o? b.c. Roman 
comic poet. 

Terpander. FI. 675 B.c. Greek musician. 

Terry, Alfred Howe. 1827- .... American general. 

Tertullian. 1507-230? Latin father of the church. 

Tetzel, Johann. 14607-1519. German monk; vender of in¬ 
dulgences. 

Thackeray, William Makepeace. 1811-1863. English novel¬ 
ist. Born in Calcutta. Henry Esmond ; Vanity Fair ; The New- 
comes; Pendennis ; The Adventures of Philip; The Virginians; The 
Book of Snobs; The Four Georges; English Humorists. 

Thalberg, Sigismond. 1812-1871. Swiss pianist. 

Thales. 6357-546 B.c. Greek sage and philosopher. 

Themistocles. 5147-449? B.c. Athenian general and statesman. 

Theocritus. El. 275? Greek pastoral poet. 

... .-548. Empress of the East; wife of 


Theodora. 

Justinian. 

Theodore. 

Theodoric. 


i8iS?-i868 . King of Abyssinia. 

The Great. 455-526. King of the Ostrogoths. 
Theodosius, Flavius. The Great. 3467-395. Rom. emperor. 
Theophrastus. 3727-287? B.C. Gr. philosopher and moralist. 
Thierry, Jacques N. Augustin. 1795-1836. French historian. 
Thiers, Louis Adolphe. 1797-1877. French statesman and 
historian. History of the Consulate and Empire. 

Thomas, George H. 1816-1870. American federal general. 

Won the battles of Chickamauga and Nashville. 

Thomson, James. 1700-1748. Scotch poet. The Seasons ; 

The Castle of Indolence ; Tancred and Sigismunda. 

Thoreau, Henry D. 1817-1862. American author. The 
Concord and Merrimac Rivers ; The Maine lVoods. 
Thorwaldsen, Albert D. 1770-1844. Danish sculptor. 
Thucydides. 470-400 B.c. Greek historian. 

Tiberius. 42 B.C.-37 a.d. Roman emperor. 

Tilden, Samuel Jones. 1814-.... American statesman. 

Governor of New York ; Democratic candidate for presidency, 1876. 
Tilly, Johann Tzerklas von, Count. 1559-1632. German 

general in Thirty Years’ war ; fell at the battle of the Lech. 
Timoleon. 395—337 B.C. Corinthian general. 

Tindal, Matthew. 16577-1733. English theological writer. 
Tintoretto, II. (Giacomo Robusti.) 1512-1594. It. painter. 
Titian. (Tiziano Vecellio.) 1477-1576. The greatest of 
Venetian painters. Assumption of the Virgin; Peter Martyr; The 
Last Supper; Bacchus and Ariadne; Homage of Frederick Bar- 
barossa to the Pope, etc. 

Titiens (or Titjens), Therese. 1834-1877. German vocalist. 


G 




(S’ 


o 

























A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


225 


_© 

7f 


Titus. 40-81. Roman emperor. 

Tobin, John. 1770-1804. Eng. dramatist. The Honeymoon. 
Tocqueville, Alexis Charles Henri Clerel de. 1805-1859. 

French statesman ; author of Democracy in America. 

Todleben, Franz Eduard. 1818-.... Russian general. 
Tone, Theobald Wolfe. 1763-1798. Irish patriot; founder 
of the United Irishman. 

Tooke, John Horne. 1736-1812. English philologist and 

radical. Having said that certain Americans had been “ murdered ” at 
the battle of Lexington, he was sentenced to one year's imprisonment 
and a heavy fine ; subsequently tried for treason, but acquitted. 

Torquemada, Tomas de. 1420-1498. Spanish Dominican 

monk; inquisitor-general. 

Torricelli, Evangelista. 1608-1647. Italian physicist. 
Toussaint l’Ouverture, Franpois Dominique. 1743-1803. 

Negro leader of the Haytien rebellion. 

Trajan. 52-117. Roman emperor. 

Trollope, Anthony. 1S15-18S3. English novelist. 

Tromp, Marten Harpertzoon van. 1597-1653. Dutch admiral. 
Tromp, Cornells van. 1629-1691. Dutch admiral. 
Trumbull, John. 1750-1831. American poet and satirist. 
Trumbull, John. 1756-1843. American painter. 

Trumbull, Jonathan. 1740-1809. American statesman. 
Tupper, Martin Farquhar. 1810-.... Eng. poet and author. 
Turenne, Henri de la Tour d’Auvergne, Vicomte de. 1611- 
1675. French general. Defeated Conde and the Spaniards in 1659 ; in¬ 
vaded Holland in 1672 ; killed at Salzbach. 

Turgenef, Ivan Sergyevich. 1818-1883. Russian novelist. 
Turner, Joseph Mallord William. 1775—. • •. English land¬ 
scape painter. The son of a barber. The Battle of the Nile ; The Sun 
Rising through Vapor; The Fall of Schaffhausen. 

Turpin, Dick. 1711-1739. English highwayman. 

Tweed, William Marcy. Boss Tweed. 1823-1878. American 
politician and embezzler; mayor of New York city. 

Tyler, John. 1790-1862. Tenth president of the United 

States. Born in Va.; practiced law; Congress, 1816-21; governor of 
Virginia, 1825; senator, 1827; sympathized with the nullifiers and 
opposed Jackson ; resigned 1836 ; elected vice-president on Whig ticket, 
1840 ; succeeded Harrison in 1841. 

Tyler, Wat.-1381. English rebel; leader of rebellion 

against capitation tax. 

Tyndall, John. 1820-.... Irish scientist. 


y TDAL, Nicolas. 1506-1564. English dramatist and 
teacher. Author of the first English comedy. 

Uhland, Johann Ludwig. 1787-1862. German lyric poet. 
Ulloa, Antonio de. 1716-1795. Spanish mathematician and 
naval officer ; governor of Louisiana. 

Ulphilas. 313-383. The apostle of the Goths. Translated 


the Scriptures into Gothic. 

Ulpianus, Domitius.-228. Roman jurist. 

Unger, Johann Friedrich. 1750-1813. German printer and 


engraver. 

Urban I. Pope, ruling 223-230; martyr. II., 1088-1099; 

organized the first crusade. III., 1184-1187. IV., 1261-1264. V., 1362- 
1370. VI., 1378-1389. VII., 1500 ; died on the twelfth day of his pon¬ 
tificate. VIII., 1623-1644. 


Ure, Andrew. 1778-1857. Scottish chemist and physician. 
Urfe, Honore d’. 1567-1625. French romancist. 

Ussher, James. 1580-1656. Irish prelate and scholar. 
Utrecht Adriaan van. 1599-1651. Dutch painter. 


TTALENS, Flavius. 328P-378. Emperor of the East. 

■ ■ Brother of Valentinian I. Arian persecutor of orthodox Christians. 

Valentinianus I. (Flavius.) 321-375. Roman emperor. 

II. (Flavius), 371-392. III. (Placidius), 419-455. 

Valerian. (Publius Lucinius Valerianus.) __-268? Roman 

emperor. 

Van Buren, Martin. 1782-1862. Eighth president of the 
United States. Enrolled at the bar in New York in 1803, and elected to 
the state senate ; state attorney-general, 1815 ; leader of the “ Albany 
Regency”; U. S. Senator, 1821 ; governor, 1828; secretary of state, 
1829-31; vice-president, 1833-7; president, 1837-41. 

Vancouver, George. 1758?—!798. English navigator. 
Vanderbilt, Cornelius. 1794-1877. American capitalist. 
Vandyke (or Van Dyck), Sir Anthony. 1599-1641. Flemish 
painter. Resided in England for several years before his death, where 
he became the most popular artist of his time. Besides many portraits, 
including those of the celebrated artists of his time and several of Charles 
I., may be mentioned as among his best works, The Crucifixion; St. 
Augustine in Ecstacy , and The Erection of the Cross. 

Vane, Sir Henry. 1612-1662. English republican statesman. 
Convicted of treason and executed. 

Vanloo, Charles Andre. 1705-1765. French painter. 
Vanloo, Jean Baptiste. 1684-1745. French painter. 

Van Rensselaer, Stephen. ~The Palroon. 1764-1839. Am¬ 
erican statesman and landholder. 

Varus, Publius Quintilius. FI. 7. Roman general; governor 
of Germany ; defeated by Arminius. 

Vassar, Matthew. 1792-1868. Founder of Vassar College. 
Vauban, Sebastien le Prestre, Seigneur de. 1633-1707. 

French military engineer. 

Velasquez, Don Diego Rodriguez de Silva y. 1599-1660. 

Spanish painter. 

Velde, Willem van der. The Elder. 1610-1693. Dutch 
marine painter. 

Velde, Willem van der. The Younger. 1633-1707. Dutch 

marine painter. 

Vendome, Louis Joseph, Due de. 1654-1712. Fr. general. 
Verbceckhoven, Eugene Joseph. 1799-1881. Belgian painter. 
Verdi, Giuseppe. 1814-.... Italian composer. Ernani; 
La Traviata ; II Trovatore ; Aida. 


Vernet, Antoine Charles Horace. 1758-1836. Fr. painter. 
Vernon, Edward. 1684-1757. English admiral. 

Vespasianus, Titus Flavius. 9-79. Roman emperor. 

Vespucci, Amerigo. (Americus Vespucius.) 1451-1512. 

Italian navigator and astronomer, after whom America is named. 

Vestris, Gaetano Apolline. 1729-1808. Italian dancer. 

Victor, Claude Perrin, Duke of Belluno. 1764-1841. French 

marshal. 

Victor I. Pope, from 185 to 198. II., 1055-1057. III., 

1086-1087. IV. (Anti-pope), recognized by Frederick I. in 1159; 
died 1164. 

Victor Emmanuel I. 1759-1824. King of Sardinia. II., 

1820-1878; first king of Italy; restored Italian unity. 

Victoria. (Victoria Alexandrina.) 1819-.... Queen of 
Great Britain and empress of India. 

Vidocq, Eugene Francois. 1775-1850. French detective. 

Villars, Claude Louis Hector de, Due. 1653-1734. French 

general. 

Vincent de Paul, Saint. 1576-1660. French priest and re¬ 
former. Founded the Congregation of Missions and the Sisters of 
Charity. 

_x 

-5) 
































V 


226 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


Vinci, Leonardo da. 1452-1519. Italian painter. Last Sup¬ 
per ; Madonna ; Adoration of the Magi, etc. 

Virgil. (Publius Virgilius Maro.) 70-19 B.c. Latin poet. 
sEneid; Ecologues; Bucolics; Georgies. 

Volta, Alessandro. 1745-1827. It. inventor of the voltaic pile. 

Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de. 1694-1778. French 
author, poet, wit, dramatist, historian, philosopher and skeptic. 
The son of a notary ; imprisoned in the Bastile in 1716 on an unfounded 
suspicion of being the author of a libel on the Regent, and there pro¬ 
duced (Edipe and wrote part of the Henriade ; in England, 1726-9, 
passing much time in the society of Bolingbroke ; his drama of Za'ire 
appeared in 1730, and about the same time he finished his History of 
Charles XII. ; Alzire, 1736; Mahomet, 1741; Merope, 1743; passed 
the years 1750-3 with Frederick the Great; took up his residence (1755) 
at Ferney. The Age of Louis XIV.; Essay on the Manners of Na¬ 
tions ; Candide. 

Voorhees, Daniel W. 1827-.... American orator and states¬ 
man ; senator from Indiana. 

Vortigern.-485. King of the Britons. 

TaTADDINGTON, William Henry. 1826-.... French 

Ji J(L statesman and archaeologist. 

Wagner, Richard. 1813-1883. German composer, poet and 
critic. Rienzi; The Flying Dutchman; Tannhduser; Lohengrin: 
Gotterdammerung; Nibelungenlied; Rheingold, etc. 

Waite, Morrison Remich. 1816-.. .. American chief justice. 

Waldemar I. The Great. 1131-1181. King of Denmark. 

Walker, John. 1732-1807. English lexicographer. 

Wallace, Sir William. I270?-I305. Scottish general and 
patriot. Defeated by Edward I. of England ; betrayed and executed. 

Wallace, William Vincent. 1815-1865. Irish composer. 
Maritana. 


Watt, James. 1736-1819. Scottish engineer and inventor. 
Improved and completed the steam-engine. Has also been credited with 
the discovery of the composition of water. 

Watteau, Jean Antoine. 1684-1721. French painter. 

Watts, Isaac. 1674-1748. English Dissenting minister and 
sacred poet. Hytnns. 

Wayne, Anthony. 1745-1796. American Revolutionary 
general. Captured Stony Point. 

Weber, Karl Maria Friedrich Ernst von, Baron. 1786—1826. 
German composer. Der Freischutz. His WaIdmiidchen, subsequently 
known as Sylvana, was composed at sixteen. 

Webster, Daniel. 1782-1852. American lawyer, orator and 
statesman. Bom in N. H. ; Congress, 1812-16, 1822-8; Senate, 1828-41; 
secretary of state ; re-entered the Senate in 1844 ; again became secre¬ 
tary of state in 1850. Webster was nominated for the presidency in 1834, 
but defeated ; candidate for the Whig nomination in 1848, but defeated 
by Taylor, whom he cordially supported. Webster’s reply to Hayne 
of South Carolina, is considered the greatest speech ever made on the 
floors of Congress. His greatest legal effort was in the famous Dart¬ 
mouth College case. 

Webster, Noah. 1758-1843. American lexicographer. 

Wedgwood, Josiah. 1730-1795. English potter. 

Weed, Thurlow. 1797-1883. American journalist. 

Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of. 1769-1852. 
British general and statesman. Gained great distinction in India, in the 
war against the Mahrattas ; major-general, 1802 ; Parliament, 1805 ; sec¬ 
retary for Ireland, 1807; defeated the Danes at Kioge, and was given 
command of an army sent to Spain against the French, 1808 ; opposed 
by superior forces and able generals, but jably thwarted their plans ; tri¬ 
umphantly entered Madrid, 1812; defeated Jourdan and Soult, 1813 ; in¬ 
vaded France and gained numerous victories ; defeated Napoleon at 
Waterloo, 1815, and entered Paris with the allies same year. Was after¬ 
ward prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. 


Wallenstein. Albrecht Wenzel Eusebius von, Count. 1583— 
1634. Austrian general. Hero of one of Schiller’s dramas. Entered 
the imperial army at the beginning of the Thirty Years’ war; raised an 
army at his own expense in 1625, invading Denmark; banished from 
court by Emperor Ferdinand, but recalled on the death of Marshal 
Tilly; defeated by Gustavus Adolphus at Lutzen in 1632, but gained 
several victories in Silesia ; again lost the emperor’s favor, being charged 
with aspirations to the throne of Bohemia, was deprived of his command 
and assassinated. 

Walpole, Horace, Earl of jOrford. 1717-1797. English 
author and wit. Catalogue of Royal and Noble Authors. 

Walther von der Vogelweide. (“Walter of the Bird- 
Meadow.’’) H7o?-i23o? Greatest of the German minnesingers. 

Walton, Izaak. 1593-1683. English writer. The Complete 
Angler; or, A Contemplative Man's Recreation. 

Warbeck, Perkin.-1499. English pretender; hanged. 

Ward, Artemas. 1727-1880. American general. 

Warner, Charles Dudley. 1829-.... American humorist. 

Warner, Susan. (Elizabeth Wetherell.) 1818-.... American 
authoress. 

Warren, Joseph. 1741-1775. American physician, Revolu¬ 
tionary general and patriot; fell at Bunker Hill. 

Warren, Samuel. ^07-1877. English author. 

Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of. The King-maker. 1420?- 
1471. English warrior. Set up and [deposed Edward IV. Hero of 
Bulwer’s Last of the Barons. 

Washington, George. 1732-1799. Commander-in-chief in 
the American Revolution and first president of the United States. 
Born in Virginia. Aide-de-camp to Braddock in the Indian campaign 
of 1755; married Martha Custis, 1759; chosen to Congress, 1774; 
appointed commander-in-chief, 1775; president, 1789-97. 



Wells, Horace. 1815-1848. American dentist. (Anaesthesia.) 

Wells, Samuel Roberts. 1820-1875. Am. phrenologist. 

Wenceslaus (or Wenzel). 1361-1419. Emperor of Ger¬ 
many and king of Bohemia. 

Wesley, Charles. 1708-1788. English Methodist divine and 
hymn-writer. 

Wesley, John. 1703-1791. Brother of preceding. English 

founder of Methodism. 

West, Benjamin. 1738-1820. Am. painter in England. 

Wharton, Francis. 1820-.... Am. jurist and theologian. 

Wharton, Henry. 1664-1695. English ecclesiastical writer 

Whately, Richard. 1787-1863. Irish prelate and author. 

Wheeelr, William Almon. 1819-._ American statesman; 

vice-president. 

Whewell, William. 1794-1866. English philosopher. 

White, Andrew Dickson. 1832-.... American scholar. 

White, Henry Kirke. 1785-1806. English religious poet. 

White, Joseph Blanco. 1775-1841. English author. 

White, Richard Grant. 1822-.... American author. 

Whitefield, George. 1714-1770. English preacher; founder 
of Calvinistic Methodists. 

Whitman, Walt. 1819-.... American poet. In turn car¬ 
penter, editor, nurse and government clerk. Leaves of Grass. 

Whitney, Eli. 1765-1825. Inventor of the cotton-gin. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf. 1807-.... American poet. Born 
at Haverhill, Mass. Member of the Society of Friends. Farmer, shoe¬ 
maker, journalist and abolitionis 1, agitator. Snow Bound; Voices of 
Freedom ; Songs of Labor ; Home Ballads; In War Time; Nation¬ 
al Lyrics; The Tent on the Beach ; Ballads of New England; 
Hazel Blossoms, etc. 


<3 




























\ 


A COMPENDIUM OF BIOGRAPHY. 


227 


Wieland, Christoph Martin. 1733-1813. German poet. 
Wilberforce, William. 1759-1833. English philanthropist 

and statesman. Secured the abolition of the slave trade. 

William I. The Conqueror. 1027-1087. King of England. 
Duke of Normandy; conquered England. II., Rufus, 1056-1100. III. 
(William Henry of Nassau, Prince of Orange), 1650-1702 ; won battle of 
the Boyne. IV., 1765-1837 ; uncle of Queen Victoria. 

William I. 1772-1843. King of the Netherlands. II., 1792- 
1849. HI-, 1817-.... 

William I. 1 797 — * _ King of Prussia and emperor of 

Germany. 

Williams, Eleazer. 1787-1858. American clergyman, claim¬ 
ing to be the son of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette. 

Williams, Roger. 1599—1683. English Puritan minister; 

founder of Rhode Island colony ; born in Wales. 

Willis, Nathaniel Parker. 1806-1867. American journalist 
and poet. 

Wilmot, David. 1814-1868. American statesman; author 
of the Wilmot Proviso. 

Wilson, Alexander. 1766-1813. Scottish-American orni¬ 
thologist. 

Wilson, Henry. (Jeremiah Jones Colbath.) 1812-1875. 

American politician ; eighteenth vice-president. 

Wilson, John. Christopher North. 1785-1854. Scottish 

writer. 

Wimpffen, Emmanuel Felix de. 1811-1884. French general. 
Wiseman, Nicholas. 1802-1865. Eng. Catholic cardinal. 
Wittekind .-807. Saxon warrior; conquered by Charle¬ 

magne. 

Wolcott, John. 1738-1819. English satirist. Peter Pindar’s 
Odes. 

Wolfe, Charles. 1791-1823. Irish poet. Burial of Sir John 
Moore. 

Wolfe, James. 1726-1759. Eng. general; fell at Quebec. 
Wolseley, Sir Garnet Joseph. 1833-.... British general. 
Wolsey, Thomas. 1471-1530. English cardinal and states¬ 
man. Prime minister of Henry VIII.; deposed 1529. 

Wood, Mrs. Plenry. 1820-.... Eng. novelist. East Lynne. 
Woodworth, Samuel. 1785-1842. American poet. Old Oaken 
Bucket. 

Worcester, Edward Somerset, Marquis of. 1601 ?-i667- 

English nobleman ; one of the inventors of the steam-engine. 
Worcester, Joseph Emerson. 1734-1866. Am. lexicographer. 
Wordsworth, William. 1770-1850. English poet. Educated 

at Cambridge; with Coleridge produced Lyrical Ballads, 1798 ; settled 
at Rydal Mount, 1803; Poems, 1807; The Excursion, 1814; The 
White Doe of Rylstone, 1815 ; Peter Bell, 1816. Ecclesiastical Son¬ 
nets ; The Wagoner; Yarrow Revisited; The Prelude. 

Wrangel, Karl Gustaf von, Count. 1613-1675. Sw. general. 
Wrangell, Ferdinand Petrovitch von, Baron. 17957-1870. 

Russian explorer; governor of Russian America. 

Wren, Sir Christopher. 1632-1723. English architect. (St. 
Paul’s Cathedral, London.) 

Wright, Silas. 1795-1847. American statesman. 
Wycherley, William. 16407-1715. English comedy writer. 
Wycliffe (or Wickliffe), John de. 13247-1384. English re¬ 
former; translator of the Scriptures. 

X ANTIPPE. The wife of Socrates; notorious for bad 
temper, but credited by her husband with many domestic virtues. 
Xavier Francis, Saint. The Apostle of the Indies. 1506- 
1552. French Jesuit missionary to India and Japan. 


Xenocrates. 396-314 B.c. Greek philosopher. 

Xenophanes. 600 7-500 7 B.c. Greek philosopher. 

Xenophon. 4457-355? b.c. Athenian historian and general. 

Anabasis; Cyropcedia. 

Xerxes I. The Great .-465 B.c. King of Persia. In¬ 

vaded Greece, but was defeated at Salamis. 

Ximenes, Francisco, Cardinal. 1436-1517. Spanish prelate, 
statesman and patron of literature. Published Polyglot Bible. 

'y’AKOOB IBN LAIS.-879. Founder of the 

3 Persian dynasty of the Suflfarides. Conquered Sei'stan and Farsistan. 

Yale, Elihu. 1648-1721. Founder of Yale College. 

Yancey, William Lowndes. 1814-1863. American politician. 

Yonge, Charlotte Mary. 1823-.... English authoress. 

Yorck von Wartenburg, Hans David Ludwig,Count. 1759- 
1830. Prussian general. 

York, Edmund Plantagenet, first Duke of. 1341-1402. Found¬ 
er of the house of York. 

Yorke, Charles, Lord Morden. 1722-1770. English states¬ 
man and jurist. 

Young, Arthur. 1741-1820. English agricultural writer. 

Young, Brigham. 1801-1877. President of the Mormon 
church. 

Young, Charles Augustus. 1834-.... American scientist. 

Young, Edward. 1684-1765. English poet. Night Thoughts; 
Love of Fame the Universal Passion ; The Revenge. 

Yves, Saint. 1253-1303. French monk and jurist; patron of 
lawyers. 

jt"ALEUCUS. FI. 7th century B.c. Greek legislator 

Lp and reformer; first to make a written code of laws. 

Zamoyski, John Sarius. 1541-1605. Polish general, states¬ 
man and scholar. 

Zechariah. FI. 6th century b.c. Hebrew prophet. 

Zelotti, Battista. 1532-1592. Italian painter. 

Zeno (or Zenon). 355 7-307? b.c. Greek philosopher; founder 
of the school of Stoics. 

Zeno (or Zenon). 495-....? Greek philosopher. 

Zeno.-491. Emperor of the East. 

Zenobia, Septimia.—:275. Queen of Palmyra. Beauti¬ 

ful, learned, and possessed of a warlike and masculine temper. Her do¬ 
minions extended from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and included 
a large part of Asia Minor. Defeated by Aurelian, she retired to Italy. 

Zephaniah. Hebrew prophet, who flourished in the reign of 
Josiah. Foretold the destruction of Jerusalem. 

Zeuxis. 450-....? Greek painter. 

Zhukovsky, Vasili Andreevitch. 1783-1852. Russian poet. 

Zimmerman, Johann Georg von. 1728-1795. Swiss physi¬ 
cian and philosopher. On Solitude. 

Zinzendorf., Nicolaus Ludwig von, Count. 1700-1760. Ger¬ 
man theologian ; restorer of the sect of Moravians. 

Ziska, John, of Trocznow. 1360-1424. Bohemian general 
and leader of the Hussites. 

Zoega, Georg. 1755-1809. Danish archaeologist. 

Zollicoffer, Felix K. 1812-1862. American general. 

Zoroaster. FI. 1500 B.c. Persian philosopher and founder of 
the Magian religion. 

Zschokke, Johann Heinrich Daniel. 1771-1848. German 
author. 

Zuccaro, Federigo. 1543-1609. Italian painter. 

Zwingle, Ulrich. 1484-1531. Swiss reformer; killed in 

battle. Exposition of the Christian Faith. 


l£> 



































o 



CALCUTTA, 


BOMBAY, 


MALTA, 


MONTREAL, 


TORONTO, 


OTTAWA, 


KINGSTON 


HAMILTON C.W, 


ADELAIDE AUS. j MELBOURNE AUS, 


HALIFAX N.S. 


CAPE TOWN, 


LONDON C.W. 


SYDNEY N.S.W. 


ST.JOHNS N.F. FREDERICTON N.B, 


DUBLIN 


MADRAS. 


AUCKLAND. 


TEHERAN, 


EDINBURGH, 


VICTORIA V.C.I. CHARLOTTETOWN 


BARBADOS. 


HONOLULU, 


MADRID. 


STUTGARD. 


BERMUDA, 


LISBON 


STOCKHOLM. 


BERLIN 


PANAMA, 


MEXICO 


BERNE. 


COPENHAGEN, 


HAMBURGH 


ST.PETERSBURGH 


MECCA. 


DETROIT 


S. FRANCISCO. 


CAIRO. 


DELHI, 


JEDDO. 


PEKIN 


Ike Clocks of the Horld. 


P.M. 


AM 


HONG-KONG. 


PARIS F'CE 


ROME. 


VIENNA'. 


HAVANA. 


MADEIRA. 


MUNICH. 


UITO. 


ATHENS. [CONSTANTINOPLE 


BOSTON. 


NEW YORK. 


WASHINGTON 


PHILADELPHIA 


JERUSALEM 


NEW ORLEANS. 


228 


6 







































a. 


■>•5 


1 & 


ST E/A GF STpFDARD TIffiE.<- 


/ 



k. 


Difference between Old and New Standards at Points which have been Established Standards under the Old 

System. (/. faster. S. slower.) 

Compared with Eastern Time: Albany, N. Y., 5 minutes f.; Baltimore, Md., 6 m. s.; Bath, Me., 20 m. f.; Boston, Mass., 16 m. f.; Charles¬ 
ton, S. C., 15 m. s.; Detroit, Mich., 32 m. s.; Hamilton, Ont., 10 m. s.; Montreal, Que., 6 m. f.; New London, Conn., 12 m. f.; New York City, 4 m. f.; 
Philadelphia, Pa., 1 m. s.; Port Hope, Can., 14 m. s.; Port Huron, Mich., 30 m. s.; Portland, Me., ig m. f.; Providence, R. I., 14 m. f.; Richmond, 
Va , 10 m. s.. Savannah, Ga., 24 m. s.; Toronto, Can., 17 m. s.; Washington, D. C., 8 m. s. Compared with Central Time: Atchison, Kan., 24 
m s.; Atlanta, Ga., 22 m. f.; Chicago, Ill., 9 m. f.; Cincinnati, O., 22 m. f.; Columbus, O., 28 m. f.; Detroit, Mich., 28 m. f.; Dubuque, la., 3 m. s.; Han¬ 
nibal, Mo., 1 m. s.; Houston, Tex., 24 m. s.; Indianapolis, Ind., 16 m. f.; Jefferson City, Mo., 9 m. s.; Kansas City, Mo., 19 m. s.; Louisville, Ky., 18 
m. f.; Macon, Ga., 29 m. f.; Minneapolis, Minn., 13 m. s.; Mobile, Ala., 8 tn.'f.; Nasltville, Tenn., 13 m. f.; New Orleans, La., exactly the same; Oma¬ 
ha, Neb., 24 m. s.; Port Huron, Mich., 30 m. f.; St. Louis, Mo., 1 m. s.; St. Paul, Minn., 12 m. s.; Savannah, Ga., 36 m. f.: Selma, Ala., 12 m. f.; Sioux 

City, la., 26 m. s.; Terre Haute, Ind., 10 m. f.; Vicksburg, Miss., 3 m. s.; Winona, Minn., 7 m s. Compared with Mountain Time: Denver, 

Col., exactly the same; Laramie, W. T., 6 m. s.; Salt Lake City, U. T., 28 m. s. Compared, with Pacific Time: Kalama, Wash. T., 10 m. s.; Port¬ 
land, Or., 10 m. s.; San Francisco, Cal., 10 m. s. Intercolonial Time, touching only Halifax, St. John and Quebec, is omitted. 


t9 


!29 


















































































































230 


A PANORAMA OF HISTORY. 



©he United States. 


J/ 




EFORE the occurrence of the events which awoke a 
national feeling in the thirteen colonies, their history 
was an uninteresting series of selfish bickerings and 
quarrels. Only once or twice during this period did 
any of the colonies form unions with one another, 
and even then it was done solely for the purpose of mutual 
protection against the 
common enemy, the In¬ 
dians, whose incursions 
upon the settlements, 
and the wars waged 
against them, form the 
most romantic pages of 
this period o f American 
history. The people 
were too loyal to think 
of separating from the 
mother country, whose 
utter disregard of her 
alien children is alone 
to blame for the loss 
of the empire which 
they deprived her of 
when they united and 
fought for and obtained 
the glorious boon of 
national independence. 

It is with the events 
which preceded this 
consummation that the 
history of the United 
States really begins. 

Unacquainted at once 
with the needs and with THE FALLS 

the spirit of the colo¬ 
nists, the home Government brought to bear upon them several 
oppressive measures against which they entered more than one 
gentle but decided protest. No taxation without representation 
was the central idea of the Colonial opposition to British rule, and 


when, in 1765, the British Government passed what was known 
as the Stamp Act, requiring the colonists to place the Gov¬ 
ernment stamp upon all their legal documents, newspapers or 
pamphlets, a general opposition to the law was aroused in 
the colonies, which resulted in the calling of a Colonial Con¬ 
gress, which entered a formal protest against the measure. Its 

repeal was secured by 
this action, but the re¬ 
lief was only tempo¬ 
rary, as ten years later 
the Government im¬ 
posed a duty on tea, 
glass, paper and other 
colonial imports, which 
was bitterly resisted. 
In Boston the outcry 
against it was especially 
loud,and there occurred 
that very ominous affair 
known as the “ Bos¬ 
ton Tea Party, ” when 
patriotic colonists, dis¬ 
guised as Indians, 
boarded the British 
ships and threw into 
the bay the tea which 
constituted their main 
cargoes. The British 
Parliament closed the 
port of Boston, and 
these harsh measures, 
unrelieved by any ef¬ 
forts in the direction of 
OF NIAGARA. conciliation, drove the 

colonists to rebellion. 
War began April 19, 1775, when the Colonial militia and 
the British troops met at Concord. Common cause was at 
once made by the colonists, who raised troops and placed 
them under the command of George Washington, a Virginian, 























































































A> 


X " 

THK UNITED STATES. 


/ 

231 


who had served with credit as an English officer in the wars 
against the French in the West. Boston was evacuated 
by the British March 17, 1776, and July 4th of the same 
year Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. 
Reverses now befell the Colonial armies. New York was lost 
to them, and this serious blow was hardly offset by the victories 
of Princeton and Trenton. Philadelphia was abandoned in 1777, 
the most important Colonial victory of that year being the one 
gained by General Gates at Saratoga, where he captured Gen¬ 
eral Burgoyne and his army. Very serious was the drain upon 
the population and resources of the Revolutionary Government 
at this time, and during the winter of 1777-78, which the 
American army passed in camp at Valley Forge, the fortunes 
of the young nation seemed at a very low ebb. While the army 
was suffering from cold and short rations during this season, 
the American diplomat Benjamin Franklin was at the court 
of France, successfully conducting negotiations which led to 
the establishment of a defensive and offensive alliance between 
that country and the Americans. French money and men 
proved a timely aid, though for two years the colonists made 
no great headway. In 1781 the campaign in the South was 
conducted with such vigor that the British forces there were 
cooped up in Savan¬ 
nah, Georgia, and 
Charleston, South 
Carolina. Successes 
further north fol¬ 
lowed, and the sur¬ 
render of General 
Cornwallis at York- 
town,Virginia, proved 
the ruin of the British 
cause in America, 
and the practical ter¬ 
mination of the war. 

In the following year 
negotiationsforpea.ee 
were begun, and a 
treaty acknowledging the independence of the United States 
was signed September 3, 1783. 

It had been felt all through the war that the articles of con¬ 
federation under which the different colonies co-operated were 
altogether inadequate to the conduct of the young nation’s 
affairs, and the revision of the form of government was one of 
the earliest matters to receive the attention of its leaders. A 
convention was called at Annapolis in 1787, which framed the 
Constitution of the United States, which was duly ratified by 
the States and has remained, with the addition of sundry amend¬ 
ments, the embodiment of the principles of government in this 
country ever since. In 1787 General George Washington was 
elected first President of the United States, and a second term of 
office was accorded him in 1791, at the end of which he declined 
to again accept the office, thus establishing the no-third-term 
precedent, violation of which has not since been permitted by 
the American people. Early in the political history of the 
country party lines began to be sharply drawn, the adoption of 
the Constitution causing the first clearly defined difference of 
opinion, when those favoring it became known as hederalists 


and those opposed to it as Anti-Federalists, the latter party as¬ 
suming the name Republican subsequent to the Constitution’s 
adoption. The presidential elections following those of 
Washington, in which patriotic sentiment was allowed to over¬ 
come party feeling, were purely partisan ; and while the Fed¬ 
eralists succeeded in placing John Adams in the presidential 
chair as Washington’s successor, the Republicans elected Jeffer¬ 
son, Madison and Monroe, each for two terms of office. With 
the exception of wars with the Indians, who disputed the ad¬ 
vance into their territories caused by the rapid growth of the 
population, the country was at peace during the years subse¬ 
quent to Washington’s inauguration. In 1812, however, differ¬ 
ences arose with Great Britain, then at war with France, the 
most serious of which was her persistence in asserting the right 
of searching American vessels and removing from them sailors 
who she claimed were of British birth, but who really, in a vast 
majority of cases, were American citizens, of whom not less 
than 6,000 were so impressed in the year 1811. The war was 
conducted with varying success in different parts of the conti¬ 
nent. In the operations against Canada, General William 
Henry Harrison won a glorious victory near Detroit, defeating 
a British army with which was allied a powerful force of In¬ 
dians under the fa¬ 
mous leader Tecum- 
seh, who was slain. 
General Scott secured 
successes at Fundy’s 
Lane and Chippewa; 
while Commodore 
Perry, on Lake Erie, 
and Commodore Mc¬ 
Donough, on Lake 
Champlain, swept 
those waters of Brit¬ 
ish war vessels and 
greatly enhanced the 
importance of the 
military victories. In 
the South, General Jackson defeated the British at the mem¬ 
orable battle of New Orleans. The principal reverses sus¬ 
tained during the war were the capture of General Hull 
and his army at Detroit, and of General Winchester and 
the defeat of the Americans at Bladensburgh, which opened the 
way to the British occupation of Washington. The war, which 
came to an end December 24, 1814, was strongly opposed by 
the Federalists, and led to the overthrow of the Republican 
party. While it was in progress an uprising of the Creek In¬ 
dians in Alabama caused considerable trouble, but they were 
conquered by General Jackson. Further troubleswith Indians 
occurred in 1832, when the Sacs and Foxes, tribes living in the 
Northwest, had to be quelled in what is known as the Black 
Hawk war, and in 1835, when Osceola, a crafty leader of the 
Seminole tribe, of Florida, began a war which lasted for four 
years before they were brought under subjection. All of these 
troublesome savages were removed to lands reserved for them, 
and known then and since as the Indian Territory. 

Although no foreign war occupied the public mind for 
thirty years from the close of that of 1812, important events 



THE SUSPENSION BRIDGE, NIAGARA. 


<3 


o 










































\ 




232 


THE UNITED STATES. 


at home caused great agitation. The question of perpetuating 
the institution of slavery in the new States caused a long and 
excited controversy, which ended temporarily in 1820 by the 
admission of Missouri as a slave State, with a compromise 
resolution providing that in future no slave State should exist 
north of the parallel 36 degrees 20 seconds north latitude. 
In 1832, the adoption of a high protective tariff by Congress 
was resented by the Southern States, South Carolina declaring 
it unconstitutional and threatening secession. Happily, when 
a collision seemed unavoidable, a compromise, effected by 
Henry Clay, providing for the gradual reduction of duties, 
restored a peaceful condition of affairs. In 1S37 occurred a 
financial crisis attended with many serious commercial dis¬ 
asters, the result of a period of over-speculation and expansion 


defeated the Mexican General Santa Anna. In 184/1 General 
Winfield Scott captured the seaport of Vera Cruz, and, march¬ 
ing up the valley of Mexico, fought and won the battles of Cerro 
Gordo, Churubusco and Chapultepec, and captured the city of 
Mexico. The war came to an end February 2, 1S48, the 
Mexicans ceding New Mexico and Upper California to the 
United States. 

No foreign war was conducted by the United States after 
this, but within her boundaries a conflict of forces was going 
on which was doomed to bring the country to internal strife. 
The agitation of the slavery question continued, and, as years 
went by, the discussion of its merits increased in bitterness. 
Still the country continued to grow rapidly in wealth and 
population, and many hoped that some compromise might yet 



THE CITY OF BOSTON. 


of the currency. During the administration of President 
Tyler, the boundary question threatened a disruption of peace¬ 
ful relations with Great Britain, but the arbitration treaty, 
which w as arranged by Daniel Webster, averted the threatened 
disaster. In 1845, Mexican State of Texas, which had 
been largely settled by Americans, and which had declared its 
independence some years previous, was annexed by the United 
States. A dispute with Mexico over the boundary question 
followed, which led to war, and General Zachary Taylor, in 
the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, captured the 
city of Monterey, and marched on to Buena Vista, where he 


preserve the national peace, which the more reckless support¬ 
ers of both the Abolition and Slavery parties, judging by the 
fierceness of their utterances, seemed to hold of much lighter 
account than the respective principles they upheld. As each 
election went by, the issue became more clearly that of slavery 
or freedom, and in i860 Abraham Lincoln was elected Presi¬ 
dent by the Republican party on a platform which, while leav¬ 
ing to each State the right to order and control its own 
domestic institutions, insisted that freedom wms the normal 
condition of all the territory of the United States. On the 
other hand, the Southern States had made the declaration that 

























































































•V 


/ 


THE UNITED STATES. 


2 33 


the election of a President pledged to oppose the extension of 
slavery would be a violation of their constitutional rights and 
a moral invasion of the Slave States. In adherence to this 
declaration, in December, 1S60, South Carolina seceded from 
the Union, and her example was followed by Mississippi, 
Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, 
Arkansas, Tennessee and North Carolina. In April following 
the Confederates opened hostilities by bombarding Fort 
Sumter, near Charleston, S. C., and compelling the Union 


before General Grant, and, Port Hudson surrendering a few 
days later, the blockade of the Mississippi was ended. The 
battle of Gettysburg, at which General Meade defeated Lee’s 
splendid army, was another important Northern victory during 
the year of Emancipation. In 1864, General Sherman cap¬ 
tured Atlanta, and accomplished his march to the sea, which 
ended with the fall of Savannah. The bloody victories of the 
Wilderness and of Spottsylvania helped the Union soldiers in 
their march south, and the siege of Petersburg was conducted 



THE BROOKLYN SUSPENSION BRIDGE. 


garrison to surrender. Both sides to the impending conflict 
armed with haste, and the first serious clash of arms occurred 
at Bull Run, where the Federal forces became panic-stricken 
and suffered defeat. The Confederates gained but a slight 
advantage and were driven back. In the West, where the 
Confederates had closed up the Mississippi River, the Federals 
captured Forts Henry and Donelson, and overran the State of 
Tennessee. On January 1, 1S63, President Lincoln issued the 
Emancipation Proclamation. With varying fortunes the war 
progressed until July 4th of that year, when Vicksburg fell 


by General Grant in command of a line between thirty and 
forty miles in length. The fail of Richmond and Petersburg, 
April 2 and 3, 1S65, brought the end near, and a week later 
General Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court-house. The 
war, in the conduct of which nearly i,Soo,ooo Union soldiers 
had been enlisted, and a debt of $2,000,000,000 incurred, called 
for special financial legislation. In 1S62, and on subsequent 
occasions, were issued legal tender notes of the United States, 
and interest-bearing bonds of various kinds. A national 
bank system, which survives, was established. Customs duties 








































































































































3 


\ 

G\ 


4 


4 




1 HE UNITED STATES 


234 


were raised to an average of nearly 50 per cent, and a direct 
tax and a large variety of internal revenue duties were im- 


BUILDEK OF THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE. 

posed. These impositions provided for the annual expendi¬ 
tures of the Government, which were increased from $60,000,000 
in i860 to $1,217,000,000 in 1S65. 

April 14, 1865, a few weeks 
after his inauguration for the 
second term, President Lincoln 
was assassinated at Washington 
by J. Wilkes Booth, who was 
hunted down and killed a few 
days later, four of his accom¬ 
plices being convicted and exe¬ 
cuted. Vice-President Johnson 
became President, and the work 
of political reconstruction was 
begun. The Thirteenth Am’end- 
ment to the Constitution, abol¬ 
ishing slavery within the United 
States and places subject to 
their jurisdiction, was duly rati¬ 
fied and proclaimed. In April, 

1866, Congress passed the Civil 
Rights bill over the President’s 
veto, thus ensuring protection 
to the freed slaves, and giving 
to the Federal courts enlarged 
jurisdiction in the matter. In 
June was passed the Fourteenth 
Amendment, whereby equal 
civil rights were guaranteed to 
all, irrespective of race or color. By this time the breach 
between President Johnson and the Republican party was 
complete, and the antagonism grew until in March, 1S67, 
the Republican Congress passed, over the President’s veto, the 
tenure of office act, intended to contract the executive’s power to 
remove officials. Mr. Johnson deemed the act an unconstitu¬ 


tional invasion of his rights, and defied it, which led to his 
impeachment and trial by the Senate, who acquitted him, the 
two-thirds vote necessary for a conviction not being secured. 
Just before his retirement, the Fifteenth Amendment to the 
Constitution was passed, which provides that the rights of citi¬ 
zens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged 
by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color 
or previous condition of servitude. 

At the next presidential election General U. S. Grant re¬ 
ceived the nomination of the Republican party and was elected. 
Representation in Congress was restored to such States as had 
not regained it since reconstruction commenced. In 1869 the 
Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads were completed, 
connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by rail. 

The claims of the United States against the British Govern¬ 
ment for the depredations of the Alabama and other Confed¬ 
erate cruisers built by the English were referred to a tribunal 
of arbitration, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, in Decem¬ 
ber, 1871, and awarded the United States the sum of $15,500,- 
000 damages, this being the first occasion in the world’s history 
in which an international difficulty of such gravity had been 
disposed of in so peaceful a manner. 

During General Grant’s second term, which began in 1873, ^ le 
Indians gave trouble. The Apaches, in Arizona, were subdued 
by General Crook. In 1873, General E. R. S. Canby and 
some other officers were treacherously massacred by the 


THE NEW YORK ELEVATED RAILROAD. 

Modocs, who were destroyed after a hard struggle. In 1876, 
the Sioux, in Montana, under Sitting Bull, rebelled against 
United States authority and were attacked by General George 
A. Custer, who, with his immediate command, was surrounded 
and slain, other companies of the cavalry regiment under him 
being rescued by General Terry. 











































































(5 



In 1876, the Republican party nominated and elected 
Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, whose adminis¬ 
tration was not marked by any occurrences of a remarkable 
character. In 1880, the Republicans nominated and elected 
General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, for President, and Chester 
A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice-President. The nomina¬ 
tion of Garfield caused a split in the ranks of the Republican 
party, the supporters of the third term aspirations of General 
Grant, commonly known as “ Stalwarts, ” feeling deeply their 
failure to nominate him. This opposition to the President 
reappeared after he had begun his administration, and an open 
rupture between him and the Stalwart leaders followed. While 
this was at its height, a political fanatic named Charles Jules 
Guiteau conceived the idea that he would restore unity to the 
party by removing the President and thus throwing the admin¬ 
istration into the hands of Vice-President Arthur, who was a 
Stalwart, and had received the nomination as a concession to 
that faction. July 2, 1881, Guiteau lay in wait for the Presi¬ 
dent at the railway station at Washington, and shot him as he 
was on the point of departing from the city upon a vacation. 
The wounded President died September 19, at Long Branch, 
N. J., and was succeeded by Vice-President Arthur. The 
assassin Guiteau was tried, convicted and sentenced to be 
hanged, the execution taking place in the jail building at 
Washington, D. C. 

Since Mr. Arthur’s accession to power the Democrats, in 
the general elections of 1882, came to the front and carried so 
many of the Congressional districts as to assure them a large 
majority in the Forty-eighth Congress, which assemble^ in 
Washington next December (1883). Interest in the final session 
of the last Congress settled largely upon their action in regard to 
the tariff, a modification of which was very evidently looked 
for by the people. Several changes in it were made, but the 
work is not yet regarded as complete, and the action of the 
Democratic majority on this delicate subject will largely deter¬ 
mine the result of the presidential campaign in 1884. 

The foreign relations of the country have been peaceful for 
several years past ; recently, however, those with Great 
Britain have been somewhat strained, on account of the dis¬ 


covery of the fact that the plotters who are seeking to frighten 
England into granting concessions to Ireland by the employ¬ 
ment of dynamite have made the United States the base of 
their operations. Much interest is felt in the close friendship 
which is springing up between this country and the neighboring 
republic of Mexico. American capital is engaged in building 
a system of railroad which will bind the countries together 
commercially, and the Mexican people are hailing with joy 
the new era which is heralded by the construction of the 
improved facilities of inland and international communication. 
The ex-President of Mexico, General Diaz, recently made a 
tour of the United States, and his kindly reception everywhere 
showed that the good feeling of the better classes of Mexican 
people toward their Northern neighbors is fully reciprocated. 

The country was never in a more prosperous and healthy 
condition generally than at present. The immense wheat crop 
of 1882—the largest, with a single exception, ever raised in 
the land—gave an impetus to trade which has since then been 
sustained. The population of the boundless arable acres of 
the Great West is being rapidly accomplished, the fame of their 
productive powers bringing the children of the overcrowded 
countries of Europe by thousands annually to settle upon them. 

The recently perfected methods of transportation abroad of 
meat and cattle have opened up to the graziers new markets 
for the product of their ranches, and insured a steady and rich 
return for the enterprise of settling those vast*stretches of grass 
land, which, though not available for the growth of cereals, 
are admirably adapted for the raising of stock. 

Fresh discoveries of fields for the enterprise of the miner 
are constantly being made, and the capital of the older States 
and cities is freely given to their development. Manufactures 
are thriving, the goods made by American artisans improving 
in quality as well as growing in bulk each year. 

The inland and foreign commerce of the country increases 
in volume year by year. All classes of the community are 
realizing the fact that they are placed on the happiest, best 
regulated and richest country in the universe, and that the 
future which lies before them is freighted with choicest of bless-' 
ings for all who are willing to work for them. 
































N" 


236 


~ 7 [ 


THE DEPARTMENTS AT WASHINGTON. 



THE DEpfl^TMEflT^ j\T WA^pI^ON. 



THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 



jape* 

41\w 



:y.y, 

c 

fourteen years 
auguration takes place on 
the fourth of March next 
succeeding his election ; his 
salary is $50,000 a year, 
payable monthly, and he 
has the use of the furniture 
and the other effects in the 
“White House,” a Govern¬ 
ment building in Washing¬ 
ton, where he resides. The 
President’s official house¬ 
hold, selected by himself, 
consists of: 

SALARY, 
i secretary, - $3,250 

1 ass’t secretary, 2,250 

2 clerks, each, 2,000 

1 clerk, - - i,Soo 


S PROVIDED by the 
Constitution, the Govern¬ 
ment of the United States 
performs its allotted work 
through three distinct 
channels, the Execu¬ 
tive, the Legislative and 
the Judiciary. 

The President, whose oath of office, duties and 
powers are described in the Constitution, holds 
office for four years. He must be thirty-five years 
of age, a 
native of 
the United 
States and 
a resident 
of the 
United 
States for 
His in- 



1 clerk, 
1 clerk, 


SALARY. 

- $1,400 
1,200 


1 stenographer, 1,800 
1 steward, - 1,800 


THE CAPITOL 

SALARY, 
i usher, - - $1,400 

9 doorkeepers, e. 1,200 
1 watchman, - 900 

1 fireman, - • S64 

The patronage of the President is enormous The appointments to 
every branch of public service, made by him, give him a power that 
would be appalling but that it is balanced by the safeguard of the 
consent of the Senate. 

The office of President is one which has been called by European 
writers the highest to which humanity can aspire. The chief magis¬ 
tracy of the American Republic is a prize for which every eminent 
American statesman has struggled, and it is singular in looking back 
over the history of the country to note how many men peculiarly fitted 
by their great talents and great prominence for the Presidency 
have been beaten by unknown men. Two of the greatest Senators in 
the history of the Union were Daniel Webster and Henry Clay, neither 
of whom succeeded in winning the crowning honor of a political 


career. On the oilier hand, the number of comparatively unknown 
men who have been chosen by their parties and elected by the people, 
is very large. 

The original intention of the Fathers of the Republic is one that 
the politicians of the country have departed from widely. The elect¬ 
oral system did not contemplate nominations and party organization ; 
it intended that the electors, men chosen by the people of each State 
as safe men for this important office, should cast about for the most fit 
man in the Republic for the honor of the Presidency. For this man 
they were to vote. But under the manner in which the system is 
worked the electors furnish a clumsy method, often a faulty one, lor 
expressing the direct popular will. No elector would dare to use his 
own judgment; he is simply chosen on a pledge to vote for a certain 
candidate chosen for him. In this way the people choose directly the 
President, and yet, owing to the fact that the electors are never in 

number in exact proportion 
• . to the population, it fre¬ 

quently happens that, while 
one candidate has a majori¬ 
ty of the popular vote, the 
other has a majority of the 
electors and becomes Presi¬ 
dent. 

T h e Presidential resi¬ 
dence at Washington is a 
very handsome pile. It is 
called the White House 
from its color. It has been 
the centre of the fashion 
and grace of the republican 
court. There are regular 
reception days set, when 
any one who wishes may 
call upon the President. 
Upon private reception 
days admittance is only se¬ 
cured by card. Upon these 
occasions, the gay court costumes of the foreign legations, the mili¬ 
tary uniforms and the splendid dresses of the ladies form ascenenot 
soon to be forgotten. 

The grounds about the White House, taking in as they do the 
conservatories and nurseries of the Agricultural Department, are very 
pretty and well kept. The Presidential residence is furnished by the 
Government for the President. 

The City Government of Washington. 

When the District of Columbia was cut off from Maryland and 
Virginia, and put in possession of the Government, it was decided that 
the whole territory should be in the hands of the FederalUnion alone,so 
that it would be altogether independent of State influence. As the 
city of Washington grew up around the Capitol provision had to be 
made for its municipal government, which was obliged to be peculiar 
under the circumstances. The President appoints three Commission¬ 
ers of the District of Columbia, in whose hands lie all of the functions 
usually performed by mayors and boards of aldermen. The residents 
of Washington have no votes as there are no elections. All of the city 
officers are appointed, and the whole machinery of local government 
is directly in the hands of the President and Congress. 


AT WASHINGTON. 


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DEPARTMENT OF STATE 


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DEPARTMENT OE STATE. 


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passes. 


TIE duties of the Secretary of this Department are pre- 
®* scribed by law and relate chiefly to correspondence 
with public Ministers or Consuls from the United 
States, to negotiations with public Ministers of for¬ 
eign States and to memorials or other applica¬ 
tions from foreigners. Through his hands all the 
business of the Government with other Powers 
Any bill passed by Congress and signed by the Presi¬ 
dent, or that becomes a law in any other lawful manner, is 
received by the Secretary and made public by him. 

It is his duty to report annually to Congress all the in¬ 
formation that should naturally come through his office. 
Any new amend¬ 
ment to the Con¬ 
st i t u t i o n, any 
act of Congress 
that becomes a 
law, any foreign 
treaty, postal con¬ 
vention or Con¬ 
gressional joint 
resolution is sent 
to the Public 
Printer by the 
Secretary of State 
for legal publica¬ 
tion ; he must also 
publish in some 
newspaper the 
commercial i n - 
formation he may 
deem of public 
importance. Pass¬ 
ports when ren¬ 
dered are free of 
charge. Copies of records in this Department when applied for 
are furnished by the Clerk at a cost to applicant of ten cents for 
every hundred words. 

The salaries paid in the Department of State are: 



DEPARTMENTS OK STATE, ARMY AND NAVY. 


The Diplomatic Service. 


dip! 

charge of the Secretary of State, consists of Envoys Extraordinary 
and Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers Resident, Charges d’Af- 
faires, Consuls-General, Consuls ana Commercial Agents. 

The highest class of Ministers are those sent to France, Germany, 
Great Britain and Russia; they are paid $17,500 per year. The sec¬ 
ond class ($12,000 a year) are sent to Austria, Hungary, Brazil, China, 
Italy, Japan, Mexico and Spain. The third class ($10,000 a year) 
go to Chili, Peru and the Central Amercain States. Ministers Resi¬ 
dent receive $7,500 (with the exception of the one in Bolivia, $5,000, 
and the one in Liberia, $4,000), and are in the Argentine Republic, 
Belgium, Colombia, Hawaian Islands, Hayti, the Netherlands, 
Sweden and Norway, Turkey and Venezuela. Charges d’Affaires 
have $5,000 a year, and are in Denmark, Portugal, Switzerland, Uru¬ 
guay and Paraguay. There are five Consuls-General in British do¬ 
minions, at Cal¬ 
cutta, Melbourne, 
London, Halifax 
and Montreal; two 
in Germany, at 
Berlin and Frank¬ 
fort; two in Tur¬ 
key, at Cairo and 
Const antinople; 
and one each in 
Paris, Vienna, 
Rome, St. Peters¬ 
burg, Bucharest, 
Bangkok, Shang¬ 
hai, Kanagawa, 
Havana and Mex¬ 
ico. Their salaries 
range from $2,000 to 
$6,000. There are 
the following ranks 
of consulates. Five 
at $6,000 a year; 
two at $5,000; one 
a t $4,500; six at 
$4,000; eight at $3,- 
500; twenty-one at 
$3,000; sixteen at 
$2,500; thirty-seven 
at $2,000; forty- 
seven at$1,500; and 
twenty at $1,000. 
All Consuls receiv¬ 
ing a fixed salary 
pay into the Treas¬ 
ury all fees received 
by virtue of their 


Secretary, 

$8,000 

4 clerks, each 

$1,600 

3 ass’t secretaries, each 3,500 

2 clerks, each - 

1,400 

I chief clerk, 

2,500 

10 clerks, each 

1,200 

1 translator, 

2,100 

2 clerks, each - 

1,000 

4 chiefs of Bureaus, 

each 2,100 

10 clerks, each 

900 

11 clerks, each - 

1,800 

1 engineer, 

1,200 


I assistant engineer, - $1,000 

With watchmen, firemen, laborers, etc., the total amount is 
about $100,000 a year. 

The Examiner of Claims, an officer appointed by the Attor¬ 
ney-General, has charge of the legal business of the Department 
of State. There are a number of Bureaus in the Department, 
the most important of which is the Consular. Quite a number 
of interpreters are continually needed in the offices. 


office. But there are many Consuls and Agents whose only com¬ 
pensation comes from fees. Such officers are usually allowed to 
go into business. 


Secretaries of State. 


Thomas Jefferson, Va. 1789 

Edmond Randolph, Va. 1794 

Timothy Pickering, Penn. 1795 

John Marshall, Va. 1S00 

James Madison, Va. 1801 

Robert Smith, Md. 1809 

James Monroe, Va. 1S11 

John Q. Adams, Mass. rSi7 

Henry Clay, Ky. 1S25 

Martin Van Buren, N. Y. 1S29 

Edward Livingston, La. 1S31 

Louis McLane, Del. 1S33 

John Forsyth, Ga. 1S34 

Daniel Webster, Mass. 1841 

Hugh S. Legair, S. C. 1S43 


Abel P. Upshur, Va. 

John C. Calhoun. S. C. 
James Buchanan, Penn. 
John M. Clayton, Del. 
Daniel Webster, Mass. 
Edward Everett, Mass. 
William L. Marcy, N. Y. 
Lewis Cass, Mich. 
Jeremiah S. Black, Penn. 
William H. Seward, N. Y. 
Elihu B. Washburn, 
Hamilton Fish, 

William M. Evarts 
James G. Blaine 
F. T. Frelinghuysen 


1543 

1544 

1545 

1849 

1550 
1852 

1854 

1857 

1560 

1561 
1S69 
1S69 
1877 
1881 

1551 


d. 


































































































THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 


«jp^LL of the moneys of the United States, all matters 
relating to the collection and payment of the ac¬ 
counts of the Government, and, in a word, all of the 
duties appertaining to the finances of the nation, 
e/'vp\a fall naturally to the Secretary of the Treasury. He 
is assisted by a numerous corps, the Treasury Department 
requiring naturally more clerical detail than any other in the 
Government. There are two Assistant Secretaries, one having 
charge of appoint- 
ments, public 
money, revenue 
marine, loans and 
currency, engrav¬ 
ing and printing, 
the mints, and the 
signature of doc¬ 
uments ; the other 
attends to cus¬ 
toms, s p e c i al 
agents, internal 
revenue and navi¬ 
gation, and the 
general supervis¬ 
ion of accounts. 

There are two 
Comptrollers. 

The first counter¬ 
signs warrants, 
attends to the pay 
of the diplomatic 
service, and exam¬ 
ines requisitions 
and claims. The second has charge of the accounts of the Army, 
Soldiers’ Homes, Pensions, Marine Corps and Navy Yards, 
Disbursing Agents, and of the Financial Agency of the Govern¬ 
ment at London. 

The Commissioner of Customs examines, revises and passes 
all accounts concerning duties, tonnage, marine hospitals, fines, 
penalties and forfeitures under the navigation laws, and approves 
bonds of customs officers. 


The Six Auditors. 


There are six Auditors in the Treasury Department, among whom 
the work is divided as follows: 

First Auditor: Customs, Judiciary, Public Debt, Warehouse and 
Bonded Goods, Miscellaneous Accounts. 

Second Auditor: Army Paymaster, Miscellaneous Claims, Indian 
Affairs, Bounties, Frauds, Book-keeping. 

Third Auditor: Book-keeper, Quartermasters, Subsistence and 

Engineering, State 
War Claims, Mis¬ 
cellaneous Collec¬ 
tions. 

Fourth Auditor: 
Prize Money, Navy 
Agents, Paymas¬ 
ters. 

Fifth Auditor: 
Diplomatic and 
Consular division, 
Internal Revenue. 

Sixth Auditor: 
Pos t-o f f i ce ac¬ 
counts. 


Other Treasury 
Officers, 


UNITED STATES TREASURY BUILDING. 


The Treasurer of 
the United States 
has custody of all 
the public money; 
he pays warrants, 
issues and redeems 
Treasury N otes, re¬ 
deems National bank notes, pays the interest on the public debt, and 
is custodian of the Indian trust funds. 

The Comptroller of the Currency supervises and controls the National 
banks throughout the country, under the Secretary of the Treasury. 

The Solicitor of the Treasury examines all revenue frauds and over¬ 
sees the legal measures for their prevention and punishment. All of 
the legal business of the department goes through his hands, and the 
secret service operations are directed by him. When required he must 
give his opinion on any legal question. The Solicitor of the Treasury 






































































































































































THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 


239 


is really an officer of the Department of Justice, as will be seen on 
another page. 

The Commissioner of Internal Revenue makes assessments and 
apportions taxes. The bureau is divided into seven departments: 
1. Appointments. 2. Laws. 3. Accounts. 4. Tobacco. 5- Distilled 
Spirits. 6. Stamps. 7. Assessments. Special agents are appointed by 
the Commissioner to watch the manufacture and handling of whisky. 

The Superintendent of the Coast Survey has charge of all the sur¬ 
veys of the ocean and coast and the making of maps, charts, etc. 

The Bureau of Statistics collects and publishes information in regard 
to trade and commerce, shipping, imports and exports, emigration, etc. 
Its reports are published quarterly and distributed gratuitously. 

The Mint in Philadelphia is the one to which the Mints at New 
Orleans, Carson and Denver must send their reports. Each Mint has 
a superintendent, assayer, teller, refiner, coiner and assistants, and the 
one at Philadelphia has also an engraver. The Director of the Phila¬ 
delphia Mint makes an annual report of the minting done in the 
country. 


Quarantine. 

The Secretary of the Treasury executes the laws which restrain, stop 
and govern vessels arriving at United States ports from places afflicted 
with infectious diseases. The officers of the customs revenue are re¬ 
quired to see to the execution of the public health laws of the General 
Government and of the several States in this regard. 

The Light-House Board. 

The Light-House Board, which is appointed by the President, is 
attached to the Treasury Department. It consists of two officers of 
the Navy of high rank, two officers of the Corps of Engineers and two 
citizens of high scientific attainments. This Board has general charge 
of the light-house service of the United States. 


CASH-ROOM IN THE TREASURY BUILDING. 


The Life-Saving Service. 

The life-saving service is divided into seven ocean districts and 
three lake districts. The various stations are supplied with such 
apparatus as may, in the judgment of the Secretary of the Treasury, 
be best adapted to the purpose of each station, such as life-boats, 
ropes, mortars for sending ropes onboard wrecked vessels, contriv¬ 
ances for getting passengers safely on shore, etc. Each district is in 
charge of a superintendent, who possesses the powers and performs 
the duties of an inspector of the customs for each of the coasts on 
which stations are established. These districts number seven on the 
Atlantic coast, and three on the great lakes, and each superintendent 
receives from the Secretary of the Treasury the proper instructions 
relative to the duties required of him. 

Each station is in charge of a keeper, who is instructed in his duties 
by the Secretary of the Treasury. At some stations experienced surf- 
men are engaged to assist in aiding wrecked vessels. 


Secretaries of the Treasury. 


Alexander Hamilton, N. Y. 17S9 
Oliver Wolcott, Conn. 179S 

Samuel Dexter, Mass. 1S00 

Albert Gallatin, Penn. 1802 

George W. Campbell, Tenn. 1814 
Alexander J. Dallas, Penn. 1814 
William H. Crawford, Ga. 1S17 
Richard Rush, Penn. 1S25 

Samuel D. Ingham, Penn. 1829 
L^uis McLane, Del. 1831 

William J. Duane, Penn. 1S33 
Roger B. Taney, Md. 1 

Appointed during recess ; > 1833 
not confirmed by Senate. ) 

Levi Woodbury, N. II. 1S34 
Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 1841 

Walter Forward, Penn. 1841 

John C. Spencer, N. Y. 1843 

Geo. M. Bible, Ky. 1144 


Robert J. Walker, Miss. 1S45 

William M. Meredith, Penn. 1849 
Thomas Corwin, Ohio. 1850 

James Guthrie, Ky. 1853 

Howell Cobb, Ga. 1857 

Philip F. Thomas, Md. i860 

John A. Dix, N. Y. 1861 

Solman P. Chase, Ohio. 1861 

William Pitt Fessenden, Mo. 1S64 
Hugh McCulloch, Ind. 1S65 

George S. Boutwell. i860 

William A. Richardson. 1873 

Benjamin H. Bristow. 1874 

Lot M. Morrill. 1876 

J ohn Sherman. 1877 

William Windom. 1861 

Charles J. Folger. 1881 


© 













































































2 40 


THE WAR DEPARTMENT. 



^|S'F ALL matters relating to military affairs the Secretary 
g of War has entire charge. He must communicate to 
% Congress estimates of the appropriations needed for 
his Department, not only for its internal working, but 
for the construction of public works and other public 
service performed under his direction. He must report 
annually a statement of the appropriations of the pre¬ 
ceding year (always counting from the 1st of July), showing how 
much was appropriated for each Bureau of the Department, and 
the balance on hand, together with estimates of the amounts 
necessary for the ensuing year. He will submit to Congress 
reports of surveys of rivers and harbors ordered by Congress. 

He furnishes an abstract of the returns of the Adjutants-Gen- 
eral of the militia of the States. 



These annual reports are made at the beginning of each regu¬ 
lar session and cover all the transactions of the Department dur¬ 
ing the year. The Department is divided into ten branches, 
governed by the following officers: The Adjutant-General, Quar¬ 
termaster-General, Paymaster-General, Commissary-General, 
Surgeon-General, Chief of Engineers, Chief of Ordnance, Chief 
Signal Officer, the Judge Advocate-General and the Superinten¬ 
dent of the Military Academy at West Point. 


The annual salaries paid in this Department are: 


Secretary, 

- 

$S,ooo 

3 engineers, 

- 

3,Soo 

1 chief clerk. 

- 

2.750 

65 messengers, 

720 

46,Soo 

1 disbursing elerk 


2,000 

50 laborers, 

660 

33.ooo 

7 Bureau chiefs, e 

$2,000 

4 14,000 

S char-women 

1 So 

1,440 

52 clerks, each 

i,Soo 

93,000 

125 physicians, - 

,200 

I !(0,000 

52 clerks, each 

1,600 

S3,200 

1S5 hospital stewards 

360 

66,600 

95 clerks, each 

1,400 

133,000 

50 paymaster’s clerks 

1,200 

60,000 

390 clerks, each 

1,200 

46S,ooo 

90 Nat. Cem. keepers 

Soo 

72,000 

191 clerks, each 

1,000 

191,000 

450 weather observers 

720 324,000 

32 clerks, each 

1 draughtsman, 

1 anatomist, 

900 

2S,Soo 

i,Soo 

1,600 

1,000 employes at ar¬ 
mories and other 
business of Dep’t., 

800 Soo,000 

S printers, 

- 

S,Soo 


$2 

593.590 


With rations, quarters and fuel in many cases, the expense of 
the Department borders on $3,000,000 annually. 


The Bureaus of the War Department. 

The Adjutant-General’s Office. From this office are 
issued all orders with regard to the movements of the army. 
All records of individuals in the army from the privates to the 
officer of the highest rank may be found in this office. All com¬ 
missions, promotions, charges and discharges, come through this 
Bureau. In one word, the Adjutant-General is the instrument 
by which the Executive communicates with the army. 

The Quartermaster-General’s Office. This Bureau has 
charge of the purchasing and distributing of all supplies (except 
subsistence) needed by the army, to furnish transportation for 


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soldiers, military stores and supplies, and to pay all expenses of 
the military service not provided for in other Bureaus. 

The Commissary-General’s Office. The business of this 
office consists in the purchase and distribution of subsistence 
and supplies for the army. 

The Paymaster-General’s Office. Payments to the army 
are made through this office. Arrears of pay shall never exceed 
two months. 

The Surgeon-General’s Office. This Bureau has charge 
of the surgical and medical department of the army, the pur¬ 
chase and distribution of hospital and medical supplies. It has 
authority in sanitary matters, such as supervising the cooking 
done in the army, and the preparation of rations for the enlisted 
men. 

The Office of the Chief of Engineers. This Bureau has 
charge of the various fortifications, and provides for the surveys 
of rivers and harbors. All matters connected with skilled labor, 
such as building, bridging, excavation, mining, etc., in the mili¬ 
tary service, belong to this Bureau. 

Office of the Chief of Ordnance. This office has charge 
of all skilled labor necessary in the preparation and care of the 
ordnance and ordnance supplies. It purchases, inspects and 
controls the construction, movement and storing of all the heavy 
armament in the service. 

The Office of Military Justice. This office is under the 
charge of the Judge Advocate-General. The proceedings of all 
Courts-Martial, Courts of Inquiry and Military Commissions are 
received, revised and recorded in this office. All matters con¬ 
nected with the administration of justice in the army are the 
peculiar province of this Bureau. 

The Signal Office. The Signal Service, which has proved 
itself of incalculable benefit to the countiy, is an adjunct of the 
War Department and is managed by the officers of the Army 
detailed by the Secretary of War. 

The Military Academy. The military school at West Point 
is the last of the Bureaus of the War Department. It is a school 
for the training of the officers of the army, and ranks on its 
own merits as one of the best colleges in the country. 


The Cadet Corps. 


The corps of cadets consist of one from each Congressional 
District of the United States, one from each State, one from the 
District of Columbia, and ten from the United States at large, 
who are appointed by the President. The cadets must be 
between seventeen and twenty-two years old when admitted; 
they must be well versed in reading, writing, arithmetic, gram¬ 
mar, geography and history, particularly of the United States. 
The course at the Academy lasts four years, and on graduation 
the cadets are commissioned as second lieutenants in the army. 






























































Q 




THE AMERICAN ARMY. 


241 


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"VERY citizen of this Republic may well be proud of 
the history of the American Army. Organized by 
George Washington and commanded ever since by 
eminent chieftains, it has carried the Star-spangled 
Banner over hundreds of stricken fields of battle, and 
never without honor. It has fought through four great 
wars and innumerable Indian revolts. Again and 
again has its valor been proved, until to-day, one of the smallest, 
the American Army is considered to be one of the most effective 
in the world. In time of peace its work does not cease. All 
along the Western frontier the scattered forces have all that 
they can do holding the savage Indian tribes to good behavior, 
Always fighting at tremendous odds, the service performed by 
the soldiers in the far West can only be described by the word 
“remarkable.” The regular army is the skeleton upon which in 
time of war the forces of the Republic form. It consists of about 
25,000. On a war footing our army could now, 18S3, be pushed 
up to over three millions of men under arms. Towards the end 
of the civil war the total of the Federal and Confederate service 
was much larger than that figure. The army is under the com¬ 
mand of General William Tecumseh Sherman, a soldier who 
fought his way to the front in the time that tried men’s souls. 
His conduct in the various commands to which he was called 
paved the way to greater promotion, and on the resignation of 
General U. S. Grant, who became President in 1868, W. T. 
Sherman was assigned to the highest rank. The various ranks 
in the army, with their pay, will be found in the table following: 

Pay-Roll of the United States Army. 


$13,500—6 aides-de-camp, each - $3,500 

11,000—2 aides-de-camp, each - 3,000 

7,500—S aides-de-camp, $200 addition to 
line pay. 

6 brigadier-generals, each 5)500—13 aides-de-camp, $150 addition to 

line pay. 


1 general, 

1 lieutenant-general, 

3 major-generals, each 



CAVALRY. 


10 colonels, each 

$ 3 . 5 oo 

10 reg’t quartermasters, ea. 

$i,Soo 

10 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 

120 1st lieutenants, each 

1,600 

30 majors, each 

2,500 

120 2d lieutenants, each 

1,500 

120 captains, each 

2,000 

2 chaplains, each 

1,500 

10 adjutants, each 

1,800 




ARTILLERY. 


5 colonels, each 

$ 3 . 5 oo 

5 adjutants, each 

$i,Soo 

5 lieutenant-colonels, each 

3)000 

5 reg’t quarter-masters, ea. 

i,Soo 

15 majors, each 

2,500 

120 1st lieutenants, each 

1,600 

60 captains, each - 

2,000 

65 2d lieutenants, each, 

1,500 



INFANTRY. 


25 colonels, each 

$3.5oo 

25 reg’t quartermasters, e. 

$i,Soo 

25 lieutenant-colonels, each 3,000 

250 1st lieutenants, each 

1,500 

25 majors, each 

2,500 

250 2d lieutenants, each 

1,400 

250 captains, each - 

1 ,Soo 

2 chaplains, 

1,500 

25 adjutants, each 

i,Soo 



DEPARTMENTAL SERVICE. 


S brigadier-generals, each $5,500 

150 majors, each 

$2,500 

12 colonels, each 

3.3oo 

127 captains, each 

2,000 

33 lieutenant-colonels, 

each 3,000 

76 1st lieutenants, each 

1,600 


ENGINEER CORPS. 


1 brigadier-general, 

$ 5-500 

24 majors, each 

$2,500 

6 colonels, each 

• 3,5oo 

30 captains, each - 

i,Soo 

12 lieutenant-colonels, 

each 3,000 




SIGNAL 

OFFICE. 


1 colonel, 

$ 3 , 5 oo 

32 lieutenants, each 

$1,500 


RETIRED LIST. 


5 major-generals, 

- 

131 captains, 

- 

iS brigadier-generals 

- 

72 1st lieutenants, • 

- 

59 colonels, - 

- 

15 2d lieutenants, 

- 

34 lieutenant-colonels, 

- 

S chaplains, 

- 

50 majors, 

- 




Enlisted Men. 

NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS. 

The following enlisted men are paid these sums monthly dur¬ 
ing their first terms of enlistment, with some modifications pre¬ 
scribed by law: Sergeant-majors of cavalry, artillery and infan¬ 
try, $23 each ; quartermaster-sergeants of cavalry, artillery and 
infantry, $23 each ; chief trumpeters of cavalry, $22 ; principal 
musicians of artillery and infantry, $22; chief musicians of regi¬ 
ments, $60, and the allowances of a quartermaster-sergeant; 
saddler sergeants of cavalry, $22; first sergeants of cavalry, 
artillery and infantry, $22; sergeants of cavalry, artillery and 
infantry, $17; corporals of cavalry and light artillery, $15; 
corporals of artillery and infantry, $15; saddlers of cavalry, 
$15; blacksmiths and farriers of cavalry, $15; trumpeters of 
cavalry, $13; musicians of artillery and infantry, $13; privates 
of cavalry, artillery and infantry, $13; sergeant-majors of engi¬ 
neers, $36; quartermaster-sergeants of engineers, $36; ser¬ 
geants of engineers and ordnance, $34; corporals of engineers 
and ordnance, $20; musicians of engineers, $13; privates (first 
class) of engineers and ordnance, $17; privates (second class) 
of engineers and ordnance, $13. To these rates of pay $1 a 
month is added for the third year of enlistment, $1 for the fourth 
year, and one more for the fifth year, making $3 a month 
increase for the last year of enlistment; but this increase is “ re¬ 
tained pay,” and is not given to the soldier until his term is 
ended, and it is forfeited if he misbehaves himself before he 
receives his discharge. Occasional extra services by soldiers and 
non-commissioned officers also entitle them to additional pay. 
























































The Army During the Civil War. 

The following table shows the dates of the President’s proc¬ 
lamations for men, the number of men called for and the num¬ 
ber secured. 


DATE OF PRESIDENT’S PROCLAMA¬ 
TION. 


April 15, 1861. 

May 3, 1861. 

July 22 and 25, 1861 . 
May and June, 1S62. 

J uly 2, 1862. 

August 4, 1862. 

June 15, 1S63. 

October 17, 1S63. 

February 1, 1S64.... 

March 14, 1864. 

April 23, 1864. 

J uly 18, 1864. 

December 19, 1S64.. 


NO. 

CALLED 

FOR. 

PERIOD OF 

SERVICE. 

75,000 

3 months. 

82,74s j 
500,000 ( 

3 years. 


3 months. 

300,000 

3 years. 

300,000 

9 months. 

100,000 

6 months. 

300,000 ) 

2 years. 

200,000 j 

200,000 

3 years. 

85,000 

100 days. 

500.000 

1, 2, 3 years 

300,000 

1, 2, 3 years 

2,942,748 



NUMBER 

OBTAIN’D 


93,326 

7 H. 23 I 

15.007 

43'.958 

87,sSS 

16,361 

374,807 

284,021 

83,652 

384,882 

204,568 


2,690,401 


The Strength of the Federal Army. 


or accident, commissioned officers, 2,321; enlisted men, 182,329; mak¬ 
ing- a total loss of 289,739. Deaths which occurred after the men left 
the army are not included in these figures. 

The Strength of the World’s Armies. 


COUNTRIES. 


Argentine Republic 
Austria-Hungary.. 
Belgium 


DATE. 

ON DUTY. 

ABSENT. 

TOTAL 

January 

ist, 

IS6I. 

14,663 

1,704 

16,367 

July 1st, 

1S61 


183,588 

3,163 

1S6 751 

j anuary 

ist, 

1862. 

527,204 

48,714 

575,917 

J anuary 

ist, 

1863. 

698,802 

219,389 

9iS,.Si 

J anuary 

1st, 

I S64. 

611,250 

249,487 

860,737 

j anuary 

ist, 

1865. 

620,924 

338,536 

959,460 

May ist, 

1865. 

797,807 

202,709 

1,000,516 


Volunteers in the War. 

The following table shows the number of men furnished to 
the Federal army by each State in the Union. 


Bolivia . 

Brazil. 

Canada. 

Chili. 

China. 

Colombia.... 
Denmark.... 

Egypt. 

P ranee. 

Germany.... 
Great Britain 

Greece. 

India, British 

Italy. 

Japan. 

Luxemburg.. 

Mexico. 

Netherlands . 

Norway. 

Persia. 

Peru.. 

Portugal. 

Roumania.... 

Russia. 

Servia. 

Spain. 

Sweden. 

Switzerland... 

Turkey. 

United States. 
Uruguay. 


o 


2,400,000 

37 , 739,407 
5,476,668 
2,080,000 
11,108,291 
4,352,080 
2,400,396 
434,626,00; 
2,774,000 

1 > 969,454 
17,419,980 
36,905,78s 
45 , 194,172 
35,246,562 
1 , 679,775 
252,541,210 
2S ,209,620 
34,338.404 
209,673 
9,389,461 
3,981 ,SS 7 
1,806,900 
7,000,000 
3,050,000 
4,34S,55 1 
5,376,000 
72,520,000 
1,589,650 

16,333,293 

4,531 >S63 

2,831,787 

8,866,532 

50 , 155,783 

447,000 


fctg 


K 


8,227 

289,190 

46,383 

3,02 

« 5,304 

2,000 

3,573 

300,000 

3,000 

35,727 

15,000 

502,764 

445,402 

131,636 
12,118 
iS 9 ,S 97 
736,502 
36,777 
377 
24,830 
65,113 
18,750 
57,600 
4,670 
34,874 
19,Si 2 

974 , 77 ' 
50,000 
90,000 
41,2So 
17,500 
350,000 
25,745 
2,357 


bn 
>- c 

CS *3 

> o 

v* O 


304,000 

i,i 25 ,S 33 

165,877 


32,000 

700,152 

50,000 

I,COO,OOO 

30,740 

49,054 

43,000 

3,753,164 

1492,104 

577,906 

35,00° 

380,000 

1,718,933 

5 B 72 I 


■a-g* 

£ Sj 

GO'S 

m-, 

o 


•? 3,374,SiS 
53,386,915 

8,776,429 

1,126,916 

8,690,000 

777,699 


163,198 

241,600 


40,000 

78,024 

200,000 

2,733,305 

265,000 

450,000 

202,783 

210,405 

610,200 
3,165,000 
22,357 


982,432 

2 , 539,027 

2,198,216 

i' 4 , 279,76 

98,330,429 

74,901,500 
2,264,716 
84,481,195 
42,947,263 
8,151,000 
90,980 

9,786,964 

8,397,000 

1,626,750 

3,392,000 


4,373,833 

5,222,227 

137,812,202 

1,765,021 

24,802,930 

4,649,940 

2,352,160 

19,642,099 

40,466,460 

1,870,686 


— 

d 

■M a 


V 


$1.46 
1.41 
1.60 

•54 

.78 


O c 
tl Q. -J 
5 x h 

o V 2 

u *3 

<L> ^ 

A . O 


•35 
1.19 
.12 
.09 


3 
2 
2 

i -34 

•33 

1.52 

•23 

•43 

1.04 

2.10 

.90 

.48 


1.00 

•97 
1.90 
1.11 
i- 5 ' 
1.02 

•83 

2.21 
• So 
4.1S 


19-53 

87,38 

15-73 

25.01 

14,54 

3,11 


11-37 

20.96 

20.SS 

.5-3 1 

18.02 

12.06 

26-74 

15,15 
13,76 
5,64 
42,31 
16.86 
13.62 
41.71 


12.6S 

21.61 

29,37 

3442 

15,82 

23,13 

29,32 

34 ,i 9 

15.52 

40.53 


New York, 

445,959 

Rhode Island, 

23,248 

- - ........ * 




Pennsylvania, 

338,155 

Kansas, 

20,095 





Ohio, 

310,654 

District of Columbia, 

1 6,534 





Illinois, 

258,162 

California, 

15,725 

Secretaries of War. 


Indiana, 

194,363 

Delaware, 

12,265 





Massachusetts, 

146,467 

Arkansas, 

S,2S9 

Henry Knox, Mass. 

17S9 

William Wilkins, Penn. 

1S44 

Missouri, 

. I0S,l62 

New Mexico 

6,561 

Timothy Pickering, Penn. 

1795 

William L. Marcy, N. Y. 

*845 

Wisconsin, 

91,021 

Louisiana, 

5,224 

James McHenry, Md. 

1796 

George W. Crawfod, Ga. 

1S49 

Michigan, 

88,111 

Colorado, 

4 , 9°3 

Samuel Dexter, Mass. 

1S00 

Charles L. Conrad, La. 

1S50 

Iowa, 

75,793 

Indian Nation, 

3 , 53 ° 

Roger Griswold, Conn. 

1801 

Jefferson Davis, Miss. 

1S53 

New Jersey, 

75 , 3 i 5 

Nebraska, 

3,'57 

Henry Dearborn, Mass. 

1S01 

John B. Floyd, Va. 

1857 

Kentucky, 

75,275 

North Carolina, 

3 ,i 5 o 

William Eustis, Mass. 

1S09 

Joseph Holt, Ky. 

1861 

Maine, 

69,738 

Alabama, 

2,576 

John Armstrong, N. Y. 

1813 

Simon Cameron, Penn. 

1861 

Connecticut, ' 

55,755 

Texas, 

1,965 

James Monroe, Va. 

1814 

Edwin M. Stanton, Penn. 

1S61 

Maryland, 

46,053 

Oregon, 

1,810 

William H. Crawford, Ga. 

1815 

Ulysses S. Grant. 

1867 

New Hampshire, 

33 , 9 i 3 

Nevada, 

i,oSo 

John C. Calhoun, S. C. 

18.7 

Lorenzo Thomas. 

1S68 

Vermont, 

33,272 

Washington Territory 

964 

James Barbour, Va. 

1825 

John M. Schofield. 

1S6S 

West Virginia 

32,003 

Mississippi, 

545 

Peter B. Porter, N. Y. 

1S2S 

John A. Rawlins. 

1S69 

Tennessee, 

31,092 

Dakota Territory, 

206 

John II. Eaton, Tenn. 

1S29 

William W. Belknap. 

1S69 

Minnesota, 

24,002 



Lewis Cass, Ohio. 

1831 

Alphonso Taft. 

1S76 





Joel R. Poinsett, S. C. 

1837 

James D. Cameron. 

1S76 

The 

Bivouac 

of the Dead. 


John Bell, Tenn. 

1841 

George W. McCrary. 

1877 





John C. Spencer, N. Y. 

1841 

Alexander Ramsey. 


There were killed 

in action, or died of wounds in the 

Civil war, 

James M. Porter, Penn. 


Robert T. Lincoln. 

18S1 

commissioned officers, 5,221; enlisted men, 90,S6S. Died from disease 

Negatived by Senate. 

j '843 






\ 
















































































































































THE MILITIA. 


2 43 










^ HE main strength of the American army comes from 
the volunteer spirit that has ever animated the peo¬ 
ple. The moment an appeal is made to them, and 
even before, when there is an appearance of neces¬ 
sity, the militia are on the alert. The organization of 
this immense and powerful auxiliary to the regular 
army is so well systematized throughout the States that 
the expense of a large standing army is saved. Con¬ 
gress has provided by law how the militia shall be 
disciplined and organized, the purpose being to have the whole 
body act as a national army, trained in one school, when the 
nation needs the service. This end could not be attained if 
each State was left to its own devices in raising, organizing and 
drilling its soldiery. When called into active service by the 
President, each regiment of infantry has one colonel, one lieu¬ 
tenant-colonel, one major, one adjutant (a lieutenant), one quar¬ 
termaster (a lieutenant), one surgeon, two assistant surgeons, 
one sergeant-major, one regimental quartermaster-sergeant, one 
regimental commissary-sergeant, one hospital steward and 
two principal musicians; the regiment composed of ten com¬ 
panies, each company consisting of one captain, one first lieu¬ 
tenant, one second lieutenant, one first sergeant, one first lieu¬ 
tenant, one second lieutenant, one first sergeant, four sergeants, 
eight corporals, two musicians, one wagoner, and from sixty- 
four to eighty-two privates. The militia is further organ¬ 
ized into divisions of three or more brigades each, and each 
division has a major-general, three aids-de-camp, and one as¬ 
sistant adjutant-general (with the rank of major). Each brigade 
is made up of four or more regiments, and has one brigadier- 
general, two aids-de-camp, one assistant adjutant-general (with 
the rank of captain), one surgeon, one assistant quartermaster, 
one commissaiy of subsistence, and sixteen musicians as a band. 

When called into active service the President specifies the 
time (not exceeding nine months) over which that service shall 
extend. When called out, the militia is entitled to the same pay, 
rations, clothing and camp equipage as the regular army. They 
are also entitled to mileage from their homes to the place of 
rendezvous, forage for animals, pay for horses lost in service, etc. 


How to Organize a Militia Company. 

Every town where there are thirty or forty young men of sol¬ 
dierly bearing and good address should organize a militia com¬ 
pany. The benefits to be derived from the drill are immense in 
themselves. The opportunities for pleasant social intercourse 


are not equalled in any other form of organization, and beyond 
all that, in a Republic such as this, where a great standing army 
is repugnant to the spirit of our institutions and to the interests 
of the tax-payers, every American should feel himself in honor 
bound to be ready to go forward to the front at his country’s 
call, and to do the State good service in the hour of need. By 
looking back over the Parliamentary Department of this work, 
the reader will observe a number of forms of calls for different 
kinds of public meetings. The call to organize a militia company 
may be made in the same shape. It should be signed by names 
well known in the community, and care should be taken to have 
among the organizers men who have seen service and who know 
the details of military work. When the meeting has assembled, 
and it has been resolved to form a company, a roster or list is 
first made of those who agree to join. These then proceed to 
elect the officers, choosing first the captain, then the first lieu¬ 
tenant, then the second lieutenant. It is customary to elect the 
non-commissioned officers, but frequently they are appointed by 
the captain. When the organization is complete, the names of 
the officers and the details of the company are sent to the Gov¬ 
ernor, who empowers some person to swear in the troop, 
issues commissions to the captain and the two lieutenants, and 
orders the proper authorities to supply the company with rifles, 
bayonets, cartridge boxes, etc., for which receipts must be signed 
and returned to the capital. The company should fix a drill 
night, and work steadily at the “ School of the Soldier ” until they 
are thoroughly up in the handling of their arms. The officers 
have the work and the responsibility on their shoulders, and the 
success of the company will depend, more than anything else, 
on the rapidity with which the drillmasters master their own 
science. Competitive drills have been found to be the only 
certain means of bringing a company rapidly into military 
effectiveness. 

Military Etiquette. 

To settle the question of how orders should be signed, the 
editor of this work affixes the following verbatim copy of an 
order issued some time since at Fort Leavenworth: 

Fort Leavenworth, June iS, 1SS2. 

G. O. No. 34. 

Capt. Wycks will parade Co. K at S A. M. to-morrow, June 19th, and 
inarch to the railroad depot in Leavenworth, where he will report to 
Col. Duncan for orders. The troop has been ordered to New Mexico, 
and the soldiers will make their necessary preparations for leaving 
this fort permanently. McDowell, 

By Priestly, Colonel Commanding. 

First Lieut, and Post-Adjutant. 

















































THE NAVY DEPARTMENT. 


_ 

244 


s 












'HAT the duties of the Secretary of 
the Navy are, is indicated in the 
name of the Department. He has 
control of the ships of war of 
the Republic, and of all mat¬ 
ters growing out of that con¬ 
trol. There are eight Bureaus 
in the Department, among which 
the duties and responsibilities of the 
naval work are divided. These are the Bureau 
of Yards and Docks, presided over by an officer 
selected from the navy, not below the grade of 
Commander; the Bureau of Equipment and Re¬ 
cruiting, presided over by a similar officer; the 
Bureau qf Navigation, similarly officered; a Bureau 
of Ordnance, a Bureau of Construction and Repair 
follow in order, the chief of each being a naval 
officer of rank; the Bureau of Steam Engineering 
is presided over by one of the chief engineers of 
the navy; the Bureau of Provisions and Clothing, 
at the head of which is one of the paymasters of the navy, of not 
less than ten years’ standing; and lastly the Bureau of Medicine 


and Surgery, presided over by one of the surgeons of the navy. 
Each of these chiefs is appointed by the President; they hold 
office four years and receive only the salary of their rank in the 
navy. The Secretary in common with the other Cabinet officers 
gets $8,000 per year. The pay-roll then goes on: 


THE LINE AT SEA. 


1 admiral, • - $13,000 

I vice-admiral, - 9,000 

II rear-admirals, • 6,000 

25 commodores, - 5,000 

50 captains, - - 4,500 

90 commanders, - 3,5°° 

So lieut.-commanders,2,800*3,000 


2S0 lieutenants, $2,400 & $2,600 
100 masters, - i,Soo 2,000 

100 ensigns, 1,200 1,400 

40 midshipmen, 1,000 

334 cadet midship’n, 500 950 

42 mates, - 900 


STAFF. 


15 medical directors,$2,800*4,400 

100 passed ass’t eng’s 

$2,000*2,200 

13 pay directors, 

2,Soo 4,200 

iop ass’t engineers, 

1,700 

1,900 

70 chief engineers, 

2,800 4,200 

24 chaplains, 

2,500 

2,800 

50 surgeons, 

2,Soo 4,200 

11 naval constructors 

,3,200 

4,200 

50 paymasters, 

2,Soo 4,200 

5 ass’t constructors, 

2,000 

2,600 

100 passed and assist¬ 


12 professors of math 

- 


ant surgeons, 

1,900 2,200 

ematics, 

2,400 

3,500 

30 passed assistant 


9 civil engineers, 

2,400 

3,500 

paymasters, 

2,000 2,200 

Cadet engineers. 

5 °° 

1,000 

20 ass’t paymasters, 

1,700 1,900 





THE MARINE CORPS. 



1 colonel-commandant, $3,500 

iS captains, 

- 

$1,800 

1 colonel, 

3 . 5 oo 

30 1st lieutenants, 


1,500 

2 lieutenant-colonels, 

3,000 

20 2d lieutenants, - 

• 

1,400 

1 major, 

2,500 




MARINE CORPS STAFF. 



3 majors, 

$2,500 

2 captains, 

• 

$2,000 


RETIRED LIST. 



1 brigadier-general, 

- 

4 captains, 

• 

. 

1 lieutenant-colonel, 

- 

2 1st lieutenants, - 

. 

. 

3 majors, 

- 

3 2d lieutenants, 

- 

- 


Attached to the Bureau of Navigation is a hydrographic office 
which provides charts, sailing directions and manuals for the use 
of the naval and merchant marine. The Nautical Almanac is 
prepared at the Naval Observatory. 

Rank in the Army and Navy. 

The relative rank in the two arms of the service runs as fol¬ 
lows : 

The admiral with the general, the vice-admiral with the lieu¬ 
tenant-general, rear-admirals with major-generals, commodores 
with brigadier-generals, captains with colonels, commanders 
with lieutenant-colonels, lieutenant-commanders with majors, 
lieutenants with captains, masters with 1st lieutenants, and en¬ 
signs with 2d lieutenants. 


/ 

<5 


.M 


































































THE NAVY DEPARTMENT. 



The Naval Force. 

There are now with the navy, counting cadets at Annapolis 
Academy, 1,103 officers °f the line, 693 staff officers, 242 warrant 
officers; total, 2,038 officers of all grades. There are 7,500 
enlisted men and boys, and a marine corps of 77 officers and 
1,500 men—grand total, 11,115 men. The fleet consists of 65 
steam vessels, 23 wooden sailing vessels, 24 ironclads, 2 torpedo 
boats and 25 tugs—total, 139, only half of which are fit for duty. 

The Navies of the World. 


COUNTRIES. 

NO. 

OF VES¬ 
SELS. 

NO. OF 

MEN. 

COST OF 

NAVY. 

Argentine Republic. 

3 

10 

4 1 

7 

23 

56 

99* 

6,369 

172 

4,984 

$ 550,439 

4,633,669 

Austria-Hungary. 

Belgium. 

Brazil. 

5,898,132 

Canada, Dominion of. 

Chili .. 

1 ,468 


China. 




1,000,000 

1 ,3^3,940 

Denmark. 

33 

14 

258 

86 

23S 

15 

67 

27 

4 

122 

123 

18 

44 

10 

3S9 

*39 

*3* 

7S 

*39 

4 

I,I2S 

Egypt. 

France. 

48,283 

IS,SlS 

58,800 

652 

16,140 

5,551 

32,267,498 
9,722,721 
5*,'607, *75 
*,056,536 
9,227,132 

3,015,000 




Italy. 




5,9*4 

4,342 

4>S49>776 

448,632 




3,569 
530 
3°, *94 
*5,i79 
5,925 
23,000 

**,**5 

200 

1,607,411 



*9,268,755 

6,429, *63 
* ,424,250 
2,816,000 
15,686,671 



Turkey. 






Our Naval History. 

Since Paul Jones carried the American flag into English 
waters in the Revolutionary war, our navy has been a just source 
of national pride. In the Revolutionary war the marine forces 
did good service, and one of the brightest pages in our history 
is the record of the American men-of-war in 1812. In the Mexi¬ 
can war the fleet compelled the surrender of Vera Cruz and 
Monterey, and during the Civil war the navy did yeoman service 
in blockading the Southern ports, capturing and destroying a 
total of over 1,200 sailing vessels, while on the Confederate side 
the exploits of the cruisers read like a chapter of romance. 


Secretaries of the Navy. 


Benjamin Stoddart, Md. 1799 

Robert Smith, Md. 1S02 

Jacob Crowninshield, Mass. 1S05 

Paul Hamilton, S. C. 1S09 

William Jones, Penn. 1813 

Benjamin W. Crowninshield, 

Mass. 1814 

Smith Thompson, N. Y. 1S1S 

Samuel L. Southard, N. J. 1823 

John Branch, N. C. 1S29 

Levi Woodbury, N. H. 1S31 

Mahlon Dickerson, N. J. 1S34 

James K. Paulding, N. Y. 183S 

George E. Badger, N. C. 1S41 

Abel P. Upshur, Va. 1S41 

David Henshaw, Mass. ) g 
Negatived by Senate, i 1 ™ 


Thomas W. Gilmer, Va. 1S44 

John Y. Mason, Va. 1S44 

George Bancroft, Mass. 1S45 

John Y. Mason, Va. 1S46 

William B. Preston, Va. 1S49 

William A. Graham, N. C. 1S50 

John P. Kennedy, Md. 1852 

James C. Dobbin, N. C. 1S53 

Isaac Toncey, Conn. 1857 

Gideon Welles, Conn. 1S61 

Adolph E. Boui. 1S69 

George M. Robertson. 1S69 

Richard W. Thompson. 1S77 

Nathan Goff, Jr. 1S81 

William H. Hunt. 1SS1 



Al 


•f o 

t 


v 






















































































fHE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 


HE Postmaster-General is ap¬ 
pointed by the President. His term, 
unless he dies, resigns or is removed, 
continues for one month after the 
Presidential term expires. There are 
three Assistant Postmasters-General, 
appointed by the President, and an 
Assistant Attorney-General, appointed 
by the Postmaster-General, in this 
Department. 

THE OATH. 

Every person employed in the postal service, 
from the Postmaster-General down, before en¬ 
tering upon his or her duties, or drawing any 
salary, takes the following oath: 

“I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that 
I will faithfully perform all the duties required of 
me, and abstain from everything forbidden by 
the laws, in relation to the establishment of 
post-offices and post-roads within the United 
States; and that X will honestly and truly ac¬ 
count for, qnd pay over, any money belonging 
to the said United States which may come into 
my possession or control: So help me God.” 

Controlling the machinery of the whole 
postal system, the duties of the Postmaster-Gen¬ 
eral are multifarious, and most of them appear plainly in the detailed 
workings of the service. The Postmaster-General reports annually 
to Congress all contracts for carrying the mails made within the pre¬ 
ceding year, with all particulars concerning them; a statement of all 
land and water mail routes established within the year, and of all 
allowances made to mail contractors above the contract prices, and 
why; a detailed statement of the finances of the Department; a report 
of fines assessed against mail contractors ; a copy of each contract for 
carrying mails between the United States and foreign countries, and a 
statement showing its benefits to the Department; a report on the 
postal business and agencies in foreign countries; a statement of the 
money expended in the Department, with details. 


The Personnel 


Of a post-office in one of the larger cities consists of the Postmaster, 
his private secretary and inquiry clerk, Assistant Postmaster, auditor 
of accounts, bookkeeper, cashier, watchman, mailing clerks, delivery 
clerks, letter carriers, registered letter clerks, money order clerks, 
special postal agents. 


The Postmaster havinggeneral supervision, his private secretary 
attends to the correspondence relating to the business of the office. 

The Inquiry Clerk receives all complaints about missing let¬ 
ters, and institutes searches for them. 

The Assistant Postmaster is the ever present superintendent. 

The Auditor examines and corrects the accounts of the Postmaster 
with the Government, and with his subordinate officers, clerks and 
employes. 

The Bookkeeper keeps the accounts of the Postmaster with the 
Government, and with every person doing business with his post- 
office. 

The Cashier has supervision of all the money paid into or out of 
the post-office, and provides for its safe keeping and proper deposit 
with the United States Sub-Treasurer or in some other designated 
place. 

The Mail Clerks open all packages of letters addressed to the 
office, count and compare them with the post bills accompanying the 
packages, and check any errors in the bills, file the bills and send the 
letters to the letter carriers’ department, the general delivery, the 
registry office or the money order office, as may be necessary. 

If the office is a distributing post-office, letters for other places 
within the distributing limits of the office are sorted, billed, repacked 
and forwarded; some of the clerks sort out newspapers and period¬ 
icals for delivering or mailing; other clerks receive, sort, stamp, bill 
and mail letters for other places; others receive and mail transient 
newspapers; others receive newspapers and periodicals sent from 
publishers direct to subscribers, weigh them to find out the amount of 
postage to be prepaid, and send the account to the proper officer. 
These papers are then forwarded without further charge. 

Delivery Clerks receive letters, papers and periodicals not 
directed to any special box, street or number, and place them in the 
general deliver)', to be called for by the owners. Letters directed to a 
specified box are placed in it and remain until called for. 

The Superintendent of Free Delivery has charge of the letter- 
carriers. 

One or more clerks in the general delivery assort and deliver the 
letters and papers sent to their department. 

When letters remain a set time in the general delivery without being 
called for, they are advertised and kept a certain time longer, and are 
then forwarded to the Dead Letter Office. 

Postal Agents superintend the railway postal service, and the 
special agents in the free delivery and money order service, in the in¬ 
terest of the Post-office Department. 


The Work. 



































































TIIE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 


247 


Stamps. 

Stamps are sold by the sheet or In greater quantities, and stamped 
envelopes by the package or larger quantity, and postal cards by 
packages or hundreds, in a wholesale department ot the post-office. 
In a retail department they are sold singly or in small quantities. 
Scales are kept in this department to weigh transient packages to 
ascertain the postage to be prepaid. 

Registered Letters. 

The Postmaster-General, for the greater security of valuable letters, 
has established a uniform system of registration. The fee for register¬ 
ing is ten cents prepaid in addition to the regular postage. The regis¬ 
try clerk gives the person registering a letter a receipt properly 
describing it. The letter is classified on the books of the office as a 
registered letter; it is then mailed to the Postmaster at the post-office 
to which it is directed, is classified there as a registered letter, and de¬ 
livered to the person to whom it is addressed only upon his giving a 
receipt for it as a registered letter. 

Money Orders. 

The Postmaster-General has established a uniform money-order 
system at all suitable post-offices known as “ money order offices.” 
Blank applications for money orders are kept at money order offices ; 
each applicant fills a blank with his name, the name and address of 
the party to whom the order is to be paid, and the amount and date of 
the application. 

The Postmaster who issues a money order sends notice immediately 
by mail to the Postmaster on whom it is drawn. 

Money orders are payable only to the persons in whose names they 
are drawn, but the right to collect the amount may be transferred in 
writing on the money order to one other individual by the person in 
whose favor the order is drawn. After a money order has been taken 
out, if the purchaser desires to change or alter it, the Postmaster can 
take it back and give a new one instead, but a new fee is charged. 

The Postmaster who issues a money order, on the application of 
the person who obtained it and the return of the order, shall repay the 
amount, but not the fee. 

Any Postmaster who issues a money order without having first 
received the money for it, is guilty of a misdemeanor and maybe fined 
from $50 to $500. 

The Postmaster of any city having branch offices, subject to him, 
may have the money order system run through said branch offices, 
but he is accountable along with his sureties for money passing 
through such branches. Transfers of money order funds from one 
Postmaster to another, or money from the postal revenue to the 
money order fund at any post-office where it may be needed, is regu¬ 
lated by the Postmaster-General. 

The New Money Order Law. 

The general provisions of the law passed by Congress in 18S3, 
reducing the fees for post-office money orders and providing for the 
issue of postal notes, are: The limit of single money orders is raised 
from $50 to $100, and the following scale of fees is established: Orders 
not exceeding $10, 8 cents; $10 to $15, 10 cents; $15 to $30, 15 cents; $30 
to $40, 20 cents; $40 to $50, 25 cents ; $50 to $60, 30 cents ; $60 to $70, 35 
cents; $70 to $So, 40 cents ; $So to $100, 45 cents ; for sums not exceed¬ 
ing $5 the “postal note” costs 3 cents. The postal notes are used 
under these conditions: Postmasters issue them payable to bearer; 
they are, like orders, payable only at the office of issue and at the office 
on which they are drawn; after a note has been paid, no matter to 


whom, the responsibility of the Government ceases, so that if one is 
lost or stolen, the owner is the sufferer; and a note will become invalid 
at the end of three months from the last dav of the month on which it 
is issued, after which time the bearer must pay three cents more and 
have it sent to Washington for renewal before he can get his 
money. A note issued under these regulations in July, for instance, 
will not be paid, without renewal at the extra charge, after October 31. 
The object of this restriction is to prevent a general circulation of the 
notes as money. The shape and size are similar to those of a bank¬ 
note. The regulations for issue and payment are printed on the face, 
space being left for the name of the office of payment, the amount, the 
name of the issuing Postmaster, the signature of the person to whom 
payment is made, and the stamps of the offices of issue and payment. 
At one end is printed a series of months and years, and at the other 
three rows of figures, for dollars, dimes and cents. The Postmaster 
issuing the note, with an ordinary punch cuts out the month and year 
of issue and the amount which corresponds to that written in the body 
of the paper. It is obvious that the notes are as good as money to 
any one getting possession of them, save in tits two respects that they 
are payable only at two places, and only'with in a limited time. 

Commissions. 

As compensation, a Postmaster receives a commission of one-third 
of the whole amount of fees collected on issuing money orders, and 
one-fourth of one per cent on the gross amount of orders paid at his 
office. Provided that the compensation with his salary does not ex¬ 
ceed $4,000 a year (New York City excepted). 

Officers. 

There is a Government officer at AVashington known as the Super¬ 
intendent of the Money Order System, whose salary is $3,000 a year. 

The officers in charge of the money order division of a post-office 
are a superintendent, an examiner and a cashier. The superintendent, 
under the instructions of the Postmaster, controls the operation of the 
office. The examiner, before passing a money order to the cashier 
assures himself of its correctness and makes a memorandum of the 
name, place of issue, number and amount. The cashier, receiving the 
order from the examiner, pays the money. 

Advertising Letters. 

Once a week each Postmaster advertises the list of letters uncalled 
for in his post-office. This is done in the newspaper of the vicinity 
having the largest circulation within the limit of the post-office deliv¬ 
ery, or by a written list posted in some public place. He is also re¬ 
quired to have the list posted up in some conspicuous place in the 
office. 

Dead Letters. 

Undelivered letters, having been advertised and having lain in a 
post- office a prescribed time, are sent to the Dead Better Office; so also 
are sent letters deposited in an office for mailing, on which the name 
of their destination was accidentally omitted, or on which the address 
could not be understood, or on which postage was not prepaid, and 
letters addressed to known fraudulent institutions. 

The Dead Letter Office is a branch of the Post-office Depart¬ 
ment at Washington. All letters sent to this office are opened and 
examined. If they contain valuable enclosures they are registered, 
and if the party to whom they are addressed or the writer cannot be 
found, the contents are disposed of and an account kept of the amounts 
realized in each case. Should cither the sender or the person addressed 
apply within four years, he can claim the money. All other letters 
are disposed of as the Postmaster-General directs. 


































248 


THE POST-OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 


Writer’s Address. 

Letters bearing 1 upon the outside the name and address of the writer 
are not advertised, but, if not called for within the time mentioned on 
them, having been prepaid, are returned without further charge. 

Postal Cars. 


On the railway postal cars the clerks sort the mails for each station 
on the route and deliver them whilst in motion by throwing the bags 
off the car at the proper places, or handing them to the mail messen¬ 
gers at the depots where the train halts. 

Postmasters. 

There are five classes of postmasters. The fourth and fifth classes, 
who do the least business, are appointed by the Postmaster-General; 
the others by the President. A Postmaster must reside within the 
delivery of his office. He must, before entering upon his duties, give 
bond to the Government for their faithful performance, with good 
security. If a money order office, there are additional conditions on 
the bond. lie must ever}’ three months report to the Postmaster- 
General a sworn statement of all moneys received by him from postage 
or other sources connected with his department. If he neglects for 
one month to make this quarterly return he and his sureties forfeit 
and pay double the amount of the gross receipts at his office during 
any previous or subsequent period of time, and if at the time of trial 
no account has been rendered, they are liable to a penalty in such a 
sum as may be estimated equivalent. 

In a city where there is an Assistant Treasurer of the United States, 
the Postmaster must deposit with him all moneys collected. Where 
there is no Assistant Treasurer the Postmaster must keep such funds 
safely, subject to the order of the Postmaster-General. He can 
neither lend, use, deposit in an unauthorized bank, nor exchange for 
other money, the public funds which come into his hands. 

Contracts for carrying the mails (except in the railway service) 
are made with the lowest bidder, he giving ample security for the per¬ 
formance of the work. 

The Railway Service is classified according to the amount of 
mail moved. Companies owning routes of the first class are paid $300 
per mile per year; second class, $100; third class, $50. 

Letter Carriers are employed in towns where there are 20,000 
inhabitants. They must give bond with security. They are uniformed. 
Any person assaulting a letter-carrier while performing his duty is 
liable to a fine of from $100 to $1,000, or imprisonment from one to 
three years. 


Rates of Postage. 

Postal Cards, i cent each, go without further charge to all parts 
of the United States and Canada. Cards for foreign countries (within 
the Postal Union), 2 cents each. 

All Letters, to all parts of the United States and Canada, 2 cents 
per half ounce. 

Local, or “ Drop” Letters, that is, for the city or town where 


deposited, 2 cents where the carrier system is adopted, and 1 cent 
where there is no carrier system. 

First Class. —Letters and all other written matter, whether sealed 
or unsealed, and all other matter sealed,nailed, sewed, tied or fastened 
in any manner so that it cannot be easily examined, 2 cents per half 
ounce or fraction thereof. Postal cards, 1 cent each. Postal cards 
are unmailable with any writing or printing on the address side, ex¬ 
cept the direction, or with anything pasted upon or attached to them. 

Second Class. —Only for publishers and news agents; 2 cents per 
pound. 

Third Class. —Printed matter, in unsealed wrappers only (all mat¬ 
ter inclosed in notched envelopes must pay letter rates), 1 cent for each 
two ounces or fraction thereof, which must be fully prepaid. This 
includes books, circulars, chromos, engravings, handbills, lithographs, 
magazines, music, newspapers, pamphlets, photographs, proof-sheets 
and manuscript accompanying the same, reproductions by the electric 
pen, hektograph, metallograph, papvrograph, and, in short, any re¬ 
production upon paper by any process except handwriting and the 
copying press. Limit of weight, 4 lbs., except for a single book, 
which may weigh more. 

Fourth Class. —All mailable matter, not included in the three pre¬ 
ceding classes, which is so prepared for mailing as to be easily with¬ 
drawn from the wrapper and examined. Rate, 1 cent per ounce or 
fraction thereof. Limit of weight, 4 lbs. Full payment compulsory. 

Foreign Postage. —The following are the postal rates with 
Europe. The rates for letters are for the half ounce or fraction there¬ 
of, and those for newspapers for 2 ounces or fraction thereof: 

To Great Britain and Ireland, France, Spain, and all parts of Ger¬ 
many, including Austria, Denmark, Switzerland, Italy, Russia, Nor¬ 
way, Sweden, Turkey (European and Asiatic), Egypt, letters 5 cents, 
newspapers 1 cent for each 2 ounces or fraction thereof. 

To Australia, letters, via San Francisco (except to New South 
Wales), s cents; via Brindisi, 15 cents; newspapers, via San Fran¬ 
cisco, 2 cents; via Brindisi, 4 cents. China, letters, via San Francisco, 
Scents; via Brindisi, 13 cents; 4 cents for each paper not weighing 
over 4 ounces. British India, Italian mail, letters 5 cents ; newspapers 
1 cent for 2 ounces. J apan, letters, via San Francisco, 5 cents ; news¬ 
papers 1 cent for 2 ounces. 


Postmasters-Ceneral. 


Samuel Osgood, Mass. 1789 

Timothy Pickering, Penn. 1791 

Joseph Habersham, Ga. 1795 

Gideon Granger, Conn. 1S02 

Return J. Meigs, Ohio. 1814 

John McLean, Ohio. 1823 

William T. Barry, Ky. 1829 

Amos Kendall, Ky. 1S35 

John M. Niles, Conn. 1840 

Francis Granger, N. Y. 1841 

Charles A. Wickliffe, Ky. 1841 

Cave Johnson, Tenn. 1845 

Jacob Collamer, Vt. 1849 

Nathan K. Hall, N. Y. 1850 


Samuel D. Hubbard, Conn. 1852 


James Campbell, Penn. 

J §53 

Aaron V. Brown, Tenn. 

JS 57 

Joseph Holt, Ky. 

1859 

Horatio King, Mo. 

1S61 

Montgomery Blair, Md. 

1861 

William Denison, Ohio. 

1S64 

A. W. Randall, Wis. 

1S66 

John A. J. Creswell. 

1S69 

Marshall Jewell. 

1874 

James N. Tyner. 

1S76 

David M. Key. 

1877 

Horace Maynard. 

1880 

Thomas L. James. 

1881 

Timothy O. Howe. 

1S81 

W. Q. Gresham. 

1SS3 





































LIST of the Bureaus over which 
the Secretary of the Interior has 
supervision includes the following : 
The census, the public lands and 
mines, the Indians, pensions and 
bounties, patents for inventors, and 
education. He reports annually 
to Congress all claims for depreda¬ 
tions committed by the Indians, 
all the expenditures of the differ¬ 
ent branches under his charge, and estimates 
for further appropriations. The transactions 
of this Department are conducted through six 
branches, each governed by a Commissioner: 
The General Land Office. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs. 

The Pension Office. 

The Patent Office. 

The Bureau of Education. 

The Bureau of Agriculture. 

The Commissioner of the General Land Office 

Superintends the survey and sale of the public lands of the 
United States; issues patents for all lands granted by authority 
of government. Plats of surveys and all information concerning 
the public lands can be found in his office. All patents issued 
from the office are signed by the President, countersigned by the 
Commissioner, and have the seal of the office affixed. 

A Surveyor-General is appointed to each of the surveying dis¬ 
tricts: Louisiana, Florida, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, 
Dakota, Oregon, Washington, Colorado, New Mexico, Califor¬ 
nia, Idaho, Nevada, Montana, Utah, Wyoming and Arizona. 
When the surveys in any State are finished and all the maps, 
field notes and other records turned over to the Secretary of 
State of such State, the office of Surveyor-General ceases in that 
State. 


How to Secure a Homestead. 

All the public lands not already disposed of by reservations or by 
grants or sales are owned by the United States Government. These 
lands, except such as are reserved by any treaty or by Presidential 
proclamation for any purpose, or that are lying within the corporate 
limits of any city or town, or those on which salt springs are situated, 
are open to pre-emption. 

This right of pre-emption has proved of inestimable value in popu¬ 
lating and bringing into subjection the vast tracts ofwilderness spread 
over the face of the country. This wise land system induces the 
sturdy sons of toil to come out of the “ house of bondage” in the 
densely crowded districts of the East to create new homes in the re¬ 
gions of the setting sun. 

Who may Pre-empt. 

Any head of a family, or widow, or single person over twenty-one 
years of age, being a citizen actually or in prospective, having settled 
and made a home on any of these lands, may at the nearest land office 
enter any quantity of land not exceeding 160 acres by the payment to 
the Government of $2.50 per acre for a tract of lessthanSi acres or$i.2S 
per acre for a larger one. Unless he or she already owns 320 acres of 
land in any State or Territory, or has abandoned land already owned 
to settle in the same State or Territory. 

No person is entitled to more than one pre-emption, nor can he 
secure a second tract of public land by this means. 

Land Offices. 

Land offices, where all information regarding the settlement and 
entry of these lands may be obtained, are located close to the public 
lands. In Missouri, at Boonville, Ironton and Springfield; Alabama, 
at Mobile, Huntsville and Montgomery; Louisiana, at New Orleans, 
Natchitoches and Monroe ; Michigan, at Detroit, East Saginaw, Ionia, 
Marquette, Traverse City or Cheboygan; Ohio , at Chillicothe; In¬ 
diana, at Indianapolis; Illinois, at Springfield ; Arkansas, at Dardan- 
elle, Little Rock, Camden and Harrison; Florida, at Tallahassee, 
Gainesville or East Florida; Iovja, at Des Moines, Council 
Bluffs, Fort Dodge and Sioux City; Wisconsin, at Menasha, St. Croix 
Falls, Wausau, LaCrosse, Bayfield and Eau Claire; California, at 
San Francisco, Marysville, Humboldt, Stockton, Visalia, Sacramento, 
Los Angeles, Shasta and Susanville; Nevada, at Carson City, Austin, 
Belmont, Aurora and Elko; Washington, at Olympia, Vancouver or 


*■ 


Zl 


y 



































































































\ 


250 




THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 


Columbia River, and Walla-Walla; Minnesota, Taylor’s Falls, St. 
Cloud, Duluth, Alexandria, Jackson, New Ulm, Litchfield, Redwood 
Falls and Oak Lake; Oregon, at Oregon City, Roseburgh, Le Grand, 
and Lake View; Kansas, at Topeka, Salina, Independence, Concor¬ 
dia, Wichita and Cowpcr; Nebraska, West Point, Beatrice, Lincoln, 
Dakota City, Grand Island, North Platte and Lowell; Dakota, at Ver¬ 
million, Springfield, Pembina and Yankton; Colorado, at Pueblo, 
Denver City, Fair Play and Central City; New Mexico, at Santa Fe; 
Idaho, at Boise City; Montana, at Helena; Utah, at Salt Lake City; 
Wyoming, at Cheyenne; Arizona, at Prescott; Mississippi, at J ackson. 

How Pre-emption is Perfected. 

Within thirty days of first settling on the land, the pre-emptor must 
file a written declaration of his intentions. Failing to make this state¬ 
ment, or to furnish proof of settlement and improvement, or to make 
the required payment within the year, any other person may enter the 
same tract. WTien more than one person settles on the same tract, 
the first comer has the right of pre-emption. 

In entering land at the land office, the pre-emptor must sivear that 
he is the head of a family, or that he is twenty-one years old ; that he 
is a citizen, or is about to become one, or has served in the army or 
navy of the United States ; that he has never before availed himself of 
his privilege to pre-empt public land ; that he does not own 320 acres 
of land in any State or Territory; that he has not settled upon and 
improved this land to sell it on speculation, but for his own use; that 
he has not bargained with any other person that the title of said land, 
either in whole or in part, shall be vested in any other than himself 
alone. 

The certificate of this oath is filed in the land office, and a copy of it 
is also sent to the General Land Office for preservation. 

On making the application the pre-emptor must pay a fee of five 
dollars on a claim of eighty acres or less, and ten dollars on a larger 
one. 

The certificate of the Register of the Land Office is notissuedto the 
applicant until proof is furnished of a five years’ continuous residence 
and cultivation after the entry has been made. The payment must be 
complete before the expiration of the five years. The applicant 


must also prove that he still retains the land. Then, after taking the 
oath of allegiance to the United States Government, he is entitled to a 
patent. This homestead then cannot be levied upon and sold for any 
debts contracted before the Government patent was issued. 

Penalties for Perjury. 

By false swearing at the time of making the entry, the pre-emptor 
forfeits the money he has paid and the land itself; and if he has agreed 
to convey his pre-emptive title to any other person, that conveyance is 
null and void. 

False swearing at the time of applying for the patent renders all the 
parties liable to punishment for perjury. 

How to Shorten the Period ot Pre-emption. 

The time of granting the patent is shortened to three years if the 
claimant proves that he has timber of his own planting growing on 
the tract for two years, one acre with the trees no farther apart than 
twelve feet for every sixteen acres of the homestead. 

Officers of the Land Office. 

There are a Register of the Land Office and a Receiver of Public 
Money (the latter reports to the Treasury Department), appointed by 
the President, for every land district, and each is required to reside at 
the place where the land office to which he is appointed is directed to 
be kept. Each receives a salary of $500 a year besides fees and com¬ 
missions for locating land warrants, issuing certificates, etc.; but the 
salary, fees and commissions cannot exceed $3,000. All balances over 
this amount must be paid into the United States Treasury. The re¬ 
ceivers make monthly returns to the Treasury; should any Register 
knowingly and falsely inform a person applying to enter land that 
the same land had been already entered, and refuse to permit the per¬ 
son so applying to enter the land, he makes himself liable to the ap¬ 
plicant for damages of five dollars for each acre of the land in ques¬ 
tion, which may be recovered in an action for debt, before any proper 
court. 















































THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, 


2 5 r 








THE BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS. 


L matters concerning' the Indians are in charge of 
the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. He examines 
all accounts and vouchers for claims and disburse¬ 
ments connected with Indian affairs. He reports an¬ 
nually a tabular statement showing the several objects 
of expenditure under his supervision, and embodying 
the statements of all agents issuing supplies of any 
kind to the Indians, with the number of Indians re¬ 
ceiving them. 

There is an Advisory Board connected with this Bureau, consist¬ 
ing of not more than ten persons, appointed by the President. 
Members of this Board receive no compensation; they are chosen 
as men eminent in 
the community, who 
have exhibited some 
peculiar mark of fit¬ 
ness for the position. 

The Board supervises 
the expenditures of 
money appropriated 
for the Indians, and 
inspects all goods 
purchased for them. 

It has access to all 
books and papers re¬ 
lating to Indian af¬ 
fairs in any Govern¬ 
ment office. The 
Board has no direct 
power further than 
that of inspection. 


Inspectors. 

From one to five 
Indian Inspectors are 
appointed by the 
President. Their duty 
is to visit twice a 
year each Indian su- 
pcrintendency and agency, and fully investigate all matters belonging 
to the business of each, including the examination of accounts, the 
manner of expending the money, the number of Indians provided for, 
contracts of all kinds, the condition of the Indians, their advance in 
civilization, the extent of the reservations, and what use is made of 
the lands set apart for that purpose, and all matters belonging to the 
Indian service. 

Each inspector has power to examine on oath all officers and others 
in and about the superintendencies and agencies, and to suspend any 
superintendent or employe and appoint others temporarily. He 
has power to enforce the laws in the several agencies and superinten¬ 


dencies. The same inspector does not visit and investigate any 
agency or superintendency twice in succession. 

Four or more superintendents are appointed by the President. Their 
duties are each in his own district to supervise and control the official 
conduct and acts of all persons employed by the Governmentin Indian 
affairs. 

Indian Agents. 

Indian Agents are appointed by the President. They must give bond 
with good security before enlisting upon their duties. Every agent 
must reside and keep his agency near the tribe of Indians to which he 

is assigned. Within 
his agency he man¬ 
ages and superin¬ 
tends the intercourse 
with the Indians and 
enforces all rules pre¬ 
scribed to him. No 
person employed in 
Indian affairs may 
have an interest in 
any trade with them, 
under a penalty of 
$S,ooo and removal 
from office. 

Teachers may be 
employed for the im¬ 
provement of the In¬ 
dians, when it is 
deemed opportune. 

Indian 

Traders. 

A bond of $5,000, with 
approved security, 
must be given, war¬ 
ranting the observ¬ 
ance of all laws with 
respect to intercourse with the Indians, by any one proposing to 
become an Indian trader. 

Pension Office. 

The Commissioner of Pensions has the management of this office. 
Pension Agents are required to give bond; they receive a commission 
of two per cent on all money paid ont by them to pensioners, and a 
fee of thirty cents on every voucher prepared and paid by them. 
Agents and their clerks may take the affidavits of pensioners and their 
witnesses, but receive no fee for that service. In paying pension the 
agent is authorized to deduct the attorney’s fee for aiding the pen- 

















































































































252 


DEPARTMENT OF TIIE INTERIOR. 


sioner. He retains a fee of thirty cents for this service. Pension sur 
geons receive $i,Soo a year; the medical referee receives $2,500. 

Boards of examining surgeons consist of three members. Inordinary 
cases each member receives one dollar fee ; in special examinations, 
three dollars. 

Patent Office. 

In this Bureau are kept all records, books, models, drawings, speci¬ 
fications and other papers and things belonging to patents for inven¬ 
tions. 

The Commissioner of Patents and the chief clerk are required to 
give bond. I 0 officer or employe in the Patent Office is allowed to 
acquire or take during his or her term of office any right or interest in 
any patent issued by the office. The Commissioner of Patents has 
copies of patent claims, laws, regulations and circulars printed for 
the information of the public. He makes an annual report to Congress 
of all matters committed to his charge. 


The Secretary of the Interior also has supervision of the Government 
Hospital for the Insane and the Columbia Deaf and Dumb Institu¬ 
tion in the District of Columbia. 

Agriculture. 

The Bureau of Agriculture, although the Commissioner is appointed 
directly by the President, is a branch of the Interior Department. 

This Bureau was created by Congress to acquire and distribute 
among the people of the United States useful information on subjects 
connected with agriculture, and to procure, propagate and distribute 
among the people valuable plants and seeds. The Commissioner of 
Agriculture is appointed by the President, and has for his subordinates 
a chief clerk, one chemist, one assistant chemist, one entomologist, 
one microscopist, one botanist, one statistician, one superintendent of 
experimental gardens and grounds, one assistant superintendent of 
same, one disbursing clerk, one superintendent of seed room, one 
assistant superintendent of same, one librarian, one engineer, one 

o 



BUREAU OF 

L_ 

Bureau of Education. 

The duties of the Commissioner of this Bureau consist in the collec¬ 
tion of facts and figures showing the condition and progress of educa¬ 
tion in the several States and Territories, to diffuse information with 
regard to the management of schools and methods of teaching, and 
promote the cause of education. 

The Miscellaneous Offices. 


AGRIC ULTURE. 


superintendent of folding-room, two attendants in museum and one 
carpenter. 

It is the duty of the Commissioner of Agriculture to procure and 
preserve all the information he can obtain concerning agriculture, by 
means of books, correspondence, experiments, practical and scientific:, 
collecting statistics, and by any appropriate method in his power. He 
is also required to collect seeds and plants, to test them by cultivation, 
propagate those that are worthy, and distribute them among agricul¬ 
turists. 



Besides the six main heads under which the workings of the Interior 
Department are carried on, there are the office of the Superintendent 
of Public Documents, and the Returns Office. The first needs no de¬ 
scription ; the latter is an office where the returns of all contracts made 
by the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy and the Secretary 
of the Interior are filed and indexed. Certified copies of any of their 
returns are furnished at a charge of five cents per hundred words. 


Secretaries of the Interior 


Thomas Ewing, Ohio. 1S49 

Alexander II. H. Stewart,Va. 1S50 
Robert McClelland, Mich. 1S53 

Jacob Thompson, Miss. 1S57 

Caleb B. Smith, Ind. 1S61 

John P. Usher, Ind. 1S63 

James Harlan, Iowa. 1S65 


O. H. Browning, Ill. 

1866 

J acob D. Cox. 

1S69 

Columbus Delano. 

CO 

-I 

0 

Zachariah Chandler. 

IS7S 

Carl Schurz. 

CO 

Samuel J. Kirkwood. 

iSSx 




























































































C> K 




y- 


THE ATTORNEY-GENERAL. 


2 53 









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ATTORNEY-GENERAL. 


N! 


( 'ill' I | i->i||];|| ll 


A A A A A AAA AAA A.Ai 





HE Attorney-General of the 
United States has charge of the De¬ 
partment of Justice. The officers 
under him are the Solicitor-General, 
three Assistant Attorneys-General, a 
Solicitor of the Treasury, a Solicitor of 
Internal Revenue, a Naval Solicitor 
and an Examiner of Claims for the De¬ 
partment of State, all of whom are ap¬ 
pointed by the President and hold office for 
four years. 

Whenever required by the President, it is the 
duty of the Attorney-General to give his advice 
and opinion on questions of law. He must 
decide on the validity of the land-title to any 
property where the Government proposes to 
erect buildings. 

He must give his opinion on any question of law arising in any of 
the Executive Departments, when called upon by the head of 
such Department. 

He superintends the District Attorneys and Marshals of the United 
States, and may employ other counsel to aid District Attorneys in 
their duties. He may send the Solicitor-General or any officer of 
his Department to any State or district of the United States, to attend 
to the interests of the Government in any Federal or State court. He has 
supervision of the accounts of District Attorneys, Marshals, Clerks and 
other officers of the United States courts. lie signs all requisitions 
for the payment of moneys appropriated for the use of his Department. 


He reports to Congress annually a full account of the business of 
his Department during the year, the expenses of the Federal courts, 
number of pending suits, number of additional counsel and attorneys 
employed, statistics* of crime, etc. The approval of the Attorney- 
General is necessary to make the opinions of his subordinates valid. 

All questions of law referred to him he may submit to his subor¬ 
dinates for examination and opinion, except such questions as involve 
a construction of the Constitution of the United States. 

The officers of this Department assist in performing all legal service 
required for the other Departments, in prosecuting or defending Gov¬ 
ernment claims and suits. The travelling expenses of the officers of 
this Department when on duty are paid in addition to their salaries. 


Attorney s-Ceneral. 


Edmund Randolph, Va. 

17S9 

William Bradford, Penn. 

'794 

Charles Lee, Va. 

1 795 

Levi Lincoln, Mass. 

iSoi 

Robert Smith, Md. 

1S05 

John Breckenridge, Ky. 

1S05 

Cxsar A. Rodney, Del. 

1S07 

William Pinkney, Md. 

1S11 

Richard Rush, Penn. 

1S14 

William Wirt, Va. 

1S17 

John M. Berrien, Ga. 

1S29 

Roger B. Taney, Md. 

1S31 

Benjamin T. Butler, N. Y. 

1S34 

Felix Grundy, Tenn. 

1S3S 

Henry D. Gilpin, Penn. 

1S40 

John J. Crittenden, Ky. 

iS4t 

Hugh S. Legare, S. C. 

iS4t 

John Nelson, Md. 

'S 44 

John Y. Mason, Va. 

1S45 


Nathan Clifford, Me. 
Isaac Toucey, Conn. 
Reverdy Johnson, Md. 
John J. Crittenden, Ky. 
Caleb Cushing, Mass. 
Jeremiah S. Black, Penn. 
Edwin M. Stanton, Penn. 
Edward Bates, Mo. 

James Speed, Ky. 

Henry Stanbcry, Ohio. 
William M. Evarts. 

E. Rockwood Hoar. 
Amos T. Ackerman. 
George II. Williams. 
Edwards Pierpont. 
Alphonso Taft. 

Charles Devens. 

Wayne MacVeagh. 
Benjamin II. Brewster. 


1S46 

1S4S 

1549 

1550 
iS 53 

1S57 

1560 

1561 

1564 
1S66 

1565 

1569 

1570 

1571 

15 7 5 

1576 

1577 

1551 
1SS1 


\ 


C, \ 

V 
















































































254 


THE SUPREME COURT. 



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“The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Su¬ 
preme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from 
time to time ordain and establish.”— Constitution. 

J udges both of the Supreme and inferior courts hold office during 
good behavior, and there can be no decrease in the compensation they 
receive during their continuance in office. The power of the judiciary 
extends to all cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, 
the laws of the United States and all treaties with foreign countries. 

The Supreme Court of the United States consists of a Chief Justice 
and eight Associate Justices, appointed by the President. 

Precedence of the Associate Justices is according to the dates of their 
commissions. Should the commissions of two or more bear the same 
date, precedence will be according to their age. 

Should a vacancy occur in the office of Chief Justice, his duties de¬ 
volve upon the Associate Justice who is first in precedence. 

If one of these Judges, after having held office for ten years, being 
then seventy years of age, resigns, he will receive for the remainder of 
his life the same compensation as he did whilst a member of the court. 

Any six of the Justices form a quorum. 

The Supreme Court appoints a clerk, a marshal and a reporter. 

The Clerk is under the same oath, restrictions and bond as the 
clerks in the United States District Courts. Deputy clerks when needed 
may be appointed and removed by the court. 


pensation as is received by similar officers in the Lower House of 
Congress. 

The Reporter of the Supreme Court must print and publish the 
decisions of the court within eight months after they are made, and 
every subsequent year he must issue a similar volume. He receives 
for his first volume $2,500, and for each of the succeeding ones $1,500. 
They must be completed at the prescribed time. 

Annually, beginning on the second Monday in October, the Su¬ 
preme Court holds its session. Adjourned or special terms are held 
when necessary. 

The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is pointed out by the Consti¬ 
tution, and need not be repeated here. In action at law against citi¬ 
zens of the United States, trials of issues of fact are always by jury'. 

Federal Courts. 

(Chief Justice. (Clerk. ( ,.. 1 

Supreme Court ) Eight Associate ) Marshal. ) Attorney-General. 

I Justices. ( Reporter. I Solicitor-General. 

r The 9 Justices of r Clerks. 

9 Circuit Courts ^Supreme, and 9 t District Mar- 
( Circuit Judges. ( shals. 

55 District Courts $55 Judges. ^Marshals. i District Attor 

l C Grand J uries. ( ne ^ s ' 

Juries are called In all courts when requisite. 


{ District Attor- 
J neys. 


The Marshal is required to attend the court at its sessions, to 
serve and execute all processes and orders issuing from it, or made by 
the Chief or Associate Justices, in pursuance of law, and to take charge 
of all property of the United States used by the court or its members. 
He may, subject to the approval of the Chief Justice, appoint assist¬ 
ants and messengers to attend court, with the same allowance of com¬ 


Districts. 

The United States are divided into fifty-five Federal judicial districts. 
A Judge is appointed for each district by the President. Each Judge 
must reside in the district for which he is appointed. All the records 
of the court are kept at the place where the District Court is held. 



















































































o 


THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 


255 


111 

i 

m 





o<\THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT.^ 



Duties of the American Congress. 



LTHOUGH the duties and re¬ 
sponsibilities of the American Con¬ 
gress are very plainly laid down in 
the Constitution, a further exam¬ 
ination of the functions of the 
Legislative Department cannot but 
be of interest. Congress is divided 
y-> ^ into the Senate and the House of 
Representatives, a division which 


T* was made because our Government 
was founded upon the model of England, 
whose Parliament consists of a House of Peers 
and a House of Commons. The Senate is 
supposed to play the same part in American 
legislation which the House of Peers does in 
Britain. It is a sort of governor in the ma¬ 
chinery of the body politic, which exerts a con¬ 
servative and prudent influence on law-making. 
The Senate originally, although that meaning 
has been largely neglected, meant the conclave 
of the sovereign States of the Union, a council which was to 
look more closely after the general and external affairs of the 
confederacy, while the House of Representatives was to repre¬ 
sent the people of the whole Union. This meaning, it has been 
said above, has been largely lost in the course of time, but the 
fiction remains, and the division of the powers of Government 
between the two bodies illustrates the purpose which the fathers 
of the Government had in the original separation into two 
Houses. 

The Senate. 

The Senate consists of two Senators from each State of the Federal 
Union; these Senators are chosen by the Legislatures of the respective 
States and hold office for six years. There was a strong effort made 
at the time of the drafting of the Constitution to extend the term for 
life, but this was believed to savor too much of aristocracy, and after 
long debate six years was agreed upon as a compromise measure. 
The pay of Senators is $5,000 per year. The Senate is presided over 
by the Vice-President, and when he has for any cause vacated his 
office a President pro tempore, of the Senate is elected. There are 
now (1S83) seventy-six Senators. All impeachments are tried by 
the Senate, and when the President of the United States is on trial the 
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court must preside. The Senate must ap¬ 


prove of treaties made with foreign governments by the President be 
fore they can become binding, and the consent of the Senate is nec¬ 
essary to the appointments to all the great offices of the State made 
by the President. The Senate is the only permanent body in the 
United States Government, the elections being always so ordered that 
two-thirds of the Senators hold over. 


The House of Representatives. 

In the early days of the Federal Union the only legislative body was 
the Continental Congress, which exercised both the executive and 
legislative functions of government, and which occasionally per¬ 
formed judicial duties also. The old Congress piloted the nation 
through the Revolutionary war, but, although effective for its original 
purpose, xt was not able for the work which fell upon its shoulders 
under the articles of confederation. The articles themselves were 
unsuited to the land, and in a little while it became evident that the 
United States experiment would end in disaster and disappointment 
unless something was done to give it shape and direction. 

The man that had led the Continental Army to glory and freedom 
through the Revolution again came forward and preserved by his 
wise statesmanship the Republic which his military genius had 
founded. At the call of George Washington the American Constitu¬ 
tion was born, and the keystone of the Constitution is the House of 
Representatives. This body is the brain of the nation; on its floor 
all the momentous issues of the Republic have been settled; no 
higher office can a citizen win than a seat in the council of the 
Nation, none greater in the influence which it wields, not for America 
alone, but for the future of the human race. 

The number of Representatives is decided by the census, which is 
taken every ten years. As soon as this is done, Congress decides upon 
the number of Representatives for the ensuing decade. The number 
since the establishment of the Constitution has been as follows: 


17S9 — 1793, 
1793 — 1803, 
1803 — 1S13, 
1S13 — 1S23, 
1823 — 1833, 
1833 — 1S43, 


65 

JOS 

149 

1S9 

213 

240 


1843 — 1S53, 
1S53 — 1S63, 
1863 — 1S73, 
1S73 — 1883, 
1SS3 — 1S93, 


223 

237 

243 

293 

32S 


These Congressmen are paid $5,000 a year, with certain additions in 
the shape of mileage, stationery, etc., etc. The qualifications for a 
Representative are fully explained in the Constitution. 


/ 














































































































K 


THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 


256 


Speakers of the House of Repre 
sentatives. 


Fred. A. Muhlenberg, Penn., 

1st Congress. 

Jonathan Trumbull, Conn., 

2nd Congress. 

Fred. A. Muhlenberg, Penn., 

3rd Congress. 
Jonathan Dayton, N. J., 

4th Congress. 
Jonathan Dayton, 5th Congress. 
Theodore Sedgwick, Mass., 

6th Congress. 
Nathaniel Macon, N. C., 

7th Congress. 
Nathaniel Macon, N. C., 

Sth Congress. 
Nathaniel Macon, N. C., 

9th Congress. 
Joseph B. Varnum, Mass., 

loth Congress. 
Joseph B. Varnum, Mass., 

nth Congress. 
Ilenry Clay, Ky., 12th Congress. 
Henry Clay, Ky., 1st Sess. 

13th Congress. 
Langdon Cheves, S. C., 2nd Sess. 

13th Congress. 
Henry Clay, Ky., 14th Congress. 
Henry Clay, Ky., 15th Congress. 
Henry Clay, Ky., 1st Sess. 

16th Congress. 
John W. Taylor, N. Y., 2nd Sess- 
16th Congress. 
Philip P. Barbour, Va., 

17th Congress. 
Henry Clay, Kv., iSth Congress- 
John W. Taylor, N. Y., 

19th Congress. 
Andrew Stephenson, Va., 

20th Congress. 
Andrew Stephenson, Va., 

21st Congress. 
Andrew Stephenson, Va., 

22nd Congress. 
Andrew Stephenson, Va. istSess. 

23rd Congress. 
John Bell, Tenn., 2nd Sess. 

23rd Cotigress. 


James K. Polk, Tenn., 

24th Congress. 
James K. Polk, Tenn., 

25th Cougress. 
R. M. T. Hunter, Va., 

26th Congress. 
John White, Ky., 27th Congress. 
John W. Jones, Va., 

28th Congress. 
John W. Davis, Ind., 

29th Congress. 
Robert C. Winthrop, Mass., 

30th Congress. 
Howell Cobb, Ga., 31st Congress. 
Linn Boyd, Ky., 32nd Congress. 
Linn Boyd, Ky., 33rd Congress. 
Nathaniel P. Banks, Mass., 

34th Congress. 

J ames L. Orr, S. C. 35th Congress, 
j Willi9.n1 Pennington, N. J., 

36th Congress. 

Galusha A. Grow, Penn., 

37th Congress. 

Schuyler Colfax, Ind., 

3SU1 Congress. 

Schuyler Colfax, Ind., 

39th Congress. 

Schuyler Colfax, Ind., 

40th Congress. 

James G. Blaine, Me., 

41st Congress. 

James G. Blaine, Me., 

42nd Congress. 

James G. Blaine, Me., 

43rd Congress. 

Michael C. Kerr, Ind., 1st Sess. 

44th Congress. 

Samuel J. Randall, Pa., 2nd Sess. 

44th Congress. 

Samuel J. Randall, Pa., 

45th Congress. 

Samuel J. Randall, Pa., 

46th Congress. 

J. Warren Keifer, Ohio, 

47th Congress. 


Congress at Work. 

Congress meets as soon after the 4th of March as may be directed 
by the President’s proclamation or by law. When a quorum has as¬ 
sembled, the Clerk of the last Congress calls the members to order 
and reads the list of members-elcct of the present House prepared by 
him in accordance with the law. This list is read by States, and 
members who wish to contest the election of one of the names called 
announce at the calling: “ I reserve a point of order on that name.” 
The House at once proceeds to the election of a Speaker, a matter 
which is usually altogether arranged beforehand by the caucuses, 
nominations are made, and the election proceeds viva voce. The Clerk 


who presides, appoints tellers, who announce the vote. When an elec¬ 
tion is reached, the Clerk appoints a committee to bring the Speaker 
to the chair, and after a short speech the newly elected officer takes 
the gavel and proceeds to business. As soon as the House is organ¬ 
ized a committee is appointed to notify the Senate of the fact, and 
when both Senate and House are organized and read)'for business 
they appoint a joint committee, whose business it is to wait upon the 
President and announce to him that Congress is ready to receive any 
communication which he may be pleased to make. 

The Senate and House then meet in joint session in the Chamber of 
the House of Representatives, and the President’s message is read to 
them, after which the two bodies separate, the different parts of the 
message are referred to the appropriate committees, and the routine 
work of legislation begins. 



Passing a Bill. 

NY monograph on Congress would bo incomplete which 

-M would not include an account of the manner in which 

bills are passed in Congress. Suppose a member brings 
up a bill to improve Duck Creek. Taking a day when 
the introduction of bills is in order, he rises to his feet, 
and, being recognized by the Speaker, says: “Mr. 
Speaker, I hold here a bill entitled, ‘An act to deepen 
the channel of Duck Creek, in Hooppole County, In¬ 
diana, and appropriating $25,000 for that purpose.’ I 
desire to have it read and referred to the Committee on 
Appropriations.” A page carries the document to the 
Speaker’s table. The bill is read, and, unless objection is 
made, it is at once referred to the Committee of Appropriations. 

When the bill comes up in committee, those promoting it 
explain the reasons why it should pass and bring what personal and 
political influence they have to bear on the committee. The com¬ 
mittee reports the bill favorably to the House, which shortly after goes 
into Committee of the Whole on Special Appropriations—the Duck 
Creek bill along with many others. Next day the action of the Com¬ 
mittee of the Whole is reported to the House, and the bill is read a 
second time. Then comes the third reading and passage. The bill is 
then sent to the Senate, referred to the appropriate committee, re¬ 
ported favorably, read the second and third time and passed. It is 
then signed by the President of the Senate and by the Speaker, sub¬ 
mitted to the President, signed by him, and the appropriation is ac¬ 
cordingly made. 


The State Election Laws. 


3-3 



, HO are citizens is defined clearly in the Constitu¬ 
tion and its amendments. Each State, however, 
.. has slightly different laws regulating citizenship. 
1 To be a voter one must be a male, twenty-one 
years old, and a resident of some State for a certain specified 
time. In a few States foreigners do not need to be fully natur¬ 
alized to vote ; a simple declaration of the intention to become 
a citizen suffices. Registration is almost generally required. 


Alabama —State, one year; county, three 
months; ward or precinct, thirty days. 

Arizona —Territory, one year; county, ten 
days. 

Arkansas —State, one year; county, six 
months; precinct or ward, thirty days. 

California —State, one year; county,ninety 
days; precinct, thirty days. Foreigners must 
be naturalized. Chinamen not allowed to be¬ 
come citizens. 

Colorado —State, six months; women vote 
at school elections. 


Connecticut —State, one year; town, six 
months. Must be able to read State law*. 
Foreigners required to be naturalized. Must 
have.good moral character and a freehold 
yielding $7 annually, or pay State tax, or have 
done military duty. 

Dakota* —Territory, ninety days. Women 
allowed to vote. 

Delaware* —State, one year; countv, one 
month. Must pay a county tax. Foreigners 
must be naturalized. Paupers not allowed to 
vote. 


District of Columbia —No elections are 
held here. The various local officers are ap¬ 
pointed by Congress and the President. 

Florida —State, one year; county, six 
months. 

Georgia —State, one year; countv six 
months. Voters must have paid their taxes. 

Idaho* —Territorv, four months; county, 
thirty days. Foreigners must be naturalized. 

Ill inois —State, one year; county, ninety 
days; election district, thirty days. Foreigners 
must be naturalized. 



























































THE STATE ELECTION LAWS. 


2 57 


Indiana* —State, six months; town, sixty 
days; ward or precinct, thirty days. Foreign¬ 
ers must be residents of the United Stales one 
year. 

Iowa —State, six months; county, sixty davs ; 
town or ward, ten davs. Foreigners required 
to be residents of the State two years. 

Kansas —State, six months; township or 
ward, thirty days. 

Kentucky* —State, two years ; county, town 
or city, one year; precinct, sixty days. For¬ 
eigners must be naturalized. 

Louisiana —State, one year; parish, ten 
days. 

Maryland— State, one year; city or county, 
six months. Foreigners must be naturalized. 

Maine —State, three months. Paupers and 
Indians not allowed to vote. Foreigners must 
be naturalized. 

Massachusetts —State, one year; Congres¬ 
sional district, town or city, six months. Must 
have paid a State or county tax. Must be able 
to read and write. Paupers not allowed to 
vote. Foreigners must be naturalized. 

Michigan* —State, three months; township 
or ward, ten days. Foreigners must be resi¬ 
dents of the State two years and six months. 

Mississippi —State, six months ; county, one 
month. Foreigners must be naturalized. 


Minnesota —State, four months; election 
district, ten davs. F'oreigners must have lived 
in the United States one year. 

Missouri —State, one year; county, city or 
town, sixty days. 

Nebraska —State, six months; county, forty 
days ; ward or precinct, ten days. 

Nevada —State, six months; county or dis¬ 
trict, thirty days. F'oreigners must he natural¬ 
ized. 

New Hampshire — Town, six months. 
Must be tax-payers. F'oreigners must be nat¬ 
uralized. 

New Jersey—State, one year; countv, five 
months. Foreigners must be naturalized. 

New Mexico —Territory, six months; 
county, three months; precinct, thirty days. 
F'oreigners must be naturalized. 

New York —State, one year; county, four 
months; district, town or ward, thirty days. 
F'oreigners must be naturalized. 

North Carolina —State, one year; county, 
thirty days. Voter must own fifty acres of 
land cr have paid taxes. 

Ohio —State, one year; county, thirty days; 
town, village or ward, twenty days. Foreign¬ 
ers must be naturalized. 

Oregon —State, six months; county or dis¬ 
trict, ninety days. 


Pennsylvania —State, one year; election 
district, two months. Must have paid State or 
county taxes within two years. F'ormer citizens 
returned from abroad may vote after six 
months’ residence. F'oreigners must be nat¬ 
uralized. 

Texas* —State, one year; county or election 
district, six months. Paupers not allowed to 
vote. 

Tennessee* —State, one year; county, six 
months, and must pay poll-tax. F'oreigners 
must be naturalized. 

Utah — Territory, six months. Wives, 
widows and daughters of citizens can vote. 

Vermont* —State, one year; town, three 
months. F'oreigners must be naturalized. 

Virginia —State, one year; county, city or 
town, six months. Foreigners must be natural¬ 
ized. Paupers not allowed to vote. 

West Virginia —State, one year; county, 
thirty days. Foreigners must be naturalized. 
Paupers not allowed to vote. 

Wisconsin —State, one year. Paupers not 
allowed to vote. 

Wyoming* —Territory, ninety days. Women 
allowed to vote. 

* No registration required. 





Rules Governing Elections. 

Both the times and places for holding elections are fixed by law. 
Supervisors of elections are appointed when ten reputable citizens of 
a town of more than 20,000 inhabitants petition a Judge of the United 
States Circuit Court to scrutinize and guard an election for a delegate to 
or member of the House of Representatives. These supervisors are tak¬ 
en from different political parties, and it is their duty to challenge any 
person offering himself for registration who is not believed to be en¬ 
titled to vote, and verify the right or wrong of such challenge. They 
have power to watch the votes and the ballot-boxes so closely that 
fraud would be impossible, and then report all the facts in the case to 
the Chief Supervisor. Supervisors are only appointed when there is 
grave reason to apprehend fraud. Generally the machinery of the 
election is left entirely in the hands of the State, and the military and 
naval forces are expressly prohibited from coming near the polling- 
places, unless to preserve the peace. 

How Foreigners are Naturalized. 

Going before either a District or Circuit Court of the United States, 
or a District or Supreme Court of any Territory, or any court of 
record having jurisdiction in such cases, a person of foreign birth 
must declare on oath that he intends to become a citizen of the United 
States, and renounce forever his allegiance to any foreign sovereign 
or State, especially naming the kingdom or empire of which he was a 
formerly a subject. 


Two years, or more, after thus declaring his intention to become a 
citizen, he applies to the court for admission to all the rights and 
privileges of a citizen of the United States. At this time he must 
clearly state, under oath, that he will support the Constitution of the 
United States and again renounce all allegiance to any foreign sov¬ 
ereign or government. He must also show, to the satisfaction of the 
court, that he has resided within the United States five years, and 
within the State or Territory in which the court is then held for a 
certain period; that he has during that time behaved as a man of 
good moral character, attached to the principles of the Federal Con¬ 
stitution; that he is well disposed to the good order and happiness of 
the United States, and that he expressly renounces and abandons 
any hereditary title of nobility or association with any of the orders 
of nobility which he possessed in his native or adopted foreign coun¬ 
try, and this renunciation is recorded in the court. Witnesses are 
ready to prove t'.ie fact of his having resided in the country the 
requisite time before applying for citizenship, his own oath not being 
sufficient. 

Any person who immigrates into the United States from a foreign 
country three years before coming of age, and maintains his residence 
here until twenty-one years old and two years longer, may, at the ex¬ 
piration of the whole five years, be admitted to all the rights and privi¬ 
leges of a citizen without making the preliminary declaration of his 
intention to become such; but he must then make oath that for two 
years past such has been his intention, and fully comply with all the 
other requirements of the naturalization laws. 

The provisions of this law apply equally to white persons of foreign 
birth, of African nativity or African descent. 



















































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260 


THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 






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©he Dominion op ©anada. 


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HE Dominion of Canada, now a semi-independent 
confederation of provinces subject to the British 
IJ '^1 Crown, has an interesting history which reaches 
''' ^ li < back to within a very few years of the discovery of 
<n ^ > ” America by Columbus. The French sea captain 
Jacques Cartier, in 1534, planted the standard of Francis I. 
of France upon the shores of New Brunswick, and in later 
voyages he discovered the St. Lawrence River. Attempts 
at colonization were made, but none were very successful 
until the time of Samuel de Champlain, when the city of 
Quebec was established, and the foundation laid of the 
empire of New France. His explorations were ably followed 
up by the Jesuit missionaries who were sent out later by the 
French Government, and the names of Fathers Joliet, Mar¬ 
quette, La Salle and Perrot, who first saw the Great Lakes and 
the Mississippi River, are indissolubly linked with the story of 
early discovery in North America. Cruel wars with the Indians 
constitute the leading feature of interest in early Canadian his¬ 
tory, each of the leading claimants of North American soil 
—England and France—employing the willing savages to carry 
destruction into the settlements of the other. Directly result¬ 
ing from this cruel policy was the massacre of Lachine, in 
which the Iroquois, at the instigation of the English, fell upon 
the French settlements in the neighborhood of Montreal, and 
slaughtered their inhabitants, and which caused the cruel 
reprisals of Schenectady and Salmon Falls. During the fre¬ 
quent wars between England and France, the latter’s Canadian 
colonies became more than once the object of English attack, 
but it was not until September, 1759, that the citadel of 
Quebec fell before the gallant English General Wolfe, and 
with it the French tenure of Canada, which was called the 
Province of Quebec, divided into three districts and placed 
under the direction of a Governor appointed by Great Britain. 
During the war of American Independence, the Americans, 
finding that the Canadians would not join the revolution, in¬ 
vaded Canada, but were unable to hold the country on account 
of their failure to capture the city of Quebec. 

After the close of the war a great many persons from the 
English colonies settled in that portion of Canada lying north 
of Lake Ontario, which, upon the separation of the province 
in 1791, became known as Upper Canada, the eastern province 
taking the name of Lower Canada. Dissensions arose in both 
provinces over questions of government, but the war of 1812 


united Canada in defence against a common invasion, in 
which the Canadians showed a patriotism and valor very 
creditable for so young a country. After the war, the same 
causes of dissension still existing, the old quarrels were renewed 
and the disaffection finally culminated in separate rebellions 
in each of the provinces. In Upper Canada a popular agitator 
named Mackenzie attempted to set up the republic, and in 
1837 gathered a body of armed followers, who marched against 
the capital, Toronto, where they were defeated. More serious 
disturbances were caused in Lower Canada, when, under the 
leadership of Louis Papineau, the French Canadian “patriots” 
collected in masses on the Richelieu, and were not dispersed until 
after severe conflicts, in which several hundreds were slain. 
The union of the two provinces was decided upon by the home 
Government as a remedy for the troubles complained of, and 
this measure was accomplished in 1841, the new Constitution 
giving Canada one legislature instead of two. Under it the 
country progressed rapidly in population, commerce and general 
prosperity. About 1861 a strong party feeling arose between the 
two provinces over the claim for representation by population 
made by the inhabitants of Upper Canada, who, having largely 
outgrown the lower province in numbers, desired that their 
representation in Parliament should be proportionately larger. 
The Lower Canadians would not agree to any change of the 
Constitution in accordance with this plan, and the political 
struggle was growing dangerously bitter, when the confedera¬ 
tion of the various British provinces in America, with local 
government for each, was suggested as an available remedy. 
The provinces of Canada, afterwards known as Ontario and 
Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, accepted the pro¬ 
posed union. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island 
rejected it. The matter was left with the British Government, 
which, in 1867, conferred the Constitution under which the 
Canadians now live, as well as the name Dominion of Canada. 
Since then the confederation has been enlarged by the admis¬ 
sion of the Hudson Bay Company’s Northwestern territories in 
1870, now known as the provinces of Manitoba and Keewatin; 
of British Columbia in 1871, and of Prince Edward Island in 
iS73- 

To the vast majority of Americans the country to the 
north of the international boundary line is a terra incognita , 
of which less is known than of the small revolutionary States 
of Central America. Of Mexican affairs the people of the 













































United States have sufficient reminders to spur interest or 
promote enquiry, in its biennial revolutions and military dicta¬ 
torships, but of the quiet, progressive 5,000,000 of people 
owning the 4,000,000 square miles comprising the Dominion 
of Canada we know but little, and apparently care less. 

However much it may be ignored, it is still an undoubted 
fact that a great nation is rapidly assuming consistency and 
form in that country. National sentiment and feeling have 
been developed, and now the habitants and bourgeois of 
Quebec vie with the agriculturists, manufacturers and trades¬ 
men of Ontario and the Maritime Provinces in priding them¬ 
selves upon being Canadians. Already they complain of being 
held in leading-strings by Great Britain, and the wish is gen¬ 
erally expressed that Canada should have the appointing of its 
own Governor-General, the power of negotiating foreign com¬ 
mercial treaties, and that the slight ties now binding the 
Dominion to the Colonial Secretary’s office in London lie yet 
further loosened, until the political connection, now merely 
nominal, ceases to exist even in name. The appointment of 
Sir A. T. Galt as High Commissioner of Canada at the 
British Court, with functions approximated to those possessed 
by the representatives of independent powers, was a tacit 
claim by the Dominion of the privileges of a sovereign people. 

ITS VAST AREA. 

The Dominion, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
oceans and from the United States boundary line to the Arctic 
seas, has a larger area than Europe, and even exceeds the 
United States exclusive of Alaska. Territory, however, does 
not of necessity imply a correspondence in greatness, wealth 
or power, and any speculations based entirely upon such data 
must prove fallacious. In order to form anything like a just 
estimate of the importance of the country the state of the 
settled and cultivated portions must be considered. 

Canada proper, consisting of the provinces of Ontario and 
Quebec, containing more than three-fourths of the population 
of the Dominion, is 1,000 miles long, with an average breadth of 
230. It contains an area of 350,000 square miles, or 240,000,- 
000 acres. That portion of it included in Ontario may be 
considered the garden of Canada, both as to climate, soil and 
the variety of productiveness of its agricultural exhibits. 

POPULATION. 

The people of Ontario are very different from their French 
neighbors on the other side of the Ottawa, and are as noted 
for real American enterprise, industry and progressiveness as 
those are for the opposite. In 1825 the number of inhabitants 
in Ontario (at that time Upper Canada) was 158,027. In 1852 
the number had reached 952,004, and at the present time is about 
2,000,000. The growth of the cities is also remarkable. 
Toronto in 1826 had only 1,677 inhabitants, and in 1854 it 
numbered 40,000, and now it contains 100,000 people. Ham¬ 
ilton, within ten years, from 1S44 to 1854, quadrupled its popu¬ 
lation, and its increase since, if less rapid, has been remarka¬ 
ble. 

In 1875 the population of the entire Dominion was 4,000,000; 
in 1881 it was almost 5,000,000, and now probably exceeds that 
number. The material progress of the country has been on an 


equally rapid scale. The agricultural products exported in 
1882 amounted in value to $16,398,613, or $2,665,864 more 
than in the year previous. The wheat exported for the same 
period was equal in amount to 6,433,035 bushels, a quantity 
greatly in excess of that sent out of the country in the year 
before. In 1882 50,000,000 pounds of cheese were exported 
to Britain, and the production of butter in the Province of 
Ontario alone during that period amounted to an equal number 
of pounds. The lumber trade is one of the leading industries 
of the country, the value of that exported last year being 
$10,729,596. 

The Canadian exports for 1881 amounted to $80,921,379, 
and last year to $90,042,711. The balance of trade being 
against Canada, the imports for both years were $17,000,000 
in excess of those numbers. 

The imports from Great Britain in 1881 were valued at 
$43,583,808, and for 1882, $50,597,341. During the same 
periods the imports from the United States were $36,704,112 and 
$48,289,052, respectively. The duty collected on imports from 
Great Britain in 1882 was $10,011,811, or about 20 per cent 
of the value of imports. On goods from the United States 
for the same period $7,082,720 was collected, or about 15 per 
cent. 

The United States is the largest purchaser of Canadian goods 
and products, the value of the trade to the latter country being 
about $40,000,000 in 1882. 

The shipping interests of Canada are not the least considera¬ 
ble, $30,000,000 capital being employed in the carrying trade, 
which is valued at $350,000,000. Allowing 5 per cent for 
freight charges, it would yield a revenue of about $17,000,000 
a year. The trade of the city of Toronto alone with the 
United States was equal in 1882 to $10,447,818, or almost 
$4,000,000 more than in the previous year. 

Ten years ago the Government expenditure was $23,316,316; 
in 1883 the Finance Minister asked for $30,250,000 to carry 
on the affairs of the country. This amount, it is estimated, 
will be a few millions less than the revenue. The civil govern¬ 
ment of the country is estimated to cost $1,109,100 this year ; 
Indian scouts, $875,949, and the mounted police, $416,000. 

CANADA PACIFIC RAILWAY. 

One of the most important factors in the prospective future 
advance of the country to a high condition of material prog¬ 
ress and industrial wealth will be, undoubtedly, the Canada 
Pacific Railway. The route through the Dominion is, in a 
certain sense, preferable to that now connecting the Atlantic 
and Pacific in our country. It is said by competent authori¬ 
ties to be shorter by over a thousand miles in connecting 
Europe with Asia. Passing close to Lake Superior and 
traversing the watershed which divides the streams flowing 
toward the Arctic seas from those which have their exit south¬ 
ward, the route, though presenting serious engineering diffi¬ 
culties, is more easy of construction than the Union Pacific 
was. The effect of the completion of this road can scarcely be 
estimated at present, as it will open up for settlement a vast 
region abounding in valuable timber, coal and other material 
products, and admirably suited to grazing and the growth of 
grain. The work of construction on the Canada Pacific was 





















































262 


THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 


first commenced under the immediate supervision of the Gov¬ 
ernment, but this plan was not found to work well, and 
shortly after the change of Government, in 1878, the new 
Ministry handed over the work of construction to a syndicate, 
granting to them money and land bonuses and exclusive rights 
on a monopoly of traffic for twenty years from the time of the 
completion of the road. It is now well under way, and is 
rapidly approaching the centre of the continent. The esti¬ 
mated cost is $100,000,000, and it is a work of extraordinary 
magnitude for 5,000,000 people to project. 

The settlement of the Northwest Territory along the line of 
the railway is proceeding at an unprecedented rate. Indeed, 
there is nothing to be at all compared with it unless it is the 
rapidity of opening up in some of the Western States. Free 
grants are given to actual settlers, which, with an inexhaustible 
soil, should be a sufficient attraction for emigrants from Europe. 
But of this class the Canadian Northwest country has so far 
attracted no considerable number. Of the 44,000 emigrants 
arriving in Manitoba and the Northwest last year, fully three- 
fourths were from Ontario and other parts of Canada. 

NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 

There are extensive coal fields in the Valley of the Sas¬ 
katchewan and at Edmonton, but so far they have not been 
worked to any extent. When capital has been directed into 
this channel, a cheap supply of coal can be secured, and one of 
the principal defects of that section of the Dominion will be 
removed. 

The length and severity of the winter in Manitoba and the 
contiguous territory is also a serious obstacle to their settle¬ 
ment. Winter often begins in October, and continues until 
about the end of April, after which the weather changes rap¬ 
idly, and the chilling, freezing atmosphere becomes soft and 
warm, with the southern winds sweeping over the interminable 
plains. Vegetation after this becomes so rapid as to be almost 
incredible, and in less than D'ur, and occasionally only three, 

1 months after *he seed has oeen sown, abundant crops of wheat, 
l \aGay and oats can be harvested. 

With all its defects, it is a magnificent country, and it 
requires no great powers of prevision to foresee in it the home 
of millions of free, prosperous and intelligent people. 

Winnipeg, the leading city of the Northwest, has sprung 
up as if by magic, and is a very different place from the hamlet 
visited by General Wolseley and his troops, on the occasion of 
the Riel disturbance, a number of years ago. It has now a 
rummer population of 20.000, and last year the boom in real 
estate was suen tnat city lots were selling at a higher price 
than in Toronto. Many other cities now exist in embryo in 
that vast region, and ■with a liberal, wise policy on the part of 
the Government, the success of the Northwest is certain. 

In the other sections of Canada, Ontario especially, the 
condition of the farming population has been entirely changed 
within the past twenty years. The log shanties of the squatter 
have been changed to elegant farm-houses of stone, brick and 


frame. Frame barns have taken the place of the open log 
structures that so poorly protected the crops of the pioneers, 
and wire and picket fences surround the steadings instead of 
rails. Farm-houses now contain all that is requisite for com¬ 
fort, with many of the elegancies of life added, and in many 
will be found not only a piano or parlor organ, but also a 
young lady quite capable of rendering music by note. Educa¬ 
tion has also become generally diffused, and it is but rarely that 
a person can be met with who cannot read and write. 

That the Dominion is more prosperous now than ever it has 
been before, will scarcely be questioned by those familiar with 
its present and past conditions, and that it has now entered 
upon a new and vast phase of its progressive development, 
under the most auspicious circumstances, cannot for a moment 
be doubted. 

GOVERNMENT OF THE DOMINION. 

The executive power of the Dominion is vested in a Gov¬ 
ernor-General, who is appointed by the British Government, and 
exercises authority in the name of the Queen. His advisers 
constitute the Privy Council, whom he appoints and removes, 
subject to the convenience of the lower house of Parliament. 
The military command is vested in the Queen. Parliament, 
consisting of an upper and a lower house, known respectively 
as the Senate and House of Commons, controls legislation. 
Senators, who are appointed for life by the Governor-General, 
on the recommendation of the Privy Council, are 77 in num¬ 
ber, apportioned as follows: Quebec and Ontario, 24 each ; 
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, 11 each; British Columbia, 

3 ; Manitoba, 2 ; Prince Edward Island, 2. In the House of 
Commons are 206 members—88 for Ontario ; 65 for Quebec ; 
21 for Nova Scotia ; 16 for New Brunswick ; 6 for British 
Columbia ; 4 for Manitoba, and 6 for Prince Edward Island. 
A redistribution of memberships occurs after each decennial 
census, with the understanding that Quebec shall never have 
less than 65. All appropriation bills must originate in this 
house, ro which the Privy Council is responsible, it representing 
the views of the political party which is in the ascendancy. Bills 
passed by Parliament may be vetoed at any time within two 
years. The seat of government is at Ottawa. The Dominion 
Parliament controls exclusively the currency, postal service, 
public debt, raising of money, regulation of trade and com¬ 
merce, the militia, savings banks, marriage and divorce, crim¬ 
inal law, navigation and shipping, bankruptcy, and all subjects 
not specially assigned to the local legislatures. The latter have 
the right to levy direct taxes, and to borrow money for provin¬ 
cial purposes, the management of public lands, public works 
lying within the province, municipal institutions, prisons, 
hospitals, asylums and charities, and generally matters of a 
local or private character. With a few minor exceptions, all 
Judges are appointed by the Dominion Government. There is 
a general court of appeal, possessing powers similar to that of 
the United States Supreme Court, and which passes upon the 
constitutionality of laws passed by the provincial legislatures. 

























MEXICO. 


263 



K;0 foreign country is attracting such close attention 
^ Sl from the people of the United States just now as 



Mexico, sometimes familiarly alluded to as “ the sister 
republic.” Bounded on the north by the United 
States, on the south by Guatemala, on the east by 
the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, and on the west by 
the Pacific, it occupies the tapering southern extremity of the 
North American continent—a region of mountain table-lands, 
rich in mineral wealth and agricultural resources, which, hav¬ 
ing lain for ages comparatively undeveloped, are now begin¬ 
ning to feel the impulse of a new civilization supplied from the 
United States, whose capitalists are building railroads in differ¬ 
ent parts of the country. The history of the country begins— 
no one knows when. Ages before the coming of the Spanish 
conquerors the settlement of the Mexican valley had been 
accomplished by Indian tribes who are said to have come from 
the north, the last of these being the Aztecs, who founded a 
city, established a monarchial government, enforced civil and 
criminal laws, kept a standing army, and cultivated the arts 
and sciences, their skill in the working of metals and their 
profound knowledge of astronomy being attested by venerable 
relics which are extant at the present day. About the only 
dark feature in this pleasing picture of prehistoric civilization 
and culture is that provided by their religious observances, 
which included human sacrifices, the practice being so common 
that the observance of certain days caused the immolation of 
thousands of victims. Such were the accomplishments of the 
wonderful people whom De Cordova met in Mexico when he 
discovered it in 1517. Two years later Fernando Cortez 
effected a landing upon Mexican soil at a spot where the city 
of Vera Cruz now stands. Here he burned his ships to give a 
disaffected portion of his command to understand that nothing 
was left them but obedience, after which he marched into the 
interior. On his way he fought several engagements with the 
natives, and finally arrived at the City of Mexico, where the 
Aztec Emperor, Montezuma, received him with apparent 
kindness. Fearing treachery, Cortez caused Montezuma to be 
seized and conveyed to the Spanish quarters. Cortez’ conquests 
were delayed by the opposition of the Governor of Cuba, who 
sent a party to seize him and his staff and send them back to 
Cuba. The brave Spaniard turned the tables upon his pursuers, 
vanquishing them and taking their leader, Narvaez, prisoner. 
Montezuma, after a long imprisonment, consented to acknowl¬ 
edge Spanish supremacy, but the Aztecs declined to submit so 


easily, and, making a final effort, compelled Cortez to retreat. 
He returned, however, a year later, and, after a series of battles, 
reached once more the City of Mexico, which he captured, 
August 13, 1521, after a siege of seventy-five days. The other 
provinces fell in succession before the invader, and for nearly 
300 years subsequently Mexico remained in subjection. The 
government which the Spaniards first inaugurated was known 
as “Audiencia,” with a President and four Auditors, but the 
measures of this body soon proved so harsh and arbitrary that 
the colony complained loudly of their oppression. A vice- 
regal government was inaugurated in 1535, which lasted undis¬ 
turbed for nearly three centuries. 

Events in Europe at the opening of the nineteenth century 
shaped the history of Mexico. The uprising ot 1810 is thus 
graphically described by Mr. John A. Dillon, a journalist 
whose thorough knowledge of Mexican affairs, no less than his 
eminent literary attainments, makes him peculiarly qualified to 
treat the subject: 

“ The revolution was long in coming. Shut off as it was 
from the world, Mexico could not help noting that the power 
of Spain had grown weaker and weaker, until at last the rough 
hand of Napoleon pushed the feeble Bourbon from the throne. 
The latent fires of revolution broke forth on the 15th of Sep¬ 
tember, 1810, in the village of Dolores, near Guanajuato, 
where a curate named Manuel -Hidalgo set up the Grito de 
Dolores , as it is called in Mexican history, or the ‘call of 
Dolores.’ What the call meant was little known, either to 
him who started it or to those who heard it. It meant any¬ 
thing but a republic to Hidalgo; it meant the cause of religion, 
and loyalty to some Mexican sovereign. To the Indians who 
heard it, it meant death to the strangers, the Gachnpines , as 
they called the Spaniards. 

“ Then was started the most bizarre and motley revolution 
in history, outshaming Jack Cade. Swarms of ragged and 
swarthy Indians gathered around the priest, armed with sticks 
and stones and knives and clumsy pikes. They swarmed down 
to Guanajuato in thousands and tens of thousands, and the 
slaughter of Cortez was repeated on their defenceless bodies. 
Cannon and musket tore their ranks in vain, for they rushed 
up to the loaded cannon’s mouth and stuffed in their battered 
straw hats and ragged serapes, to keep the balls from coming 
out. By sheer force of numbers they destroyed the troops, 
and then in savage triumph sacked the city of their brothers. 






































































F7 


264 


MEXICO. 


“ Brief and sad was the career of the soldier-priest. Under 
the banner of the Virgin of Guadalupe he led his hordes from 
Guanajuato down to Valladolid, and thence to Queretaro, and 
in six weeks had reached the mountain of Las Cruces, within 
thirty miles of the capital. Here the Viceroy gave him battle, 
and here again the ragged hordes rushed on the batteries and 
killed every man behind them, only three officers of the Vice¬ 
roy’s army of 3,000 escaping. 

“ Then fear came on the victor for the unknown power of a 
city such as he had never seen the like of. He came within 
sight of Mexico, lingered there for a month, and then turned 
to retreat. A bloodhound was set on his trail in the person 
of General Calleja. The fugitive rebels passed back through 
Guanajuato, and the bloodhound Calleja followed them and 
cut to pieces 14,000 men, women and children in the city. In 
his report he said that he had them hacked with knives and 
swords, because gunpowder was very dear, and he did not want 
to put the Government to the needless expense of using ammu¬ 
nition. 

“ On the 17th of January Hidalgo reached the place called 
the Bridge of Calderon, and there his last battle was fought 
and lost. He fled toward our frontier, but his commanders 
rebelled, and one of them, Elizondo, delivered the whole band 
up to the Government on the 21st of March, 1811. It is 
needless to say that they were shot, and their heads were after¬ 
ward exposed in iron cages on the castle wall of Guanajuato.” 

The population was made up of four classes — the Span¬ 
iards of European birth ; the Mestizos, or half-breeds, the 
result of union between the Indians and whites ; the Creoles, 
who were the pure-blooded descendants of the original Span¬ 
ish settlers, and the pure-blooded Indians. The last-named 
had experienced but little change of condition under the Vice¬ 
roys, and were still subject to the payment of tribute and held 
in a sort of life-long tutelage. Degrading restrictions weighed 
upon them from which only their nobles were exempted. The 
Creoles, as proud of their origin as the native Spaniards were 
of their birth, were treated contemptuously by the latter, and 
denied all part in the government, or even high command 
in the army. Many of them had amassed great wealth, and 
while titles and other empty honors were conferred upon such, 
the Government deemed it imprudent to allow them a share of 
the administration of public affairs. This treatment was 
resented by the Creoles, and open rebellion would have been 
gladly availed of by them, had they not dreaded that, at such 
a turn of affairs, an uprising of the Indians and half-breeds 
would occur, and they and the native Spaniards be together 
overcome and destroyed. While the revolution of 1820 was 
going on in Spain, which lost Ferdinand his throne, the Mexi¬ 
cans agitated in favor of a liberal government, and Don Au¬ 
gustin Iturbide, a native Mexican officer of rank, who had 
served with distinction in quelling the earlier uprisings, inaugu¬ 
rated a second and successful revolution, which resulted in the 
declaration of Mexican independence, February 24, 1821. His 
authority obtained the national recognition ; in August he 
established a regency, and May 19, supported by his army and 
his followers, in the City of Mexico, he was proclaimed Emperor. 
December 2, 1822, Santa Anna, supported by other chiefs, 
proclaimed the Republic at Santa Cruz, and March 19 Itur¬ 


bide abdicated. Shortly afterwards he was ordered into exile, 
and in May, 1823, he left Mexico for London. 

The Constitution which Congress formulated October 4, 
1824, was modelled after that of the United States, and estab¬ 
lished in Mexico a republic with nineteen States and five 
Territories. The first President was Don Felix Fernando 
Victoria, during whose administration Iturbide returned to 
the country and was arrested and shot. At the second presi¬ 
dential election the candidates were Generals Padraza and 
Guerrero. The former was elected, but Guerrero instituted a 
revolt, and seized the presidency in 1829. That year the Re¬ 
public received the recognition of the United States, and de¬ 
feated an attempt of the Spaniards to recapture the country 
with an army of 4,000, who were sent back to Havana. Gen¬ 
eral Anastasio Bustamante, who had assisted in the expulsion 
of the Spanish invaders, declared against Guerrero, and de¬ 
posed him. Intrigues and revolts followed in quick succession, 
Santa Anna coming to the front April 1, 1833, who, after 
banishing Bustamante and several other political leaders, insti¬ 
tuted an administration of sweeping reform. Laws were 
passed suppressing the convents and abolishing the payment of 
tithes, and measures discussed looking to the appropriation of 
church estates and their application to extinguishing the 
national debt. These failed to prove popular, going further 
than the people cared to follow. Insurrections followed, and 
troubles which led, in 1835, to the abrogation of the Constitu¬ 
tion which had been adopted in 1824, and the formation of a 
consolidated republic, which took the place of the confedera¬ 
tion of States. Santa Anna possessed dictatorial power, and 
the revolution was endorsed by the whole country except 
Texas, whose citizens declined to accede to the centralization 
of power. Santa Anna then invaded the State with an army, 
which was destroyed, and Santa Anna was captured. Busta¬ 
mante became President, but Santa Anna, after a trip to 
Washington, where he conferred with President Jackson, was 
released, and returned to Mexico. Another period of chronic 
revolution soon set in, a dictatorship was established for a 
while, and in 1844 constitutional government was resumed, 
with Santa Anna at its head. He was banished, however, and 
Herrara happened to be the President at the time war was de¬ 
clared against the United States after the annexation of Texas. 

The American arms were successful, and Mexico lost, in 
addition to Texas, New Mexico and Southern California, when 
peace was declared, in February, 1848. Santa Anna was re¬ 
called in 1853, and for the fifth time elected President. He 
attempted now to secure the position for life, with the right to 
name his successor, and this led to another revolution in 1855, 
when Alvarez deposed him and became President. He re¬ 
signed in favor of Comonfort, who gained the opposition of 
the ecclesiastical party by his promotion of a law, which was 
adopted in 1856, for the sale of church lands and the freedom 
of religious belief. Revolutions followed, and in 1857 Con¬ 
gress promulgated, and the President was forced to accept, a 
very democratic Constitution. 

In the following year Benito Juarez, Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court, claimed the legal succession to the presidency, 
but was defeated by the incumbent, Zuloaga, and driven to 
Vera Cruz, where he established himself as Constitutional 




to 


"3 
























< 2 . 


V 


CENTRAL AMERICA. 


265 


President. His claims were strengthened by their acknowl¬ 
edgment by the United States, and, after defeating General 
Miramon in several engagements, he entered the capital in 
triumph, January 11, 1861. His administration was noted for 
the reforms which he carried out, and which gained him the 
love of the Mexican people. Among the most important of 
these were the appropriation of church property to the service 
of the State, by which more than three hundred millions’ worth 
of real estate was saved to the people; making marriage a 
civil contract; the abolition of ecclesiastical tribunals and per¬ 
petual monastic vows ; and, finally, the complete separation of 
Church and State. Much as the people enjoyed their liberties, 
the Church party could not brook so great a curtailment of 
their property and prerogatives, and they resolved upon the 
destruction of Juarez’ Government. Their opportunity was 
not long wanting. Subjects of Spain, France and Great 
Britain having sustained alleged losses and injuries in Mexico, 
for which Juarez declined to give satisfaction, these three - 
powers, at a convention held in London, October 31, 1861, 
decided to send a joint expedition to Mexico to demand it. 
In December of that year, General Prim, commanding a 
Spanish detachment from Cuba, landed at Vera Cruz, and a 
month later French and British troops followed. A settle¬ 
ment being effected with Spain and Great Britain, the forces 
of these powers were withdrawn from the country. The 
French army remained in Mexico, declared war against Juarez, 
and captured the City of Mexico June 10, 1863, President 
Juarez and his Ministers retiring to San Luis Potosi. June 24 
a regency was formed, and July 8 an assembly of notables was 
convened to decide upon Mexico’s form of government and re¬ 
solved that it should be a hereditary monarchial government 
under a Roman Catholic Emperor. The Archduke Maximilian, 
of Austria, accepted the crown. Juarez and his republican sup¬ 
porters retired to El Paso, where they remained from Septem¬ 


VL 


ber, 1865, to the beginning of 1866, when, the United States 
having secured the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico, 
they assumed the aggressive. Maximilian was captured and 
shot, together with his Generals, Miramon and Mejia, June 19, 
1867, three days after Juarez had re-entered the City of Mex¬ 
ico. The work of national reconstruction was at once com¬ 
menced. An attempted revolution by Santa Anna was quelled 
and its instigator captured and exiled. In 1871 Juarez was 
again elected, his opponents being Porfirio Diaz and Sebastian 
Lerdo de Tejada, the latter of whom, on the death of Juarez, 
July 18, 1872, became President. 

Although a brilliant scholar and statesman, Lerdo misun¬ 
derstood the sentiments of the Mexican people, mistook the 
spirit of the age, and seemed to oppose the material progress 
of the country, endeavoring to stem the tide of reform and 
advancement and opposing the railroad movement. General 
Diaz seized this opportunity, and in 1876 organized a revolu¬ 
tion. After a series of victories and defeats, the revolutionary 
chieftains met the Government forces at Texcoac, and came 
out victorious after a sanguinary conflict. During his short 
administration Diaz began the work of regeneration, and initi¬ 
ated the railroad movement, which was ably conducted onward 
by his successor, General Gonzales, elected to the presidency 
in 18S0. 

Mexico is a federal republic, and the General Government is 
administered according to the provisions of the Constitution 
of 1857, which was twice overthrown and restored, and which 
was considerably amended in 1873-4. The President is chosen 
by indirect popular suffrage every fourth year. Both houses 
of Congress and the Supreme Judiciary are elected in the same 
manner. The Senate and the Supreme Judiciary are elected 
for terms of six years, and the House of Deputies for two 
years. The States have local constitutions, with elective 
Governors and legislatures. 




vtcba V 


(DENIAL flMEI^IGA. 








T"': i'NDER the name of Central America are included the 


ft 




republics of Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, 
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and the territory known as 
British Honduras. In 1502 Columbus discovered 
*- 3 ^ the Eastern shore of Central America, and shortly 
afterward the Spaniards took possession of it, retaining it 
until 1820, when it rebelled and many of the States which 
then composed it were annexed by Mexico. Three years 
afterwards was formed the Central American Confederation, 


but in 1839 Nicaragua withdrew, as did also Costa Rica in 
1840 and Guatemala in 1847. In 1872 Guatemala, Costa 
Rica, San Salvador and Honduras became united, forming the 
Central American Union, the object of the union being the 
maintenance of peace in the several States and of the repub¬ 
lican form of government. Since this was accomplished, the 
several States have generally enjoyed an immunity from the 
internal discords which frequently plunged them into civil 


wars. 


















































266 


CUBA—SOUTH AMERICA. 


4 ^- P 




—£ 









1 IUBA, the greatest of Spain’s colonial possessions, was 
^ discovered by Columbus while on his first voyage, but 
it was not until 15 n that Velasquez conquered the 
natives. Eight years later the present capital, 
r/ ,\W ' Havana, was founded, which in 1538 and 1554 was 
destroyed by the French. Near the close of the sixteenth 
century the cultivation of the sugar-cane was begun, and 
slavery followed. In 1762 the English captured Havana, 
and took possession of the island, but restored it to Spain 
in the following year. Cuba’s brightest and happiest era 
began with the rule of Las Casas as Governor-General, 
who arrived at the island in 1790. Under him the island’s 
resources were developed rapidly, old restrictions were re¬ 
moved, and the natives, grateful for their new liberties, devel¬ 
oped a strong affection for their foreign rulers. In 1808, 
when Napoleon deposed Ferdinand of Spain, they remained 
loyal to the Spanish crown. Since that time Spanish misrule 
has caused Cuban discontent, and when the French republic 
was proclaimed in 1848 the question of annexation to the 
United States was openly advocated, and President Polk 
offered Spain one million dollars for the island, which was 
declined. Ten years later a proposition to purchase the island 
for thirty millions was submitted to the United States Senate, 
but nothing was done in the matter. Four years previously 
the American Ministers at London, Paris and Madrid had 
drawn up what is known as the Ostend Manifesto, which 


urged that Cuba should belong to the United States, and that, 
if Spain declined to sell it, it should be wrested from her. In 
1868 the discontent of the natives culminated in open rebellion, 
which soon spread over the entire island. In 1S69 Cespedes, 
who had headed the uprising, was elected President, and Man¬ 
uel Quesada was given command of the forces. Offers from 
the United States to settle the strife amicably, and for the ces¬ 
sion of the island, were rejected by Spain, which continued to 
mass troops upon the island to quell the insurrection. Peace 
overtures were made to Cespedes in 1873, on the condition 
that Cuba should become a Spanish republic, but they were 
declined. Eventually the Spanish arms prevailed, but not until 
over 13,000 Cuban soldiers had been killed in battle and over 
43,000 prisoners slain, in accomplishing which horrible result 
more than 150,000 men had been sent over from Spain and 
over twenty millions of dollars expended. Peace has been 
nominally restored, but the native Cuban still groans under the 
foreign yoke, and sighs for the free institutions of the land 
of the free, from which he is separated by a very few miles of 
ocean. 

As a province of Spain, Cuba is governed by a Governor- 
General, who is appointed by the Crown for a period of from 
three to five years, is subordinate only to the Spanish King, 
and has despotic power as the head of the civil, military and 
ecclesiastical jurisdictions. No municipal government is 
allowed, although town councils prevail in the cities. 









JSI'OR obvious reasons, no history of South America as a 
Ml continent need be given. It will be readily gleaned 
by the reader from the following histories of the vari- 
j! aST ous countries contained within its boundaries. It 

jTf-/ 5 may be stated, however, that the table-land of Bolivia 

was the nucleus of the earliest civilization in South America. 
From there came the Inca rulers of Peru and Ecuador, which 


places, together with Colombia, provided the Spanish ex¬ 
plorers with the only evidences of culture and civilization. 
These and the Portuguese made easy conquests wherever 
they went in South America, and established colonies, which, 
however, declared their independence early in the present 
century, and obtained their freedom after fighting for it 
bravely. 


































































BRAZIL—CHILI. 


y- 


267 




^IfeOTABLE as the largest of the divisions of South 
America, and as the only empire now existing in the 
Western hemisphere, Brazil’s history is of peculiar 
interest to the historical reader. Pedro Alvarez de 
Cabral, who had been sent out by King Emmanuel 
of Portugal to follow up the discoveries of Vasco da Gama, 
discovered the land in 1500, and the richness of its forests in 
dye-woods soon attracted the attention of commerce. A Gov¬ 
ernor of the territory was appointed in 1549, who founded the 
present capital of Rio de Janeiro. Numerous attempts were 
made by the Dutch and French to take the country, but it was 
retained almost in its entirety by Portugal, whose King, on 
the occasion of Napoleon’s invasion of his country in 180S, 
fled to Brazil, and virtually transferred the monarchy to his 
•colonial possession. Seven years later Brazil was made a king¬ 
dom and its ports thrown open to the world, and in 1821 the 
King went back to Portugal, leaving behind him his son, Dom 
Pedro, as regent. A revolution, or rather a transition, occurred 
in the same year, and in 1822 Brazil was proclaimed an inde¬ 
pendent empire, and Dom Pedro was invested with the impe¬ 
rial crown. A Constitution was granted in 1824, when the 
home Government acknowledged the independence of the 
young empire. In 1826 Dom Pedro became King of Portugal 
by the death of his father, and he resigned the European 


crown to his daughter. In 1831, after long and harassing 
wars with adjacent countries, the Emperor abdicated in favor 
of his son, Dom Pedro II., then but six years old, and the 
country was ruled by a regent until he came of age, in 1841. 
Prosperity has rewarded the generally wise reign of this mon¬ 
arch. Political troubles have occurred from time to time, 
but on the whole the government of the twenty provinces 
under imperial control has been happily conducted. Wars 
have been carried on with neighboring countries, the most 
known of which was that with Paraguay, which lasted five 
years, and resulted in Brazilian aggrandizement. 

Brazil’s Constitution, which has lasted since 1824, divides 
the governing power into four branches—the legislative, exec¬ 
utive, judicial and moderating, the latter expression defining 
the imperial prerogative. Imperial affairs are controlled by the 
General Legislative Assembly, which consists of two houses, 
the Senate and Congress, whose members are all elected by 
popular vote, the Senators for life and the Members of Con¬ 
gress for four years. Provincial assemblies regulate the affairs 
of the respective provinces. Naturalized foreigners and non- 
Catholics are not eligible as Deputies. Executive power lies 
in the Emperor, who is assisted by seven Ministers and a Coun¬ 
cil of State. Over each province is a President appointed by 
the General Government. 




* 


(shill 




# * 








I 


N 1533 the Incas of Peru lost their control over Chili, and 
a few years later the Spaniards occupied the country, 
the city of Santiago being founded by them shortly after 
Li their arrival. A treaty was established with the natives 
in the early part of the eighteenth century, by which 
boundary lines were established and the rule of the Spanish Vice¬ 
roy acknowledged. A preliminary movement to the declaration 
of independence was made in 1S10, when the Chilians deposed 
the Captain-General and placed the executive power in the 
hands of a committee of seven. War between the mother 
country and the colony commenced in the following year, and 
two years later the latter was entirely under the control of the 


royalist troops. Nothing daunted, the colony, in 1817, rebelled 
again, and, after a severe struggle, defeated the royalists and 
secured their independence. At first the Government took the 
shape of a directorship, but confusion prevailed until 1833, 
when a new Constitution, whose formation was begun two years 
previously, was adopted. Under the amended form of govern¬ 
ment an improved condition of affairs was established, which 
has endured up to the present day. 

Allusion has been made, under the head of Peru, to the war 
in which that country was conquered, but a fuller mention of 
it may be afforded here, as the event is one of great impor¬ 
tance in connection with South American history. In 1879 



































































hostilities began between Chili and the allied republics of 
Bolivia and Peru, growing out of rival territorial claims, and 
claims to guano beds and mineral deposits. Chili insisted that, 
having done more than either of the others to repel the enemy, 
she was entitled to generous treatment. When the war came 
she had an army of 22,000 and a navy of ten small steamers 
and two powerful iron-clads, which gave her a vast advantage 
over the enemy. The war was conducted with great spirit and 
intrepidity, the naval conflicts between the two powers being 
especially remarkable for the ferocious carnage displayed on 
both sides. In the spring of 1SS1 Callao and Lima were taken, 
and the Chilians were masters of the situation. By the terms 
of peace Chili exacted from the conquered countries the abso¬ 


lute annexation of the territory containing all the nitrates and 
the great bulk of the guano, the occupation of other territory 
for a period of years, and of the Loblis islands as long as there 
is any guano on them; also the payment of a monster war in¬ 
demnity—terms which virtually crush the countries which have 
been forced to submit to them. 

Executive power is vested in the President, who is advised 
by five Cabinet Ministers, and subject to the check of a Council 
of State composed of eleven officials, six of whom are chosen 
by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists 
of twenty members chosen for nine years, and the Chamber is 
composed of Deputies, elected for three years, in the propor¬ 
tion of one to every 20,000 inhabitants. 





t-C 


1 










2 3 


'v>‘ 




~ 2 - 


1524, Pizarro made a visit to the coast of Peru, but it 
was not until 1531 that he returned with intention of con¬ 
quest. His aim was aided at the time by the divided con¬ 
dition of the country, for the possession of which rival 
Incas were struggling. With less than 200 men in his 
command, the Spanish adventurer made the friendship of one 
of the Incas, whom he took prisoner. Promising to release 
him for a ransom, he acquired from the natives metals and 
valuables worth nearly eighteen millions of dollars, after which 
he treacherously slew his prisoner. After subjecting the 
country to misrule, accompanied by atrocious cruelties, Pizarro 
was assassinated in 1541. Spanish rule became firmly rooted, 
however, and in the early part of the eighteenth century the 
colon}- of Quito was separated from Peru and added to the 
adjoining colony of New Granada. Another partition of the 
colony resulted in the formation of the separate govern¬ 
ments of Venezuela, Guatemala, Caracas, Cumana and Chili. 
Peru was the last of the colonies to rise against Spain, but in 
1821 patriots from Chili and Buenos Ayres entered the country 
and drove the Spaniards from the capital. In 1S24 the dicta¬ 
torship was assumed by Bolivar, who, two years later, drove 
the Spaniards from their last stronghold, after which he formed 
a republic called Bolivia of the southern and southeastern por¬ 
tions of the colony, and resigned the dictatorship. Revolution 
in Peru occurred in 1826, and in place of the Constitution pre¬ 
pared by Bolivar, a new one, similar in form to that of the 



United States of America, was adopted. Civil war follow ed, 
but peace was finally brought about by General Castilla, who 
became President in 1S45 and ruled the country until 1851. 
when, a vicious government succeeding him, another revolution 
occurred. Complications with the United States arose in 
1S5S, through the seizure of several American vessels bv ships 
belonging to the revolutionary forces, but in 1873 the 
American claims for damages were settled. Castilla's star once 
more shone in the ascendant, and the country enjoyed good gov¬ 
ernment until 1S62. In 1S67 a Constitution was adopted and a 
treaty of commerce and friendship was made with Chili. After 
revolutions, assassinations and other exhibitions of anarchical 
tendency, the country came, in 1879, into conflict w ith Chili. 
With the Bolivians as allies, the Peruvians made a gallant stand, 
but in 1881 the Chilians defeated and dispersed the Peruvian 
army and drove the President from the capital. 

Executive power in Peru vests in the President, who, with 
the Vice-President, is elected by the people for a term of four 
years. Legislative power is vested in a Senate composed of 
Deputies of the twenty-two provinces, two for each, and a 
House of Representatives nominated by the people, in the pro¬ 
portion of one for ever}- 20.000 inhabitants. Five members 
who are nominated by the President form the Cabinet. Great 
liberality is the characteristic of the Constitution, except in 
regard to religion, as it provides that any other religion than 
the Roman Catholic, which is declared to be the religion of 
the State, is to be strictly prohibited. 








































UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. 


269 




• V • 


f. 
. •-» 


ff ©he United States op (Colombia fj 


COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 


+ + + + + + +++ + + + : 


e-v 


- • 

G>,. : 




* 


of the most enlightened and progressive coun- 
“T r 1 tries in South America is the United States of 

I; I Colombia. In 1536—7 the country was con- 
' quered by the Spaniards, who held it until 1S09, 

when a war of independence, lasting eight years, 
gave its inhabitants their liberty. At that time the country, 
then known as New Granada, was united with Ecuador and 
Venezuela, but a separation took place in 1S29, and the 
United States of Colombia, as at present organized, was 
formed. Civil wars desolated the country from 1S60 to 1S70, 
but peace has prevailed generally since then, and the country 
has been prosperous. A Constitution was promulgated in 1S63 
by which the executive authority is vested in a President 
eiected for two years, while the legislative power lies in a 
Senate consisting of three members from each State, and a 
lower House of Delegates, each of the nine States sending a 
member for every 50,000 of its inhabitants. The States have 
each their own legislature and executive officer. 

Venezuela was discovered by Columbus in 149S, and a 
settlement was effected by the Spaniards in 1520, who held the 
country until 1S23, when the Venezuelans, who had declared 
their independence in 1811, secured it after a severe struggle 
of eleven years’duration. It separated from Xew Granada ! 
and Ecuador in 1SS0. Many civil wars have devastated the 
country, which has hardly yet settled down to the peaceful 
enjoyment of the liberties guaranteed by the Constitution of 
1S64, by which Venezuela became a federal republic, whose 
executive power is vested in a President holding office for 
four years. Legislative power lies in a Senate and House of j 
Representatives, whose Deputies are named by corresponding 
State bodies. 

Ecuador was, many years previous to the coming of the 
Spaniards, the seat of an Indian monarchy, whose King was 
overthrown in the tenth century by Indians, who established a 
government and ruled the country until it was conquered in 
the latter part of the fifteenth century by Huaqua Capac, 
Inca of Peru. His sons divided the country between them 
and quarrelled, the war resulting in the victor}- of the one of 
them to whom the province of Quito had fallen. He reunited 
both countries, but in 1S52 Pizarro seized and slew the Inca, 
and Spanish rule prevailed until 1S09, when the colonists aro>e 


in rebellion and obtained their independence in 1S20. Ecuador 
became an independent State in 1S30, and civil war followed, 
lasting twenty years, after which came war with Peru. Tran¬ 
quillity followed, and prosperity has of late rewarded the coun¬ 
try’s efforts in the direction of commercial and social advance¬ 
ment. The Government is a republic, with the executive in the 
hands of a President, who is elected for four years. Legislative 
power rests in a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, who have 
respectively eighteen and thirty members. 

Paraguay was discovered in 1530, and settled in 1536 by 
the Spaniards, whose missionaries found the natives mild and 
peaceful of disposition and well disposed to receive the truths 
of Christianity. In 1S11 the country declared for independ¬ 
ence, and was for twenty-nine years kept under the rule of 
Tose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia, who sustained during the 
whole period a policy of non-interference with foreigners. 
The country was accessible only by way of the river Parana, 
and ingress and egress by it were so thoroughly stopped that 
during the long period of his rule no foreigners whatever were 
allowed to enter, and only half a dozen were permitted to 
leave. Such shipping as was in the river at the time this policy 
was inaugurated stayed there, rotted and fell to pieces. This 
unique condition of affairs was only ended by Francia’s death, 
when the dictatorship was seized by Antonio Lopez, who held 
it under the title of President until 1S62, when he died, and 
was succeeded by his ambitious son, Francisco Solano Lopez, 
who set himself up as protector of the “ equilibrium ” of the 
La Plata region. War with Brazil, Uruguay and the Argentine 
Republic ensued, which lasted for five years, closing in 1870, 
when Lopez was killed and peace restored. At the mercy of 
its conquerors, Paraguay ceded a portion of its territory to 
Brazil, and agreed to pay in all an indemnity so enormous that 
it is now bankrupt and with no prospect of regaining the finan¬ 
cial prosperity it enjoyed previous to the war. Executive 
power rests in a President, who is elected for six years, and 
the legislative function in a Congress composed of a Senate 
and Chamber of Deputies. 

Guiana, consisting of three divisions, belonging respect¬ 
ively to Great Britain, France and the Netherlands, has no 
specially interesting historical reminiscences. British Guiana, 
the largest and most valuable of the three possessions, was 









































Queen Cha 



Prawn b j J. Jubnaioa, Ottawa, 



















































































































272 


EUROPE. 


acquired by Great Britain in 1803. It is ruled by a Governor 
appointed by the Crown. French Guiana was acquired in 
1704. It is not a very valuable possession, and its main use to 
France is as a penal settlement. Dutch Guiana, which lies 
between the others, is a rich country, and is ruled by a Gov¬ 
ernor-General and Council. 

Formerly known as Buenos Ayres, the Argentine Repub¬ 
lic was discovered in 1512, and twenty-three years later its 
settlement began, as a part of the Peruvian domain. Such it 
remained until the end of the fifteenth century, when the vice¬ 
royalty of Buenos Ayres was formed by the consolidation of 
the land now divided among the Argentine Republic, Paraguay, 
Uruguay and Bolivia. War for independence from Spanish 
rule began in 1809 and ended in 1812, with the revolutionary 
arms in the ascendant. In 1S17 a Dictator was elected, subject 
to the limitations of a provisional constitution, and three years 
later a democratic government was inaugurated. After a war 
with Brazil the Argentine provinces in 1831 formed a confeder¬ 
ation, and the power fell into the hands of General Rosas, 
commander of the army, who exercised it despotically until 
1852, when he was deposed, at which time the province of 
Buenos Ayres seceded from the confederation. It returned, 
however, later, and by a recent treaty the confederation was 
increased by the acquisition of all of Patagonia, except a strip 
along the Straits of Magellan, and all of the island of Terra 
del Fuego east of the Andes. Subsequent to the deposition of 
Rosas, the confederation engaged in a number of foreign wars, 
and suffered from many internal disturbances, but of late peace 
has been enjoyed to a fair extent. A President, who is elected 
for six years by the provincial representatives, holds the execu¬ 


tive power. Legislative power rests in a National Congress, 
which comprises a Senate of twenty-eight members and a 
House of fifty-four Deputies. The provinces, fourteen in num¬ 
ber, are ruled by Governors, who are elected for fourteen years. 

Uruguay has a history even more bloody and bellicose 
than any other of the South American dominions. It was 
first settled by the Jesuits in the early part of the seventeenth 
century, but Spain and Portugal both claimed possession of it 
later, and after much fighting the former succeeded in making 
its claim good in 1724. About a century later Brazil an¬ 
nexed it, but it revolted and secured its independence in 1828. 
Since that time until quite recently revolution continued to be 
the normal condition of the country, and at times civil war 
was conducted with such ferocity that the intervention of 
foreign powers became necessary as an act dictated by feelings 
of humanity. Although in theory a republic, with a President 
and a Senate and House of Delegates, the real power lies with 
whatever General happens at the time to have the control of 
the military. 

Bolivia, named after Simon Bolivar, sometimes called the 
“ Liberator of South America,” for the leading part which he 
took in helping the efforts made by the different States in the 
direction of independence, was held by the Spaniards until 
1825, when it became independent. Since then revolt has 
almost entirely occupied the attention of its people. In the 
war with Chili it was virtually annihilated, the conditions ot 
peace imposed being such as to keep the country in everlasting 
subjection. A President enjoys the executive power, and legis¬ 
lative functions are vested in a Senate and House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, elected by the people. 





REECE has the honor of being in the van of 
European civilization and power, but in the seventh 


century before Christ a rival sprang up in Italy, 
which in the course of time attained such vigor 
that Greece at last was humbled to the condition 
of a Roman province. From 200 B.C. to 100 A.D. the 
Roman Empire enjoyed its greatest glory, extending its power 
until almost all Europe came under its rule. From the 
unconquered portion to the north, however, poured legions 
of barbarians, who overran the Roman Empire and laid 
upon its ruins the foundations of modern Europe. What 
are known as the dark or middle ages of European history 


lasted from the fifth to the fifteenth century, and these are 
pregnant with historic interest, the extension of the Christian 
Church, with the accompanying development of rational civili¬ 
zation, being accomplished during those centuries. Many 
valuable inventions made during this period assisted in the 
beneficent work, among the most important of which was 
that of printing. Among the most advanced of European 
nations during this time were the republics of Italy, which 
led the world in commerce, the arts and civilization. Such 
is a general summary of the continent’s history up to the end 
of the middle ages. Fuller facts regarding individual national 
progress during and subsequent to this period will be found 
under the proper heads elsewhere. 



































GREAT BRITAIN. 


273 




IP mi 111'- island now known as Great Britain was known 
QI to the ancients previous to the date at which its 
JfG written history begins, the Phoenicians, Carthagin- 
i / ians and Massilians having visited its shores in their 
trading vessels. It was not, however, until the year 
55 B.C. that its real history commenced, with the conquest of 
the country by Julius Ca;sar, and the establishment there of 
the Roman rule, which lasted until A.D. 420, when the pres¬ 
sure of Rome’s enemies caused the withdrawal of the legions 
from Britannia—the name which Caesar gave to the island in 
the stead of Albion, by which it had formerly been known. 
The departure of the Romans left the British a prey to the 
Piets and Scots, whose incursions, aided by internal dissen¬ 
sions among the British chiefs, re¬ 
duced the country to a condition of 
anarchy. One of these chiefs, seek¬ 
ing assistance to enable him to cope 
with the northern invaders, effected 
an alliance, in A.D. 446, with Hen- 
gist, a prince of the Jutes, who, 
with Horsa, his brother, after driv¬ 
ing back the Piets and Scots, turned 
his arms against the Britons, whom 
they overcame in a series of san¬ 
guinary battles. In 457 Hengist 
declared himself King of Kent, 
and in the course of time the con¬ 
quest of England was fully ac¬ 
complished by the Saxons, Jutes 
and Angles, who established three 
Saxon, one Jutish and four Anglian 
kingdoms. About the year 830 the 

ruling powder was consolidated, and Egbert, ruler of the Saxon 
kingdom, Wessex, became King of all England. During his 
reign began the invasions of the Danes, who, gaining increased 
power after the death of Alfred the Great in 901, held the country 
from 1017 to 1041, when the crown reverted to the Anglo-Saxons 
and to Christianity, which had already been introduced in the 
person of Edward, surnamed the Confessor. Ilis reign was 
merely nominal, the country being governed by Danish and 
English Earls, and when he died one of these, Harold, Earl of 
Wessex, seized the throne, which was soon wrested from him 
by William, Duke of Normandy, in France, who defeated him 
in the battle of Hastings, and established the Norman line of 
Kings. The Norman invasion was followed by the division of 



QUEEN’S CASTLE, BALMORAL. 


the lands among William the Conqueror’s followers, as feudal 
lords, the foundation thus being laid of a rich and powerful 
landed aristocracy, which has continued to successfully defend 
its ascendancy in spite of all opposition. As years went by 
the Normans and Saxons became merged into one people. 

In the court, French manners and the Norman-French 
language prevailed, while the Saxon tongue remained in use 
among the laboring classes; but the writings of Chaucer 
fixed the English language, which, however, had received a 
strong impression from the invaders. The reigns of the 
Norman and Plantagenet monarchs were a series of contests 
between the Kings and the Barons, and the concessions which 
the latter wrung from royalty constitute some of the strong¬ 
holds of British liberty. One of 
the most important of these was 
the Magna Charta, which the Bar¬ 
ons forced King John to sign at 
Runnymede in 1215, and which 
secured to the English people two 
great rights: first, that no man 
should suffer arbitrary imprison¬ 
ment ; second, that no tax should be 
imposed without the consent of the 
National Council. In 1265 King 
Henry III. was imprisoned by the 
Barons, and the first English Par¬ 
liament was convened ; and though, 
in the same year, his son Edward 
defeated the Barons and restored 
his father, the latter was glad to 
conciliate his foes, and confirmed 
the great charter. During Ed¬ 
ward’s reign Wales was conquered and annexed to England, 
and Scotland was menaced, but preserved her integrity through 
the skilful generalship of William Wallace and Robert Bruce. 
The shaping of the English Parliament was greatly advanced 
during this reign, the National Council taking its modern 
form by the separation of the greater Barons from the 
tenants-in-chief, who thereafter took part in Parliament only 
through representatives. In 1295 the first session of the 
Commons in a separate chamber was held, and in 1296 was 
passed the statute providing that no tax should be imposed 
which was not sanctioned by the Barons, Bishops and Burges¬ 
ses. Popular government made another step forward in the 
reign of Henry IV., the first King of the house of Lancaster, 



























































( 


274 


GREAT BRITAIN. 


in the enactment of the statute granting the parliamentary 
right of election for counties to all freeholders, and the recog¬ 
nition of the two houses of Parliament as bodies possessing 
distinct privileges, which were not to be interfered with by 
each other. The reform of church abuses, which had been 
inaugurated by Wvcliff, was opposed by Henry IV., while 
Parliament passed the act for the punishment of heretics, 
which for two centuries, almost, was made the instrument for 
the affliction of unutterable cruelties. The aspirations of the 
house of York to the throne led to the sanguinary civil con¬ 
flicts known as the Wars of the Roses. The Yorkists triumphed 
in 1461, and in Henry VII.’s marriage the two houses were 
joined together. The Tudor dynasty thus formed produced 
some remarkable reigns. Henry VIII., who in the early part 
of his reign earned the title of “ Defender of the Faith,” for his 
loyalty to the Pope, broke with Rome later, and assumed the 
title of “ Head of the Church,” and in 1535 the Papal authority 
was set aside by act of Parliament. In the reign of his 
daughter, Queen Mary, a devout Catholic, a strong effort was 
made to undo the work of reformation in England. The 
legislation of Henry VIII., and of the regency which suc¬ 
ceeded him, was repealed, and many who opposed the new 
deal were burned at the stake. Dying without issue, Mary 
was succeeded by her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth, who 
restored the supremacy of the Church of England, which about 
this time accomplished the reform of the service books of the 
church, and of its doctrines, which resulted in the preparation 
of the thirty-nine articles, in substantially the same form as 
they exist at present. The nation was threatened in Eliza¬ 
beth’s reign by the Spanish Armada, which Philip II. of 
Spain fitted out for England’s invasion, but which, overtaken 
by a storm, was dispersed, and its great vessels made an easy 
prey for the lighter and more manageable English ships. 
Under Elizabeth Ireland was subjected, commerce with India 
established, and colonies planted in America. 

The Stuart family of Scotland succeeded that of Tudor, 
and with them culminated the struggle between royal preroga¬ 
tive and popular right. The power of the feudal Barons had 
already been destroyed, and the bulwark of British law and 
liberty now was the middle class. The Stuart monarchs, James 
I. and Charles I., by no means understood the spirit of their 
age, and their constant exercise of despotic power brought 
them in collision with the united trading and laboring classes. 
King Charles attempted to dispense with the Parliament, and 
ruled for many years without one, but in 1642 the people arose 
against him, and in 1645 the Roundhead (Puritan) army, under 
Oliver Cromwell, overthrew the Royalist forces. The King 
was imprisoned and executed, and Cromwell, declining the 
title of King offered him by Parliament, ruled the country as 
Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. Under this great man 
the power of England increased greatly. At his death, in 1659, 
his son, an amiable man of moderate capacity, succeeded him, 
but resigned his power in the following year. This paved the 
way for the return of the Stuarts in Charles II., a vicious 
monarch, whose reign saw further conflicts between the King 
and Parliament, which, however, in 1679, showed their oppo¬ 
sition to his will, and passed the Habeas Corpus act. His 
brother and successor, James II., worked persistently for the 


overthrow of constitutional government and the establishment 
of despotic regal power with the Roman Catholic Church as 
the State religion, and fared no better than his predecessors, 
being forced to abdicate to make room for William of Orange, 
whose acceptance of the crown was made subject to limita¬ 
tions inspired by Parliament, which passed an act arranging 
for the succession, while the Bill of Rights guaranteed the lib¬ 
erty of the country. Under Queen Anne, the English armies 
under the famous Marlborough won splendid victories on the 
continent against France. In 1707 the union with Scotland 
was consummated. With George I., who succeeded her, came 
in the Hanoverian dynasty, during the early years of whose rule 
efforts were made to re-establish the Stuart line, whose hopes 
were finally crushed at Culloden in 1746. The reign of George 
II. was marked by the acquisition of India and Canada. En¬ 
gland’s colonial possessions were largely increased during the 
earlier years of George III., but later on the persistent attempts 
to tax the American colonists drove them to successful revolu¬ 
tion and the formation of the United States of America. The 
intellectual brilliancy of the Parliamentary leaders of this 
epoch is one of its striking features, the destinies of the nation 
being in the hands of such men as Pitt, Fox, Burke and Sheri¬ 
dan. The successes of Napoleon in Europe alarming England, 
she joined with the other powers in a war whose object was to 
replace the Bourbons on the French throne. The prolonged con¬ 
flict was ended by the battle of Waterloo in 1815, in which 
Napoleon was defeated by a British army under Wellington 
and a Prussian army under Blucher. During these wars En¬ 
gland’s victories at sea, under Admiral Nelson, constitute the 
brightest page in her naval history. In 1798 the Irish, assisted 
by the French, rebelled, but were subdued, and in 1801 
occurred the passage of the act of union between Great 
Britain and Ireland. George IV., a regal profligate, succeeded 
him, and in the reign of William IV., who followed, was 
passed the first reform bill, which placed the political power in 
the hands of the people. Three years before his death, which 
occurred in 1837, the decree was ordered abolishing slavery 
from British territory. He was succeeded by the present sov¬ 
ereign, Queen Victoria, whose reign has proved one of the 
most remarkable, as well as beneficent, of all the British sov¬ 
ereigns. Born in London, May 24, 1819, she was only 18 
years old at the time of her accession. In February, 1840, 
she was married to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha, with whom she sustained very happy coniugal relations 
until his death, in 1S61, since which time she has remained a 
widow. The earliest event of importance in her reign was the 
repeal of the Corn Laws in 1845. In 1847 a famine occurred 
in Ireland, which was followed by a large emigration from that 
country. The Chartist agitation followed in 1848, and in 1853 
the Crimean war commenced, in which England and France 
allied themselves with Turkey against the encroachments of 
Russia. It lasted from January, 1854, until March, 1856, 
when the Russians, having lost the fortress of Sebastopol, 
which was the key to their position, consented to a peace. 
The next serious employment of the English arms was that 
provided in the suppression of the Indian mutiny, which 
occurred in 1S57-8, after which England assumed direct con¬ 
trol of affairs in that country. In 1868 the supplementary 


<s 


o 




























IRELAND. 


275 


reform bill was passed, and in 1S70 the disestablisment of the 
Irish Church was accomplished. In the year following, the 
peaceful negotiation of the differences between the United 
States and Great Britain, caused by the acts of the rebel 
cruiser Alabama, resulted in an Alabama claims treaty. 
Amongst the minor wars of her reign were those against the 
Chinese, Abyssinians and Ashantees, the Afghanistan, Zulus 
and Boers. Though at peace with foreign nations, Great 
Britain is just now menaced by the defiant attitude of her Irish 
subjects, who, seeking to redress the wrongs which they have 
suffered, are in secret rebellion against the Government. 
Assisted by political societies, whose ramifications extend to 
foreign countries where expatriated Irishmen have found 
homes, the plotters for Irish liberty are endeavoring, by 
acts of violence organized and accomplished in secret, to 
terrify the Government into granting the concessions they de¬ 
mand. 

1 he Government of Great Britain is a constitutional mon¬ 
archy. The executive function is vested in the sovereimi, and 
the legislative in the Imperial Parliament. The succession to 
the throne is settled upon the descendants of Sophia of Bruns¬ 


wick, and no change in the “ Act of Settlement ” can be made 
without the consent of Parliament. The heir-apparent 
assumes the title of “Prince of Wales.” The Parliament 
consists of the sovereign, the House of Lords and the House 
of Commons, and an act to obtain the force of law must be 
passed by all three. Membership in the House of Lords is 
hereditary. There are 492 members, including the 2 Arch¬ 
bishops and 24 Bishops of the Established Church of England. 
The House of Commons has 654 members—4S7 for England 
and Wales, 105 for Ireland and 62 for Scotland. Of these, 
11 represent the universities, 283 the counties, and 360 the 
335 boroughs. The right of voting is restricted in boroughs 
to householders and to lodgers paying a rent of ^20 per 
annum; in counties to householders paying ^10 rent. The 
members of the Cabinet Council are appointed by the sover¬ 
eign, but responsible to Parliament, and consequently their 
appointment is virtually made by the party in the majority. 
The sovereign appoints the members of the Privy Council, the 
Lord Mayor of London being the only ex officio member, but 
public business is in reality conducted by the Cabinet Council. 
In Ireland the Crown is represented by a Lord Lieutenant. 







smv- 


.yjgy 




ICELAND. 


41&. 


-aa:; . 

oiio 





vr.r 



AvIIKAT the present moment, on account of the strenuous 
f-f/lf effort the Irish are making to effect the liberation of 
)fvl their land, Ireland is commanding a great deal of 
jl attention. Christianity was introduced into the 
' island in the fifth century, when St. Patrick, being 
taken a captive in war, was sold into slavery in Ireland, where 
he remained for five years. Twenty years later he returned 
there as a missionary, and for thirty years preached the truths 
of the gospel to its people, succeeding most remarkably in his 
mission as a Christian propagandist. From the eighth to the 
eleventh century was the period of Ireland’s greatest compara¬ 
tive civilization. During this period she was far more advanced 
than England in learning and culture. Colleges flourished, and 
the arts were carried to a high degree of perfection. Unfor¬ 
tunately, while so well advanced in civilization, Ireland had not 
achieved what was at that time necessary for her salvation—a 
strong central government. On the contrary, it was divided 
up into a number of petty kingdoms, wdiich had no secure 
bond of union. Hence, when the Plantagenet monarch of 
England, Henry II., made his raids in 1172, his conquest of 
the disunited country was a comparatively easy matter, 
taking into consideration the really warlike qualities of the 
Irish chiefs and Barons who ruled the land. The foothold 
thus gained was in the province of Leinster, and from that 
date England has asserted a fictitious claim to rule a people 




persistently unreconciled to any interference with home rule. 
It was under the Tudors, however, that the fate of the un¬ 
happy island was settled. There was no centralization in 
Ireland. Britain became great because the petty kingdoms 
were consolidated into one nation, while Ireland dwindled 
away and lost its splendid opportunity, through the calamitous 
influence of the tribe and the clan, in distinction from the 
country. For a long time the “ English Pale,” or the area 
of actual British rule in Ireland, was very limited. Henry 
VII. determined to extend it, but pursued his purpose only 
feebly. Henry VIII. was more intently bent on Irish subju¬ 
gation, and under his reign nobles and people felt the crushing 
hand of a tyrant. In 1542 he assumed the title of King, 
instead of Lord of Ireland, by virtue of an act passed by the 
Anglo-Irish Parliament in 1541, and about the same time some 
of the native princes were induced to acknowledge him as 
their sovereign and to accept peerages. Since then his suc¬ 
cessors have never ceased to hold fast both the shadow and 
substance of Irish sovereignty. In order that the national 
sentiment might be suppressed, the language, dress, customs 
and laws of the country were prohibited. The fact that Henry 
was at war with the Pope made loyalty to Rome an expres¬ 
sion of patriotism in Ireland. Very little favor was extended to 
the doctrines of the Reformation, either by the descendants 
of the old English settlers or by the native Irish, and when 















































276 


IRELAND. 


the English Government sought to introduce it great dissen¬ 
sions were stirred up. When Mary came to the throne, and 
Protestantism lacked the support of the Government, it almost 
immediately melted away. She was not disposed to abandon 
the island to itself by any means, but her personal sympathies 
were with the Irish in the matter of religion. Elizabeth was 
in sympathy, of course, with the Protestantism of her father 
rather than the papacy of her sister ; but she took a secular 
view of the Irish question, and under her the power of the 
British Crown was felt throughout the entire island. The old 
Celtic Constitution was rejected; the tribal authority of the 
chiefs was taken from them, and the tribal system of property 
set aside ; English judges and English law were substituted for 
the old proceedings: the result of which, says Green, was that 
“ the evicted natives withdrew sullenly to the lands which had 
been left them by the spoiler ; but all faith in English justice 
had been torn from the minds of the Irishry, and the seed had 
been sown of that fatal harvest of distrust which was to be 
reaped through tyranny and massacre in the age to come. ” 
Very shortly before Elizabeth’s death occurred the famous 
insurrection of Tyrone, 
who invited the Span¬ 
iards to assist him; but 
they were all defeated in 
1620. Repeated rebel¬ 
lion tried the temper of 
the Government, which, 
in the reign of James I., 
seized the province of 
Ulster and divided it 
among such of his Scotch 
and English subjects as 
chose to settle there. In 
1641 occurred More and 
Maguire’s rebellion, in 
which an endeavor was 
made to expel the Prot¬ 
estants from the island. 

From 1649 to 1656 the 
iron hand of Cromwell 
was laid upon the land. 

In the year of King 
Charles’ execution, the 
Royalists being still strong and rebellious in Ireland, Cromwell 
went there in person as Lord-Lieutenant and Commander-in- 
Chief, and his measures were so cruel and sanguinary that the 
island was, in nine months, completely crushed. He left in charge 
of it his son-in-law, Ireton, who completed the island’s subjec¬ 
tion, and no disturbance of its tranquillity occurred until the revo¬ 
lution. The northern province, Ulster, was colonized by 
Scotch shortly after Cromwell’s invasion. At the time of the 
revolution James II. received very generally the support of 
the Irish, while the Scotch and English colonists took the 
part of William and Mary. The struggle between oppressor 
and oppressed lasted for four years, and was ended by the 
bloody battle of the Boyne, fought July 1, 1690, and result¬ 
ing in the overthrow of the Irish, who, two years later, were 
again in utter subjection. From this time on the British 


Government systematically sought to destroy the Irish national 
sentiment. Penal laws were passed which imposed terrible 
restrictions upon the Roman Catholic population, and rebel¬ 
lions were frequent. Backed by the “Volunteers,” Henry 
Grattan secured a free Parliament and the partial abolition of 
the heavy restrictions on Irish commerce. It was mainly 
through this patriot’s exertions and influence that the stringent 
pressure of the penal laws against the Roman Catholics 
was relaxed. He steadily opposed the idea of a legislative 
union of the countries, and in 1800 he was elected to fight 
in Parliament for Irish liberty. Two years previous the 
country, driven to desperation by oppression, had been in 
revolt, and the year that saw Grattan’s election saw also the 
crushing out of the attempt to secure Ireland’s liberty. Not¬ 
withstanding his brilliant advocacy of the Irish cause, the 
oppressors were in the preponderance in Parliament, and the 
union was consummated January 1, 1S01. Since that time 
Ireland has not lacked for agitators to keep alive the national 
spirit and to fight for the amelioration of her condition. In 
1829 the Catholic Emancipation act was passed, largely through 

the exertions of the great 
Daniel O’Connell, and 
later on a reform bill 
and a poor-law were en¬ 
acted. About the mid¬ 
dle of the present century 
a strong movement was 
on foot for the repeal of 
the union, and while it 
was in progress famine 
fell upon the land and 
whole counties were de¬ 
populated. In 1848 Smith 
O’Brien’s abortive revo¬ 
lution was easily sup¬ 
pressed. More formida¬ 
ble since then have been 
the alternately secret and 
overt workings of the 
Fenian Brotherhood. 
Organized in 1S59 in both 
America and Great Brit¬ 
ain, it held a congress at 
Chicago in 1863 that attracted much attention. Two years 
later another was held in Cincinnati, which represented a con¬ 
stituency of 80,000. In 1866 an attempt was made to conquer 
■Canada, and in 1S67 several Fenian riots occurred in Great 
Britain. It has been urged that these aggressive movements 
accomplished nothing. Directly they may have failed of great 
success, but indirectly they proved of immense value to the 
Irish cause. By far the greater part of the population of Ireland 
hold the Roman Catholic faith, and their taxation for the sup¬ 
port of the State Church was one of the leading causes of 
Irish discontent. It is not uninteresting to note that it was in 
1869—two years after the first Fenian agitation—that the 
Episcopal State Church was disestablished and disendowed, and 
the endowment, except as used for annuities, dedicated to 
educational and other secular purposes. Important as was the 



SACKVILLE STREET, DUBLIN. 

























































































IRELAND. 


2 77 


concession, it did not satisfy the Irish people, who have placed 
national independence and autonomy as the goal of their 
combined struggles, and a powerful movement was inaugu¬ 
rated for securing reform in tenure of land and the rela¬ 
tions of landlord and tenant. Under the lead of Mr. Parnell, 
himself a large land-owner, the matter has been so per¬ 
sistently brought before the attention of Parliament that 
reforms have already been accomplished of great importance. 
The Land League, which is at the back of Mr. Parnell and his 
associates, is a formidable body, which aims at British reforms 
within the limits of the Constitution, rather than the dissolu¬ 
tion of the union. It has secured much through the Land Bill, 
and the readjustment of rents thereunder, and it is still a tre¬ 
mendous power in Ireland and the British Parliament, while 
the hundreds of societies in this country which are affiliated 
to the main body show how strongly Irish-Americans and 
Americans sympathize with the cause of Ireland. The aim, how¬ 
ever, of the Irish Nationalist party does not fall short of an Irish 
Parliament to manage local affairs, of the formation, in place of 
the present system which concentrates all power in the British 
Parliament, of a federal government, and of the abolition of 
the oppressive system of land tenures now in vogue. 

Within the past few months the struggle for these desirable 
objects has assumed a shape of secret aggression which has 


carried terror into the hearts of the British. Right in the 
heart of the British capital, members of the secret societies 
have effected explosions of large quantities of dynamite, and 
quite recently the Government spies ferreted out a factory of 
explosives, to be used in carrying on the war of terror against 
oppression. Many arrests have been made, and trials have 
followed, resulting in a number of convictions, with sentences 
of death or transportation. Among those doomed to death 
are the convicted assassins of the Earl of Spencer and Secre¬ 
tary Burke, whose murder was one of the most unfortunate 
occurrences in connection with the recent struggles, and has 
cost the good cause much favorable opinion which should be¬ 
long to it. Such events, however, resulting from the enthusi¬ 
asm of the over-zealous and excitable, have attended almost 
all revolutions, and nothing will ensure their forgiveness quicker 
than the success of those who are now continuing the fight for 
Irish independence. 

Ireland is represented in the British Plouse of Commons by 
105 members, and in the House of Lords by 28 representative 
Peers, who are elected and hold office for life. Its executive 
consists of a Lord Lieutenant and Privy Council, nominated 
by the Crown. English rule is enforced throughout the coun¬ 
try with the assistance of an armed military constabulary 
numbering over 12,000 men. 






































•+ 






SCOTLAND. 




# Scotland. # 


REVIOUS to the union with England, Scotland, as 
an independent country, had attracted considerable 
attention. In the middle of the ninth century the 
Scots acquired a predominance in North Britain 
by revolution. A lineal descendant of Ardan, a 
powerful prince who more than once successfully invaded the 
English borders, named Kenneth, claimed the British realm. 
Under his son, Malcolm II., the Scotch acquired the Merse and 
Teviotdale from the Earl of Northumbria. Malcolm III., who 
succeeded, had a long and prosperous reign, in which Scotland 
made great strides 
forward, both polit¬ 
ically and socially. 

English customs were 
introduced, owing to 
his long residence in 
England and his mar¬ 
riage with an English 
princess, and the En¬ 
glish language began 
to make headway on 
account of the large 
immigration from 
England which took 
place. During the 
succeeding reigns of 
Edgar, Alexander I., 
and David, who was 
a great reformer in 
both clerical and sec¬ 
ular affairs, the En¬ 
glish influence in¬ 
creased. One of the 
ablest and best of 
Scottish kings was 

Alexander III., who, by a treaty with Norway, added the 
Isle of Man to his dominions, together with other islands 
of the Western Sea. A dispute over the crown followed the 
death of his granddaughter in 1290, and the decision between 
the claimants, Baliol and Bruce, was left to King Edward I. 
of England, who entered the country with an army, deposed 
Baliol and instituted English government. A prolonged strug¬ 
gle for independence followed, in which the heroic deeds of 
Wallace and Bruce gained for the Scotch a deathless reputation 


VIEW OF EDINBURGH. 


for valor and patriotism. During succeeding generations the 
history of Scotland was one prolonged story of interminable 
civil and border warfare, and of occasional invasions from 
England. Amicable relations between the Crown and the 
nobles were first accomplished during the reign of James IV., 
whose gay and elegant court seduced the warriors from the 
field and left the peasantry to attend undisturbed to the peace¬ 
ful and profitable occupation of husbandry. Fisheries were 
encouraged, a navy built and commerce promoted, while the 
King’s marriage with Margaret, daughter of the Tudor 

Henry VII., laid the 
foundation of the 
union of the two 
kingdoms. Henry 
VIII. sought to con¬ 
quer the country, and 
in the war which 
James IV. was pro¬ 
voked into declaring 
against him the Scotch 
navy was destroyed, 
and its armies de¬ 
feated on Flodden 
Heights. The King 
was among the slain. 
II is son, subsequently 
James V., was then 
a minor, and during 
the regency which en¬ 
sued the country fell 
into a wretched con¬ 
dition. He married a 
daughter of the French 
Duke of Guise, the 
fruit of which mar¬ 
riage was the unfortunate Mary, Queen of Scots, whose son, 
James VI. of Scotland, became James I. of England, thus uniting 
the two countries. The overthrow of the Stuart family and other 
events which happened from the accession of James VI. to the 
English throne, down to ratification of the act of union by the 
Scottish Parliament in 1707, are told in the history of Great 
Britain given elsewhere. Scotland retained, on its admission to 
the union, its church system and its laws. It is governed by the 
Imperial Parliament, to which it elects sixty members. 































































































GERMANY. 


279 


► 




HEN Julius Caesar was on his way of exploration 
through Europe, which led him through Gaul 
and into Great Britain, he avoided rather than 
sought to measure arms with the Germans, 
whose fighting he tasted of and then learned to 
respect. A conflict between the Romans and Germans was, 



KING’S PALACE, BERLIN 


Netherlands, Austro-Idungary and Italy, and she became the 
ruling power in Europe. This reign was also remarkable for 
the beginning of the Reformation. In 1521, at the Diet of 
Worms, Luther made his famous defence ; at the Diet of 
Speyer was made the formal protest of his supporters against 
decisions unfavorable to them, while at the Diet of Augs¬ 
burg their creed was publicly announced. Religious dis¬ 
sensions occupied the country for about fifty years after the 
retirement of Charles V., in 1556, and in 1618 the Thirty-Years’ 
War broke out. At first the Protestants were defeated, but 
under Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, they rallied, and 
Germany was secured forever in her religious freedom by the 
peace declared at Westphalia in 1648. In 1675 the Elector of 
Brandenburg vanquished the Swedes at Fehrhellin and laid 
the foundation of the Prussian monarchy, the name of Prussia 
being assumed when Frederick I. was crowned King in 1701. 
Numerous wars occurred in the next one hundred years, and 
constant mutations occurred in the map of Germany. The 
young kingdom of Prussia, under the famous Fredericks, 
developed rapidly into a first-class power, and in the great 
wars, especially that which led to the downfall of Napoleon, 
her generals and soldiers gained many important victories. 
During the Napoleonic wars Germany lost a large portion of 



however, inevitable, and the freedom and independence of the 
nation was firmly established by Arminius, who crushed the 
invaders in the historic battle of Teuto- 
berger, which occurred B.C. 9. About 
500 years later, Clovis, moving westward, 
established the Frankish Empire, which, 
under the famous Charlemagne, reached 
from the Raab, in Hungary, to the Plbro, 
in Spain, and from the Eider, in the north, 
to the Tiber, in the south. The division 
and subdivision of the empire created 
numerous duchies and principalities, and 
the ruler over all was generally the one 
who was able to secure the influence of the 
clerical leaders. Wars for the possession 
of the imperial crown and changes of dy¬ 
nasty were frequent. The empire lasted 
until 1273, when Count Rudolph of Haps- 
burg began his reign as King, destroyed the power 


>f the 


nobles and laid the foundation of the family which still reigns 
over Austria. In the reign of Charles V. the power of Ger¬ 
many was extended so that it included Belgium, Spain, the 


HEIDELBERG. 

her territory, fully half of it being lost by the Peace of Tilsit 
in 1806, when Napoleon formed the Rhenish Confederation 
under French protection, and the German Empire was for¬ 
mally dissolved. Subsequent to the return of the Bourbons 


t> 















































































28 o 


GERMANY. 


the affairs of Germany were regulated in accordance with a 
plan drawn up by Metternich, whose influence then predomi¬ 
nated throughout Europe. In 1833 the Zollverein was estab¬ 
lished, an important event as being in the direction of a united 
Germany. The confederation of the German States was alter¬ 
nately swayed by Austria and Prussia. In 1849 Frederick 
William IV. of Prussia was tendered the imperial crown by 
the Diet of Frankfort, but declined to accept it. His succes¬ 
sor, William I., early evinced a desire to rule in accordance 
with constitutional views, but when, in 1862, the Government 
declined to pass certain laws relating to the army, he created 
Bismarck Minister of State and instituted a violent reaction. 

In the following year Prussia laid claim to the Danish duchies 
of Schleswig and Holstein, which Denmark disputed, and, 
war following, the Prussian arms were victorious and the two 
countries were annexed. This action was opposed by Austria, 
who sought to have them placed under the rule of a branch of 
the Danish royal family, and in June, 1866, war was declared 
against Prussia, whose splendidly organized army, armed with 
the needle-gun, which was at that time a novelty in warfare, 
completely routed the Austrians at Sadowa. Austria with¬ 
drew entirely from the German confederation and acknowl¬ 
edged the political and other changes which Germany had 
undergone at Prussia’s hands. The work of German unifica¬ 
tion was now further advanced. The North German Confed¬ 
eration was formed, its Constitution, modified in parts, was 
made to cover the whole German Empire, and treaties were 
effected with the South German States. France, jealous of 
the growing power of Germany, became alarmed when she saw 
that the unity of her traditional foe in the East was fast 
being realized, and the relations of the two countries became 
day by day more strained. A conflict was inevitable, and the 
issue was furnished by the question of supplying a ruler for 
Spain, whose throne was at that time tenantless. The crown 
was tendered by the Spaniards to Prince Leopold of Hohen- 
zollern, who declared his willingness to accept it. The French 
Government, hoping to gain a diplomatic victory of great 
political consequence, demanded of King William that he 
should command the Prince to withdraw his acceptance of the 
Spanish crown. This the King declined to give, and when 
the Prince himself renounced the crown the French Govern¬ 
ment demanded of William a declaration that he approved of 
the renunciation and that he would not in the future permit of 
the Prince’s candidature. This William declined to give, and 
on July 19, 1870, France declared war against Prussia. In a 
very few days it became apparent that the haste with which 
the French diplomats had brought about the war was not war¬ 
ranted by the condition of the country’s military and naval 
affairs. From the beginning it was apparent that, while the 
Prussian armies were in a high state of efficiency, those of 
France existed to a large extent only on paper, were poorly 
equipped and very defectively organized. The fight opened at 
Saarbrucken, where the French gained a slight advantage, but 
the defeats of Weissenburg and Worth completely changed 
the aspect of affairs. The French armies withdrew into 


France, and the German battalions streamed over the fron¬ 
tier, following up eagerly the advantages they had secured. 
Bazaine, the French commander-in-chief, after conducting 
several unsuccessful battles, was locked up in Metz with a 
large army. The main body of the French army, led by 
Napoleon III. and commanded by Marshal MacMahon, sought 
to relieve Bazaine, but were checked at Sedan and over¬ 
thrown. Napoleon surrendered and was sent in captivity to 
Wilhelmshohe. 

The war should have ended here, as the German hold upon 
France was so complete that no hope was left to her. 1 he 
Parisians, however, would not accept the situation. A pro¬ 
visional government was formed and the defence of the capital, 
pending the formation of a new army, decided upon. The 
Empress Eugenie escaped to England. September 19 the 
German armies invested Paris, the idea being to starve the 
city out, and January 26 the siege was raised and the Germans 
took possession. At Y 7 ersailles, February 26, a preliminary 
peace was signed, by which Alsace and Lorraine were to 
be ceded and a war indemnity paid to the Germans. The 
peace was ratified by the French National Assembly, and 
Paris was evacuated. Thus it will be seen that the war which 
France waged against the unification of Germany resulted in 
its accomplishment. The treaties by which the unity was 
secured were concluded between Northern and Southern Ger¬ 
many in December, 1870, and January 18, 1871, while the 
victorious German armies were thundering at the gates of 
Paris, the King of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Ger¬ 
many as Kaiser Wilhelm I. 

The Government of Germany is a limited monarchy. The 
German Empire is a confederation of sovereign States, with 
largely representative governments. Although the Emperor 
is limited in certain relations, he is given large power in 
others. By the terms of the Constitution, which bears date 
April 16, 1871, all the States of Germany form an eternal union 
for the protection of the realm and care of the welfare of the 
German people. In the King of Prussia, who bears the title 
of Deittscher Kaiser (German Emperor), is vested the supreme 
direction of the military and political affairs of the Empire. 
The Kaiser “represents the Empire internationally,” and can 
declare war, if defensive, and make peace ; can enter into 
treaties with other nations, and can appoint and receive em¬ 
bassadors. To declare war, if not merely defensive, he must 
have the consent of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, in 
which body, together with the Reichstag , or Diet of the Realm, 
are vested the legislative functions of the Empire. The Reichs¬ 
tag represents the German Nation, and its members, 397 in 
number, are elective by universal suffrage and ballot for terms 
of three years. The Bundesrath represents the- individual 
States, and its members, numbering fifty-nine, are appointed 
for each session by their respective governments. The Bun¬ 
desrath and Reichstag meet in annual session, convoked by 
the Emperor. All laws must have a majority of both houses, 
and must be approved by the Emperor and promulgated by 
the Chancellor of the Empire. 



































'■"pfffU USTRIA’S early history will be found under the head 
/ \\ ;| Germany. The Government under which the Aus- 

?/v tro-Hungarian Empire now exists will receive at- 
tention here. About the end of the eighth century 
Charlemagne founded a Margraviate in Lower Austria 
which, in 1156, became a Duchy, and three centuries later 
an Arch-Duchy. Maximilian II., son of Emperor Charles 
V., of Germany, became Emperor in 1564, with a dominion 
over Austria, Hungary and Bohemia. It was not until the 
eighteenth century that Austria came to the front as one of 
the great European powers, and attained a preponderating 
influence in the conduct of German affairs. In the year 1S06 
the reigning Emperor, Francis, renounced the title of Emperor 
of the Romans and became the first Emperor of Austria. In 
the seven years which followed, Napoleon worried the country, 
but he was courageously resisted, and the territories which he 
took from her were restored in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, 
together with the Tyrol, Dalmatia, Lombardy and Venice, 
and the Illyrian provinces. Several insurrections in the Austro- 
Italian provinces occurred during the last year of Emperor 
Francis’ reign, and the maintenance of the confederation was 
shown to be a very difficult matter, far beyond the ability of 
his son, Ferdinand I., who succeeded in 1835. The crafty 
Metternich almost entirely dictated the national policy during 
his reign, which ended by his abdication in 1848, when the 
throne was given to his nephew, Francis Joseph. During this 
year occurred the Hungarian revolution, led by Kossuth. In 
1859 the relations of Austria and France were broken off, but 
after a warfare of two months the two Emperors, Francis 
Joseph and Napoleon III., consummated a peace by which 
Austria surrendered Lombardy, Italy was made a confedera¬ 
tion under the Pope, and Tuscany and Modena were restored 
to their rulers. The Constitution which Kossuth and his com¬ 
patriots struggled for in 1848 was granted in 1867. In 1S60 
the first Constitution of Austria was promulgated, which was 
followed by a patent in 1S61, upon which was based a charter 
that went into effect in 1867. Hungary’s independence was 
acknowledged, and July 8, 1S67, the Emperor was crowned 
^ King of Hungary, which country pledged itself to contribute 


to the national revenues. In 1864 Austria combined with 
Prussia in the occupation of the Danish provinces of Schleswig, 
Holstein and Lauenburg, which terminated in their acquisition; 
but, quarrelling afterward with Prussia over the question of their 
disposition, she went to war with that power. This adventure 
was freighted with disaster, and the peace which followed was 
only purchased at the cost of Venetia, the fortresses of the 
Quadrilateral, the recognition of the dissolution of the German 
Confederation, and the payment of a large indemnity. After 
the close of the Turko-Russian war of 1877-8, the Austrian 
Empire was enlarged by the acquisition of Bosnia, Herze¬ 
govina and Novi-Bazar. 

By the present Constitution each of the two countries, Aus¬ 
tria and Hungary, has its own parliament, ministry and govern¬ 
ment, the connecting links being a common sovereign, army, 
navy and diplomacy, together with a controlling body known 
as the Delegations. Thfe latter form a parliament of 120 mem¬ 
bers, equally divided between the two countries, the delegates 
being chosen by the local legislatures, the latter bodies having 
two branches, substantially the same as the Senate and House 
of the United States Congress. The local legislature or diet 
is called Reichstag in Hungary, Reichsrath in Austria. The 
delegations of each country sit in a body by themselves, possess¬ 
ing co-ordinate authority and power; but if they cannot agree 
upon measures while thus acting separately, they meet as one 
body, and the final vote is binding upon the entire empire. 
This imperial diet is confined in its jurisdiction to foreign 
affairs and war. There are three Ministers for the whole em¬ 
pire, namely, the Ministers of War, of Foreign Affairs and of 
Finance. There is a ministry in Austria and another in Hun¬ 
gary. The former consists of the Interior, Public Education, 
fustice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Finance, Agriculture, Com¬ 
merce, and National Defence. The Hungarian departments 
or executives are: Presidency of the Council, Finance, National 
Defence, Ministry near the King’s Person, Interior, Educa¬ 
tion and Public Worship, Justice, Communications and Public 
Works, Agriculture, Industry and Commerce, and the Ministry 
of Croatia and Slavonia. The Imperial Cabinet is responsible 
to the Delegations, the local cabinets to their respective diets, 
the Reichstag and Reichsrath, as the case may be. 


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BELGIUM, the most densely populated country in Eu- 
■SJtt) rope, was in its earlier days a favorite bone of con¬ 
tention for the European powers, and frequently be¬ 
came the battle-field upon which their claims were 
-VjV settled. The Burgundians, the Austrians and the 
Spaniards successively ruled it, and in Napoleon’s time it came 
under French rule. In 1814 a union between Holland and 
Belgium took place, which proved very unpopular with the 
Belgians, and shortly after the Paris revolution of 1830 they 
rose against the Government in such force that the troops 
ordered to quell the uprising found themselves unable to do so. 
Brussels, the capital, and other large cities fell into the hands 
of mobs, who destroyed much valuable property. A separa¬ 
tion of the States followed, and the differences between them 
were finally settled .by a convention of the great powers in 
London. The dissolution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 
was proclaimed, and in 1831 Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg 
entered Brussels as the Belgian King; but the kingdom was 
not recognized by all the States of Europe until 1839, when 
the treaty was signed which established peace between Leopold 
and the King of the Netherlands. Leopold I. died in 1865, and 
was succeeded by his eldest son, Leopold II., who still reigns. 
Belgium has long been the scene of a struggle between the 
priests and growing liberalism. In 1850 the educational ques¬ 


tion, which had occasioned a long and fierce dispute, was sup¬ 
posed to be settled on liberal principles, but since then there 
has been another keen struggle between the Progressionists 
and the Ultramontanes, and in 1S75 Belgium was the scene of 
serious religious riots, in which many persons taking part in 
processions were injured by mobs which attacked the demon¬ 
strations. 

The Government of Belgium is a limited constitutional 
monarchy, which was established in its present form by the 
revolution. The broadest principles of freedom and liberality 
are its foundation; power comes from the people, and is re¬ 
strained by law. Republican equality and simplicity pervade 
all institutions. No act of the King is valid unless it has the 
approval of one of his Ministers. The law-making power is 
vested in the Legislature, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber 
of Representatives, who are elected in the proportion of one to 
every 40,000 inhabitants. The law is administered by local 
and provincial tribunals, with courts of appeal in the principal 
cities. The provinces, each of which has a Governor who is 
named by the King and a Provincial Council, are divided for 
civil purposes into arondissements, justice of peace cantons, 
and communes. The provincial councils guard the interests of 
the different provinces, direct taxation, superintend public 
improvements and prepare budgets. 






irt- 






F)OLLAND. 




(THE NETHERLANDS.) 


4 ^ 


bo 


FTF.R being ruled for four centuries by a number of 
princes who were subject to either France or Ger¬ 
many, the Netherlands, in the fourteenth century, 
came almost entirely under the rule of the Duke of 
Burgundy. At that time the country was rich, 
prosperous and happy, the controlling interest of the State 
resting in the great commercial cities, which were in the enjoy¬ 
ment of almost republican freedom, and renowned for the 
splendor and wealth which they acquired under the Burgundian 



rule. About the middle of the sixteenth century an attempt 
to bring under the power of the Inquisition the Netherland 
Protestants, who had taken early a part in the Reformation, 
was stoutly resisted. Concessions were made which produced 
a temporary quiet, but Philip II., who was King at the time, 
entered upon the work of crushing Protestantism, and carried 
it on with merciless rigor, his ferocious policy entailing the 
execution of large numbers of the aristocracy who had aided 
the rebellion. The Prince of Orange, having made alliance 



/ 


































































HOLLAND. 


K 


285 




with the Protestant powers, waged war against the oppressor. 
However, the assassination of the Prince in 1584 for the time 
being dashed their hopes of success, and the war ended. His 
son, Prince Maurice, carried on the war later with success. 
In 1648 war with Spain ended, and the Netherlands achieved 
their independence. Foreign conquest occupied the attention 
of the Dutch even when occupied with domestic troubles, and 


they have advanced greatly in prosperity. The colonial 
possessions of the country are very important, consisting 
mainly of islands in the East Indies; portions of Borneo, 
Celebes and Sumatra, in Asia; and Dutch Guiana and 
Curacoa and several islands in America. Like Belgium, 
the Government of the Netherlands is a limited constitu¬ 
tional monarchy, with the executive vested in the King, 



CITY OF AMSTERDAM. 


their standard was planted on several of the East India 
Islands and on the American continent. A great naval power, 
they for many years disputed with England the supremacy of 
the seas. The events which led to the separation from Bel¬ 
gium are described in the history of that country. Since that 
occurrence the Netherlands, with the exception of wars with 
her colonies, have enjoyed a prolonged peace, during which 


j with a Council of State nominated by him, and the Minis¬ 
ters of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War, the 
Colonies, Marine and Justice. Legislative authority rests in 
a Parliament, consisting of two chambers, known as the 
States-General. The governors of the provinces, the burgo¬ 
masters of cities, towns and villages, and many other officials, 

! are appointed by the King. 



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iORWAY was a collection of petty tribes up to the 
time of Harold Harfager, who, in 863, began the 
(lH •/ II work of unification. Attempts to introduce Chris- 
11 tianity met with little success up to the time of 
Olaf Skatkonung, who inaugurated a crusade against 
the Pagan Finns, destroyed the Pagan temples, and laid the 
foundations of the city of Trondhjem. In the early part of the 
eleventh century Canute, the Danish King of England, con- 
cpiered Olaf and assumed the crown. Wars with Britain fol¬ 
lowed, and Ireland was invaded. On the water the prowess of 
the Norsemen was remarkable, and for years they scourged 
the seas, but the defeat of Haco V. off the west coast of 
Scotland, and his death later in the Orkney Islands, were fol¬ 
lowed by a period of national depression. National industries 
were checked, foreign wars exhausted the exchequer, and in 
two years following 1347 the plague prevailed through the 
land, carrying off more than half the people. Not only its 
nationality, but also its language, passed away during this 
period, and when, in 1380, the crown descended to the son of 
Olaf III., a union of the two countries was accomplished 
which lasted for over four centuries. Near the close of 
the fourteenth century Margaret effected the conquest of all 
Scandinavia, and the three kingdoms became one under the 
treaty of Calmar, which remained in force until 1523, when 
Sweden emancipated herself from the union with Denmark, 
and gave to Gustaf Vasa, who helped on the deliverance, the 
crown. For more than two centuries thereafter Norway was 
merely a province of Denmark, but about the beginning of this 
century the national prospects brightened, when Charles XIV. 
of Sweden was on the throne. The Danes acknowledged 
Norway as a Swedish dominion, and the two countries were 
united August 14, 18x4. In 1S1S, Napoleon’s General, Berna¬ 
dette, was elected to the throne, and under him and the succeed¬ 


ing generations of his dynasty, which still rules, great advance¬ 
ment has been made in the direction of liberal government. 

Sweden’s modern history is almost indissolubly connected 
with that of Nonvay. During the rule of Gustaf Vasa, who 
headed the successful revolt against Denmark, the country 
enjoyed great prosperity. In succeeding reigns the country 
was at war almost constantly, and the successes of the great 
Gustavus Adolphus are among the most glorious of the nation’s 
annals. In 1743, in a war with Russia which had lasted two 
years, Sweden lost Eastern Finland to that power. A new con¬ 
stitution was decreed in 1809, when Gustavus IV. was forcibly 
deposed in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The union 
with Norway, in 1814, which lias already been mentioned, ends 
the distinctive histories of both countries. In 1855 Russian 
encroachments were threatened, but an alliance which Norway 
and Sweden effected with Great Britain and France, by which 
the former engaged themselves never to cede < r sell territory 
to Russia, secured the guarantee by the two hitter powers of 
their future territorial integrity. 

Though having a common ruler, the treaty of union between 
Norway and Sweden leaves each of them free, independent, 
indivisible and inalienable. The Government, of which Oscar 
II. is now the head, is a constitutional hereditary monarchy. 
Legislative authority lies in the Storthing — an assembly of 
deputies which meets annually, and whose members are chosen 
by indirect election. It meets of its own authority and 
divides itself into two chambers — the Lagthing, practically 
a Senate, and consisting of about one-fourth of the entire 
Storthing, and the Odelsting. A Council of State gives con¬ 
sent to the declaration of war, making of peace or conclusion 
and abrogation of treaties by the King, who is required to 
pass some months of each year at Norway and to be crowned 
at Trondhjem. 





Denmai^. 




_ 


rr N the days of the Norsemen Jutland w r as occupied by a 
\ ! number of sea-faring chieftains, who divided their time 
between war among themselves and piracy upon out¬ 
siders. In the tenth century these bold mariner-war- 
riors had made their way as far as the coasts of Scotland 
and Normandy, carrying terror into such places as they vis- 


- 7 * 

ited. After having paid England one or two flying visits, they 
came to stay in 1018, when the Danish King Canute added 
that country to his dominions in the east. The Danish tenure 
was of short duration. Anarchy arose in Denmark after Ca¬ 
nute’s departure, and in 1042 his dynasty became extinct, and 
his sister’s son, Svend Estridsen, succeeded. Foreign wars 































































FRANCE. 


289 


and internal dissensions enfeebled the land, and a powerful 
aristocracy arose who oppressed the people, reducing them 
almost to a condition of slavery. In the reign of Canute VI. 
and Valdemar II. the power of Denmark grew until its regal 
authority extended over Holstein, Pomerania and a large por¬ 
tion of North Germany. The Baltic became little more than 
a Danish inland sea, and heavy tolls were exacted of all for¬ 
eign vessels which entered it. After the death of Valdemar, 
in 1241, internal disquietude possessed the country, which rap¬ 
idly lost its possessions and prestige. The third Valdemar, 
however, retrieved the nation and regained many of its pos¬ 
sessions. Dying in 1375, he was succeeded as regent by his 
daughter Margaret, who had married the King of Norway and 
was at this time his widow. Her rule, by the treaty of Cal- 
mar, was also extended to Sweden and Norway, and the union 
of the three countries lasted until 1523, when the Swedes arose 
in insurrection against Erick, and the two crowns were sepa¬ 
rated. Up to the year 1660 the crown was, to a large extent, 
elective, but in that year Frederick III., aided by the people, 
who arose against the nobles, assumed the supreme power, 
forming an absolute monarchy with right of succession. For a 
century the peasantry were kept in a condition of serfdom, but 
its abolition was accomplished by Christian VII. in the eight¬ 
eenth century. Wars on her own account or in alliance with 
other nations kept Denmark busy until 1848, when an insur¬ 
rection arose in Holstein which brought the country to the 
verge of ruin. Prussia lent the insurrectionists a portion of 
her army, but the revolution was put down and a peace was 
concluded in Prussia in 1850, and in 1852 a protocol was drawn 


up in London returning the duchies of Holstein and Schles¬ 
wig to Denmark. A final settlement of the question was not 
yet reached, however, and when, in 1863, the King died sud¬ 
denly, the Duke of Augustenberg laid claim to the throne, 
supported by Prussia, Austria and other German States. The 
duchies were occupied by their troops, and in the war which 
Denmark brought to expel them her armies were defeated, 
and in 1864 King Christian IX. surrendered Holstein, Schles¬ 
wig and Lauenberg to the conquerors. 

The despotic form of government which was established in 
1660 lasted until 1849, when Frederick VII. signed a charter 
acknowledging the principle of limited monarchy, and made the 
future government dependent upon the Rigsdad (Congress), 
consisting of two elective houses, the executive power resting in 
the King and his Ministers. The Rigsdad consists of two 
houses—the Landsthing, corresponding to the United States 
Senate and having the privilege of discussing the budget, and 
the Folkething, similar to the United States House of Repre¬ 
sentatives, which administers local affairs. Certain members 
of the Landsthing receive their nomination from the Crown 
for life, the remainder being elected indirectly by the people 
for eight years. The members of the Folkething are elected 
directly for a term of three years. All male citizens over 30 
years of age who are not paupers enjoy the privilege of vot¬ 
ing. With the King as its presiding officer, the executive body 
comprises the President of the Council, who is also the Minis¬ 
ter of Finance, and the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, the Inte¬ 
rior, Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Justice, and 
for Iceland, War and Marine. 





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centuries after the invasion of Julius Caesar, 
which made ancient Gaul a Roman province, the 
country, being deserted by its conquerors, was invaded 
by the Franks, whose leader, Clovis, in the sixth 
century, established the French monarchy. The Mero¬ 
vingian dynasty, which he founded, was succeeded by the Car- 
lovingian, whose greatest ruler, Charlemagne, extended his 
empire until it included Italy and a large portion of Ger¬ 
many. The House of Capet succeeded, and ruled from 987 to 
1328, and that of Valois, which followed, from 1328 to 1589, 
and during all these years, while the power of the nobles was 
checked by the growing wealth and influence of the burghers, 
the monarchy gained in strength. In 1589 the Bourbon dynasty 
was founded by Henry IV., who was succeeded by Louis XIII., 
an indolent monarch, who left the conduct of affairs to his 
powerful Minister, Cardinal Richelieu. The reign of Louis 


XIV., which followed, was in many respects a brilliant one, 
but freighted with misfortunes which did not appear until after 
its close. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes, by which 
religious freedom had been secured, led to banishments and 
persecutions, which cost the country many of its leading indus¬ 
tries. The court’s reckless prodigality in the erection of mag¬ 
nificent buildings and the conduct of gorgeous spectacles, 
together with more or less successful wars, swelled the national 
debt to an enormous extent, and this burden crushed the 
French people during the succeeding reigns, and was a potent 
cause of the revolution of 1788. The reign of Louis XV. 
added to the national burden, and the evil influences of his 
mistresses led to a foreign policy which cost France her colonial 
possessions and the loss of her fleets and armies abroad. His 
successor, Louis XVI., an amiable but weak monarch, lacked 
the ability to cope with the difficulties of his position, and, after 











































































































































































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FRANCE 


\ 

292 


he had reigned for fourteen years, in 1788 was begun a revolution 
by which the whole framework of society in France was over¬ 
turned. The bourgeois , or commoners, finding their powers 
checked by the combined clergy and nobility, in 1789 consti¬ 
tuted themselves as the National Assembly, and proceeded to the 
formation of a Constitution. Troops being ordered to oppose 
them, in Paris, July 12, an insurrection broke out. A national 
guard and revolutionary municipal boards were formed, and 
July 14 the Bastile was stormed. August 4 the National 
Assembly abolished manorial and feudal rights, whereupon the 
aristocracy began to emigrate. The King and Queen were 
taken prisoners. A Constitution was prepared by the Assem¬ 
bly, to which the King gave his 
assent, as he did also to another 
which was formed later. The 
opposition of foreign courts to 
the revolution aroused the pop¬ 
ular anger, and the King and 
Queen were executed. The Reign 
of Terror succeeded, the absolute 
power being placed in the hands 
of a Committee of Public Safety, 
whose excesses were terrible. 

Worship in accordance with the 
Christian religion was abolished, 
and that of Reason substituted. 

This caused dissensions within 
the convention itself, and when 
the last of the Jacobin leaders, 

Robespierre, perished upon the 
scaffold to which he had sent 
hundreds of victims, they were 
without a leader. In 1795 the 
convention adopted a new Con¬ 
stitution, which placed a Direc¬ 
tory of five in charge of the 
national executive. The radical 
Democrats, combining with the 
Royalists, organized an insurrec¬ 
tion against the new Constitution 
which was quelled by General 
Napoleon Bonaparte, whose qual¬ 
ities had already, at the early age 
of 26, brought him rank and dis¬ 
tinction. The mob of Paris was 
subdued, but the Directory had a 
difficult task before it. England, 

Austria and Prussia were com¬ 
bined against the Republic, whose 
armies, however, achieved victories for it in foreign countries 
and made its name dreaded as well as respected. At home the 
Royalist interest made headway, and in 1797 they gained a major¬ 
ity in the representation. The Directory took severe measures, 
surrounded the Tuileries with troops and ordnance, arrested 
the Royalist members, declared their election illegal, and ban¬ 
ished them from the country. Financial difficulties also added 
to the burden of the Directory. The public debt was more 
than the nation could pay, and the State was declared bank- 

k 


rupt and two-thirds of its obligations repudiated. Internal 
dissensions among its members lessened the prospect of the 
Directory’s accomplishing any marked improvement. 

In this emergency Napoleon, who had secretly left Egypt, 
where the English fleet had nullified his Eastern victories, ap- 
j peared suddenly in Paris, and, effecting an alliance with one 
of the disaffected parties in the Directory, secured its over¬ 
throw November 9, 1799. December 27, a new Constitution 
was offered to the people, which they sanctioned, and Napoleon, 
as First Consul, was entrusted with the administration of 
civil and military affairs, with the appointment of all public 
officials and with the proposition of all public measures. 

Early in 1800 he occupied the 
Tuileries with his wife, Josephine, 
whom he had married in March, 
1796, and he established a court, 
whose extravagance was hardly 
likely to incur the popular dis¬ 
pleasure as long as his adminis¬ 
tration continued to be marked 
by such wise measures as were 
passed during the earlier part of 
his rule. The re-establishment 
of the church, in accordance with 
a Papal concordat; the founda¬ 
tion of the Bank of France, with 
the restoration of financial order; 
the return of the emigrants ; the 
establishment of a sound system of 
popular education, and the codi¬ 
fication of the laws, were hailed 
with joy by the people, who saw 
their wisdom and appreciated the 
good results to follow. 

At the head of the Empire he 
aspired to the control of Europe. 
One after another Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, Switzerland and Ger¬ 
many came under his control. 
He dictated terms of peace to 
the Emperors of Russia and Aus¬ 
tria and to the King of Prussia. 
For ten years his star ruled in the 
ascendant. The decline came in 
1814, when Paris was entered by 
the allied enemies of France, and 
Napoleon was forced to Elba in 
exile. The Bourbon dynasty was 
restored, and a year later Napo¬ 
leon reappeared and gathered around him an army of enthusiastic 
followers. Success attended him at first, but, June 18, 1815, 
he was thoroughly defeated at Waterloo, and the Bourbon 
restoration was finally accomplished. In 1830 war was com¬ 
menced with Algeria, which country was, after some years’ 
fighting, ceded to France. In 1848 the Bourbons were again 
driven out and a Republic established, with Napoleon III., 
a nephew of the Emperor, as President. This lasted less 
than three years. In December, 1851, Napoleon, by the 



vS 



























































































































































V 


/ 


RUSSIA. 

293 


infamous coup d'etat, seized the absolute power, setting aside 
the Constitution, and shortly afterward was crowned Emperor. 
The imperial prestige was sustained by the wars with Russia 
and Austria, which last secured France the Italian provinces 
of Savoy and Nice, but the ill-fated attempt to establish an 
empire in Mexico, and other failing enterprises, caused it to 
wane. The plebiscite of 1870, which was intended to secure 
the popular endorsement of the Napoleonic policy, was not flat¬ 
tering to the Empire, which found itself in 1870 forced into a 
war with Prussia, the leading events and results of which will 
be found in the history of Germany. This last experiment of 
imperial government, which cost France millions of money, 
thousands of lives and two provinces, has, for the time being, 
overcome the French admiration for centralized power, and 
the Republic which was established after the war is still a 
stable and popular government. 


The legislative power in France is vested in a Fegislative 
Corps, consisting of a Senate and a House of Deputies. The 
Senate consists of 300 members, 225 of whom are chosen for 
terms of nine years by the departments and colonies, and 
seventy-five for life by the National Assembly. The members 
of the Chamber of Deputies number 532—one to every 100,000 
inhabitants—and are elected by universal suffrage. The ex¬ 
ecutive power is vested in a President, elected for a term of 
seven years by a joint vote of the Senate and the Chamber of 
Deputies. He has power to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies 
on the advice of the Senate. The Secretaries of State, or 
Ministry, nine in number, are responsible to the Chambers for 
the political conduct of the Government. The President is 
responsible in cases of high treason only. Every Frenchman 
twenty-one years of age has a right to vote.. 


"£•*#**!•* 





Russia. 


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®HE Greeks and Romans, as is evidenced in the writ- 
™ ings of some of their best known authors, had 
gained some knowledge of the Sarmatians and 
Scythians, who occupied the rivers Don and Dnieper. 
Shortly after the commencement of the Christian 
era the native inhabitants were carried before the invasion of 
Goths and Huns from the East. The Slavonians are recorded as 
having driven the scattered Finns northward and settled down 
to the establishment of the Russian people. The country for 
a long period remained subdivided into provinces, each' of 
which was practically independent of the remainder. Cen¬ 
tralization of power was accomplished from time to time, but 
only to be again broken up, until in 1462 Ivan I. began to 
reign, and in the forty-two years in which he held the sceptre 
succeeded so ably in throwing off the Tartar yoke, and in unit¬ 
ing the principalities under his sway, that he must be regarded as 
the founder of the Russian nation. His successor, Ivan II., 
sometimes called the Terrible, or the Cruel, on account of the 
massacre which he ordered, in which 60,000 inhabitants of 
Novgorod, suspected of treason, were slain, advanced the 
work which his father had inaugurated, finally broke the power 
of the Tartars, and cultivated commerce and the arts as well 
as warfare. Perhaps the greatest of his peaceful achievements 
was the effecting of a commercial treaty with Queen Elizabeth, 
by which the English merchant marine, who had discovered 
the sea passage to Archangel, instituted trading relations with 
the northernmost parts of the Russian dominions. Under 
Peter the Great, Russia threw off her barbarism and took her 
place among the civilized nations of Europe. Though lacking 
education commensurate with his position, he had the sense to 
see the shortcoming and to remedy it, and his studies taught 
him the lesson of his country’s greatest needs. On assuming 


the government he had the army reorganized in accordance 
with European military tactics. Seeing the necessity of naval 
power, and lacking a seaboard, he wrested the Sea of Azof 
from the Turks. Travelling incognito in foreign lands, he 
studied their arts and sciences and learned their trades, putting 
his knowledge to good use when he returned home again. 
Upon a site located on a strip of land he took from the Swedes, 
he laid the foundation of the modern capital, St. Petersburg, 
which he passed the last years of his life in beautifying. Dy¬ 
ing in 1725, he was succeeded by his Empress, Catherine, who 
continued his policy. During the reign of Catherine II. the 
first partition of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia 
took place. She was succeeded by her son Paul, who still fur¬ 
ther advanced the interests of his country, now acknowledged 
to be one of the great European powers. In the reign of 
Alexander I. Russia was the balance of power in Europe. He 
was the father of the Holy Alliance — the compact entered 
into at Paris September 26, 1815, by the sovereigns of Russia, 
Austria and Prussia, joined by most of the European powers, 
which bound them to exclude forever every member of the 
Bonaparte family from any throne in Europe; also to stand by 
each other in the maintenance of their royal prerogatives and 
the general peace. It was during his reign that the inhabi¬ 
tants of the city of Moscow destroyed it by fire rather than 
have it give shelter to the invader Napoleon. His successor, 
Nicholas I., saw the nation engaged in a struggle with the 
combined armies of Great Britain, France, Italy and Turkey. 
Sebastopol, the stronghold of the Russians in the Crimea, was 
taken, and the Russian ambition to control the whole of the 
Black Sea checked for the time being. Under Alexander II., 
who succeeded him, was accomplished the liberation of the 
serfs in 1861, the humane policy being dictated rather by reasons 


\ 


















































































































































































I 





120 Longitude East 140 from Greenwich 160 180 160 Longitude West liO from Greenwich 120 



































































































































of expediency, imperialism at the time being threatened 
by ( the progressive nobility and feeling the need of the good 
will of the fifty million working people. Twenty years later— 
years that were marked by cruel oppression and despotism— 
the Czar was slain by the hands of assassins, who had previously 
made repeated unsuccessful attempts to kill him. This oc¬ 
curred shortly after the war with Turkey, in which Russia 
overcame her foe, but without securing any distinct advantages 
from the victory. Notwithstanding she is jealously watched 
by the other powers, Russia continues to approach the ac¬ 
complishment of her great aim — the possession of the Black 
Sea. In the East, too, her power is felt, and England’s Indian 
border and China’s western boundary are closely pressed by 
the Russian soldiery, and this, too, although the Government is 
threatened by conspiracies on every side, a majority of the 
peasants and laboring classes holding extreme communistic 
views, while the doctrine of Nihilism is said to permeate the 
whole Russian social fabric, and even among the nobility to 
possess its adherents by the thousands. 


The Government of Russia is an absolute monarchy, heredi¬ 
tary in the house of Romanoff, which was founded in the 
seventeenth century, whose head rules by the title of Czar. 
The State Council, which is the highest consultative body in 
the State, is composed of the heads of departments and 
others selected by the Emperor, and is divided into the legis¬ 
lative, administrative and financial departments. The promul¬ 
gation and execution of the law is left with the Senate, which 
is the court of last appeal. There is no representative body, 
and the power of the ministers hardly extends beyond render¬ 
ing clerical assistance to the Czar, who makes all appoint¬ 
ments. Trial by jury has been in vogue since 1866. Estab¬ 
lished by law and partially supported by the Government, the 
Russo-Greek Church is almost a part of it. It has a member¬ 
ship of over 50,000,000 souls in European Russia. The Rus¬ 
sians have always maintained the national credit. The main 
portion of the revenue comes from excise duties on beer, spirits 
and salt; in addition to this there are a light poll-tax and a pro¬ 
tective customs tariff. 







Italy. 



jpTALY, the successor of the ancient Roman Empire, has 
a history which runs back into the ages whose events are 
only matters of tradition. The Virgilian poem which tells 
of the founding of the Roman State by a band of Trojan 
refugees, and the story of the wolf-suckled twins, Romulus 
and Remus, are delightful legends. However, the foundation of 
the city is generally conceded to have occurred B.C. 753, when 
the kingdom was established which lasted until B.C. 509, when 
it was overthrown in the reign of Tarquin the Proud, and a 
republic established which lasted for nearly five centuries. 
During these eventful years the kingdom of Tarquin had 
grown into a mighty empire, yet not without suffering great 
national disasters. In the year 390 B.C. occurred the Gallic 
invasion, with the burning down of Rome by that terrible foe ; 
from 343 to 290 B.C. raged the wars with the Samnites, who 
threatened the Roman power, but were finally subjugated ; in 
275 B.C. occurred the battle of Beneventum, by which the 
previously victorious Pyrrhus was overcome ; in 216 B.C. was 
fought and lost the battle of Cannae, by which the Cartha¬ 
ginian General, Hannibal, after destroying 80,000 of the 
Roman troops, came in sight of Rome’s conquest, but lost his 
opportunity through delay; in 186 B.C. the enmity between 
Rome and Carthage culminated in the destruction of the latter 
city; in 111 B.C. began the Jugurthine war, in which the 
powerful Numidian was overthrown after a five years’ struggle ; 
in 88 B.C. began the Mithridatic war, which ended five years 
later in the overthrow of the King of Pontus, who sued for 
peace. Such were a few of the leading events which occurred 


►— (?) 


between the regal and imperial eras of Roman history. They 
bring the reader to a period when Scylla, overcoming his rival, 
Marius, in civil war, seized the government and reigned as 
Dictator for three years. In the year 60 B.C. was formed the 
first triumvirate, when Julius Caesar, Pompey and Crassus were 
invested with the government. Caesar’s wars of discovery in 
Gaul and Britannia followed, and then came the battle of 
Pharsalia, in which he defeated Pompey. Two years later 
Caesar assumed the dictatorship, and in 44 B.C. he was slain in 
the Senate house by the assassins, Brutus, Cassius and others. 
Then followed the second triumvirate, and then the battle of 
Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated ; then 
the love episode between Cleopatra and Marc Antony, who, 

• frittering away the opportunity to win the imperial prize at 
Rome, suffered defeat and death at Actium. In 27 B.C. 
Octavius established the Empire, under the title of Augustus 
Cresar, at which time the city of Rome is supposed to 
have had about 700,000 population, while that of the Em¬ 
pire is believed to have been not less than 100,000,000. 
Then followed a line of Emperors, some of them wise and 
benevolent, others of them rapacious and cruel. Of the 
latter was the famous Nero, who proved the most bloodthirsty 
of tyrants. Under him began the persecutions of the Chris¬ 
tians. He was accused of having set the city on fire for the 
pleasure to be derived from witnessing the conflagration. Of 
the former was Trajan, under whose beneficent administration 
much was done to civilize the ruder portions of the Empire, 
while the condition of the city and its inhabitants was greatly 


/ 

































































\ 


. 


ITALY. 


297 


ameliorated. In the reign of Constantine the Great the Chris¬ 
tian religion was first acknowledged. He made himself a 
champion of the church by issuing the decree of Milan, in 
which he gave it imperial license and avowed himself a believer 
in its doctrines. Entering Rome in triumph in A.D. 312, he 
became the first Christian sovereign of the world, and after 
defeating the Pagans in their fortress of Byzantium he became 
sole Emperor of the entire Roman Empire. He transferred 
his capital from Rome to Constantinople, where he reigned 
until the year 337. His son Julian, who succeeded him, had 
been educated a Christian, but reverted to the old Pagan faith ; 
but the next Emperor, Jovian, restored the Christian faith. 
In 383 the Roman Empire had three Emperors, who soon 
were at war, and the victor, Theodosius, divided the Empire 
into Eastern and Western at his death, in 395, putting one of 
his sons at the head of each. From this division resulted the 
Roman and the Greek churches. Roman imperialism reached 
its last stages in the fifth century. Alaric with his Northern 
hosts marched into Rome, wrought his pleasure there, and 
retired from it after twelve days of sack. Rome had fallen, 
and such events as are further mentioned may be regarded as 
belonging to Italian history proper. In the fifth century 
Venice was founded by fugitives fleeing before Attila. In 
the eighth century a Germanic tribe threatened Rome. In 
the ninth Charlemagne conquered Lombardy and assumed the 
title of Roman Emperor, the control of the city, however, 
being taken by the Pope. The German Kings conquered the 
northern portion of Italy, while the Byzantine Emperors and 
the Saracens ruled the southern portion until the uprising of 
the Normans. Several of the Italian cities, however, increased 
so in strength and riches as to be able to achieve their inde¬ 
pendence, and chief among these was Venice, which com¬ 
manded the Adriatic Sea and kept back the Turks from the 
invasion of Western Europe. In the eighteenth century 
Austria obtained large portions of Italy’s northern territory, 
while the republics of Venice and Genoa dwindled away. 
The remainder of the land was divided among petty sover¬ 
eigns, who enjoyed life until the terrible days of the French 
revolution, after which Napoleon divided Italy into four 
republics, next establishing it as a monarchy, placing first 
his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, and then Murat, over it. 
After the battle of Waterloo the final reconstitution of 


Italy was decreed by the Congress of Vienna. Almost all the 
old boundaries and the old tyrannies were restored, followed by 
the outbreak of the Carbonari, whom the Austrians subdued. 

In 1848, by a simultaneous insurrection in Lombardy and 
Venice, the great revolution was inaugurated. Supported by 
the Pope and the King of Sardinia, it was successful, and Lom¬ 
bardy was annexed to Sardinia. In the year following, however, 
Austria regained that territory. After an unsuccessful revolt 
in Milan in 1853, and in Sicily in 1856, the French effected 
an alliance with the Sardinians in 1859, and Austria was 
defeated in the great battles of Magenta and Solferino, which 
were followed by the hasty and inconclusive peace of Villa- 
franca, which left Venetia to Austria, gave Lombardy to 
Sicily, and left unsettled the question of the Grand Duchies. 
Savoy and Nice were ceded to France, which still holds them, 
while Parma, Modena and the Sicilian provinces were incor¬ 
porated with Sardinia. March 17, the law by which Victor 
Emmanuel assumed the title of King was promulgated. May 
6, Garibaldi joined, with 1,000 men, a revolution which had 
broken out in Sicily. Declaring himself Dictator, he headed 
the revolt and speedily conquered the Two Sicilies. March 
14, 1861, Victor Emmanuel was declared King of Italy by 
the first Italian Parliament. In the same year, on June 6, 
occurred the death of Cavour, who was the originator as well as 
the director of the Sardinian policy which resulted in Italian 
liberation. In 1866 Italy and Prussia united their forces 
against Austria, and Venetia was ceded to the Italians. 
Attempts were made by Mazzini and Garibaldi to drive the 
French from Rome, but they remained there until the war 
with Prussia. In 1867 the French army began to be with¬ 
drawn from Rome, and three years later the last detachment 
had left the Pontifical territory. September 20, 1870, the 
Italian army entered Rome, and October 9 the Papal States 
were declared part of the Kingdom of Italy. During the 
latter years of King Victor Emmanuel’s reign he strengthened 
and consolidated his kingdom, and, dying in 1878, he was suc¬ 
ceeded by his son Humbert, who still reigns. 

Italy is a limited monarchy, with a Senate appointed by the 
King for life, and a Chamber of 508 Deputies, elected by 
popular suffrage for a term of five years. Annual sessions are 
held by the Chamber. Local self-government is accorded to 
the provinces, and municipal privileges to many of the cities. 













































































































































































































































3 °° 


SPAIN. 



• \ ECORDED history gives the Phoenicians the credit 

V fj) of having first established colonies upon the shores 
Ojl °f Spain, which at that time was occupied by Celtic 

JJ jf-’ttVi tribes. Later appeared the Greeks, who called the 
~ >3 vv\ country Iberia, which name gave way to that of 
Hispania, from which the modern name is derived, when the 
Romans took possession of the country. After them the 
Carthaginians appeared, conquering a stronghold upon the 
country and establishing cities, one of which, Cartagena, 
situated upon the Mediterranean coast, is now a handsome 
city of 80,000 inhabitants. After the Punic wars the Romans 
again obtained possession of Spain, which readily improved the 
opportunity offered of advancement in civilization. In the 
reign of the Emperor Constantine, Christianity, which was 
introduced earlier, became the general religion. In the 
year 409 the country was overrun by vast hordes of barbarians 
who crossed the Pyrenees and made a clean sweep of the 
country, and in 412 the Visigoths invaded it, and a Gothic 
monarchy was established by their King, Athaulf, in Catalonia. 
Its first written laws were given to Spain by one of the Gothic 
dynasty of kings. In 711, the Moors subjugated a large por¬ 
tion of the country, and held the southern part of it as a 
dependency of their North African dominions. From A.D. 
717, their Spanish territory was governed by Emirs, appointed 
by the Caliph of Damascus. Under the independent dynasty 
which the Moors established Southern Spain flourished in 
agriculture, commerce and the arts and sciences. Wars oc¬ 
curred constantly between the Moors and the Gothic princes, 
who had maintained possession of the Cantanabrian territory, 
but the Christian kingdoms continued to grow in power, and, 
uniting at last, they succeeded in driving the intruders from the 
country. In the Kingdom of Granada the Moors made their 
final stand, but at last they succumbed to the troops of Ferdi¬ 
nand and Isabella. Of the Christian States at this time Arragon 
and Castile were by far the most powerful, and in time their 
sway extended all over the country. Ferdinand II., the last of 
the Arragon sovereigns, by his marriage with Isabella, Queen 
of Castile, followed by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and 
of Navarre in 1502, accomplished thus the unification of Chris¬ 
tian Spain, which now entered upon its most glorious epoch. 
Spanish discovery gave America to the civilized world, and, 
Spanish conquest extending her rule over Naples, a large 
portion of North, Central and South America, the new 
Kingdom at once attained rank as one of the great powers of 
the world. New riches were secured by Cortez’ conquests in 
Mexico, and Pizarro’s in Chili and Peru, but in the reign of 


the Philips the decline of Spanish power began and accelerated. 
Portugal had been conquered in 15S1, but in 1640 she obtained 
her independence, and during this period Spain suffered other 
serious diminishments of power and resources. The reign of 
Charles III. promised to bring the country back to something 
like its old glory, but his successor embroiled the country in 
inglorious wars which cost it its valuable possession of Loui¬ 
siana, in America, ceded to France in 1800, while England 
destroyed the Spanish navies. Ferdinand VII. was removed 
from the throne by Napoleon, who placed his brother Joseph 
in his stead. England, at that time at war with Spain, ac¬ 
knowledged Ferdinand as King, and joined the Spaniards in 
their endeavors to drive out the Bonaparte, and lent the sup¬ 
port of its armies under Wellington. Ferdinand’s rule was 
re-established, but his reign was marked by insurrections which 
cost the country very dearly. His daughter, Isabella II., suc¬ 
ceeded him, but her political and personal misconduct brought 
about many rebellions, that of the Carlists in 1S34-9 being the 
most serious. In 1S68 she was driven from the throne and 
forced to fly to France, and two years later Prince Amadeo 
of Italy, the second son of King Victor Emmanuel, was elected 
by the Cortes and declared King. A year later he abdicated, 
whereupon Don Carlos, a grandnephew of Ferdinand VII., 
claimed the throne, and made an unsuccessful attempt to gain 
possession of it. A democratic federal republic was then 
declared and a President elected, who had two successors within 
three months. Castelar, who had been elected in September, 
1873, resigned in 1874. The Cortes dissolved, and General 
Serrano was charged with the duty of forming a new ministry. 
He coped successfully with the Carlists, who were then making 
strenuous efforts to gain a foothold, and retained executive 
power until January, 1875, when Don Alfonso, son of the 
ex-Queen Isabella, who had been declared King at Santander 
the month previous, landed in Spain and took the field against 
Don Carlos. He was finally victorious. Don Carlos surren¬ 
dered his claim to the throne, and the young King at once 
devoted his attention to the work of reorganizing the Govern¬ 
ment and the development of the country. 

In June, 1876, a Constitution was proclaimed, which pro¬ 
vides that the Government shall be a constitutional monarchy, 
giving the executive authority to the King and placing the legis¬ 
lative power in the Cortes with the King. The Cortes comprises 
a Senate, which is divided into three classes, and a Congress, 
consisting of Deputies, one of whom is allowed to every 50,- 
000 inhabitants. Spain is divided into provinces, districts 
and communes, which have municipal rights which the national 
executive and the Cortes are bound to respect. 



















































s> 


\ 


PORTUGAL—SWITZERLAND. 


7t 


Soi 



IKE Spain, Portugal was early inhabited by the Celts, 
who were succeeded in turn by Phoenicians, Cartha¬ 
ginians and Greeks, who built cities along the coast 
which formed the nuclei of colonies. Like Spain, 
too, it suffered from Vandal and Visigothic invasion. 
In the eighth century the Moors conquered the country, which 
they held until about the end of the eleventh century, when 
Alfonso VI. of Castile and Leon drove out the invaders. 
It was the son of Plenry of Burgundy, Don Alfonso Hen- 
riques, who established the Portuguese monarchy, after defeat¬ 
ing the Moors at the battle of Ourique in 1139. Eight years later 
the Moors were deprived of Lisbon, and a century later they 
were entirely driven from the country. Alfonso’s successors 
proved able monarchs, and under their rule the country advanced 
rapidly. During the reign of King John I. began the era of 
Portugal’s superiority in seamanship, which made Lisbon a city 
of such vast commercial power. In 1415 the country gained 
its first foothold abroad, when the sea-captain Zarco discov¬ 
ered the island of Madeira. Later on, Portuguese sailors discov¬ 
ered the Azores and Cape Verde. In i486 Bartholomeu Dias 
discovered, and in the following year Vasco da Gama doubled 
the Cape of Good Hope, and pursuing his journey reached 
Malabar. Still more important for Portugal, as events turned 
out, was the discovery by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in 1500, of 
Brazil, which was followed by the formation of a colony which 



' w: 

7)N 


has since developed into the Empire of Brazil. A dispute with 
Spain over a question of succession brought about a war 
with that power, and for sixty years thereafter Portu¬ 
gal remained in subjection to her neighbor on the Iberian 
Peninsula. In 1640, however, the Duke of Braganza headed 
a Portuguese revolution, was successful, and ascended the throne 
as John IV. In 1807, the Government havingtaken sides against 
Napoleon, the latter invaded the country, declaring it part of 
France, and the throne vacant. When the French soldiers 
arrived, the Regent, John Maria Joseph, Prince of Brazil, who 
ruled in the place of Queen Maria, who was insane, sailed for 
Brazil. At Napoleon’s downfall he appointed his son, Dom 
Pedro, Regent of Brazil, and returned to Portugal. In 1822 
Dom Pedro became Emperor of Brazil, the succession being 
accomplished without bloodshed, and a few years later he came 
into possession of the crown of Portugal also, which he surren¬ 
dered to his daughter, Donna Maria, preferring to remain at 
Rio Janeiro. Civil war arising not long afterward, the British 
interfered, and since then they have held the country in a con¬ 
dition of semi-subjugation. 

The Government is a hereditary constitutional monarchy, 
with the legislative power vested jointly in the sovereign and a 
Cortes which comprises a Chamber of Peers and a Chamber of 
Deputies, of which the King nominates the former for life and 
the people elect the latter. 





§ 




4 Switzerland. ^ 




ORIGINALLY occupied by Celts, Switzerland became 
a Roman province and was held as such for several 
centuries, until successive invasions of German tribes 
occurred. In the fifth century the Burgundians, 
Goths and Allemanians divided the province among 
but in the century following the Franks captured 
it. Christianity was introduced in the seventh century by 
Irish monks, and monastic institutions were founded. In 
the latter part of the ninth century Switzerland was taken 



them, 


from the Franks, Germany gaining the northern and Bur¬ 
gundy the southern portion of the land. An alliance was 
formed later by Zurich, Berne and Basle against the neighbor¬ 
ing powers which held the country, and a brave endeavor in 
the direction of independence was made. Attempts by Aus¬ 
tria to incorporate the Swiss Cantons with her domain were 
nobly opposed, and the war which followed, lasting 200 years, 
sundered the relations of Germany and Switzerland. Imperial 
power was assumed in 1273 by Rudolph of Hapsburg, a Swiss 




(D 























































































































































































































































































































o 


nobleman, and in 1291 the Cantons of Uri, Unterwalden and 
Schvvyz formed a league against foreign oppression. In 1315 
this was established as a perpetual confederacy, and in the 
course of time other Cantons joined them. Lucerne, Zurich, 
Glarus, Zug and Berne by 1353 had become members of “ The 
Perpetual League of the Old Places of the Confederacy,” 
which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. In 
1415 the inhabitants of the Cantons invaded and annexed parts 
of the Austrian territory, and three years later they annexed 
Ticino. In 14S1 Solothurn and Freiburg were admitted, which 
was followed by internal dissension, lasting until 1499. Two 
years later Basle and Schauffhausen were admitted, as was also 
Appenzell in 1513. There were now thirteen Cantons, and the 
true independence of the State was established. In 1531 war 
broke out between the Catholics and the Protestants, and the 
former were victorious. Berne and Zurich managed to main¬ 
tain the neutrality of Switzerland during the Thirty Years’ 
War, and in the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 Switzerland 
was acknowledged as an independent State. At the time of 
the French Revolution Switzerland was invaded by two French 
armies, which captured the city of Berne and proclaimed the 
Helvetic Republic, designating Aarau as the capital. In 1S02, 
civil war dividing the Cantons, Napoleon undertook to reor¬ 
ganize the country, and the people accepted his suggestions, 
but in 1809 a new Constitution was formed which added three 
new Cantons—Geneva, Vallais and the Prussian principality 
of Neufchatel—to the nineteen which had been framed by 


Napoleon. The European powers ratified this change and 
declared the perpetual neutrality and inviolability of the Con¬ 
federation. During the excitement aroused by the French 
Revolution agitations in the direction of liberty resulted in 
the reorganization of cantonal constitutions, which were made 
more liberal and democratic. Religious troubles reappeared 
in 1834 and lasted for some years, finally resulting, in 1847, in 
the expulsion of the Jesuits and the suppression of the monas¬ 
teries, which excited the anger of some of the powers which 
attempted to intimidate Switzerland. In 1S48 Neufchatel 
declared her independence of Prussian control, which nine 
years later was acknowledged. Switzerland made, in i860, 
an unavailing protest against the annexation of Savoy to 
France. 

By the revised Constitution of 1874 it is provided that all the 
rights of sovereignty not transferred to the Confederation shall 
be exercised by the twenty-two Cantons. Every Canton’s 
Constitution is guaranteed if it is republican in form, if it has 
been adopted by a majority of the people, and if it can be 
revised on a demand of the majority of the voters. There is 
a Federal Assembly which comprises a National Council and 
a Council of States. The executive authority is exercised by a 
Federal Council, which has seven members, each of whom has 
a department. The President and Vice-President of the Fed¬ 
eral Council, also President and Vice-President of the Con¬ 
federation, are chosen for one year only and are selected from 
the Council by its members. 


, (*> <*) , 



Te—II— 


# (DUI^EY. # 


jjS—si—aJL 



;TpN 1330 begins the Ottoman career of conquest. About 
that time Orcan, leader of a tribe inhabiting the Altai 
Mountains, led his hardy Janizaries against Nicomedia 
and Nicola. He called the gate of his palace the Sub- 
lime Porte, and himself Padisha, both of which expres¬ 
sions are still extant. His successor located his capital at 
Adrianople, and during his rule the Turks fell under the relent¬ 
less hand of Tamerlane, who, in 1402, routed them in battle, 
but effected no permanent occupation of their territory. Re¬ 
covering from the rude assault, the Turks, in less than a gener¬ 
ation, greatly humiliated the Byzantine Empire, which ceased 


to exist later, giving way before the irresistible Mohammed II., 
who transferred the seat of empire from Adrianople to Con¬ 
stantinople. The capture of Constantinople was followed by 
other important cities in Eastern Europe, and during the next 
century the Turkish Empire constantly grew in power. Greece 
and Arabia were added to the domain of the Porte. The glory 
of Islam culminated in the reign of the third Sultan of Stam- 
boul, Solyman the Magnificent, which lasted from 1520 to 
1566. His ambition was to conquer Western Europe and 
establish the Crescent throughout the continent, and for many 
years it looked as though he would succeed. He did extend 



















































TURKEY. 


3°5 


N 


his empire considerably, but his grand hope was destined for 
non-fulfilment. He died in Hungary, where he was conduct¬ 
ing a victorious campaign, in 1481, and with his death began 
the decline of the Ottoman Empire. It was by no rapid 
national decay that the Turk fell from his high estate under 
Solyman to his lowly condition under Abdul Hamid, the pres¬ 
ent ruler. For centuries Turkish incursions carried terror into 
the lands of Russia, Hungary, Poland and Italy, while the 
whole of Europe felt apprehensive of Ottoman supremacy. 
It was not until near the close of the eighteenth century that 
the tide set in steadily against the Turk. Catherine of Russia 
was the first to bring 
the Crescent low, 
but England and 
France objected to 
the partition of the 
empire between 
Russia and Austria, 
and obtained for 
the Sultan terms of 
peace which secured 
the autonomy of the 
Ottoman Empire. 

This has been main¬ 
tained since by the 
friendly interposi¬ 
tion of the anti- 
Russian powers, 
who see that so long 
as the Sultan of a 
people who have 
lost all aggressive 
ambition rules at 
Constantinople the 
“balance of power” 
is safe. In the war 
with Russia in 
1877-8 Turkey 
suffered a very seri¬ 
ous loss of terri¬ 
tory, the treaty of Berlin reducing her area from 1,742,874 
square miles to 1,116,848 square miles, and her population 
from 28,165,000 to 21,000,000. Turkey in Europe was re¬ 
duced more than one-half in both territory and population, 
the cessions under the treaty being as follows: Bulgaria, 
Eastern Roumelia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Roumania, Ser- 
via, etc., and parts of Thessaly and Epirus. In the same 


year, too, the island of Cyprus was placed under British con¬ 
trol. 

As to the Government of the Ottoman Empire, it can 
generally be said that the precepts of the Koran are the foun¬ 
dation of its fundamental laws. Absolute power is vested in 
the Sultan, as long as his acts remain in conformity with Mo¬ 
hammedan doctrine. Forms of constitutional limitation upon 
the arbitrary authority of the Sultan have been adopted 
recently, but in point of fact the legislative and executive 
departments of the Government are in the hands of his Sub¬ 
lime Highness, and the functions of law are directed by two 

officers, the Grand 
Vizier, who looks 
after secular affairs, 
and the Sheik-ul- 
Islam, who is the 
head of the church. 
There is a body or 
class known as the 
Ulema, which com¬ 
prises the “ Mufti,” 
or interpreters of 
the Koran, the 
judges and high 
functionaries of the 
law. “ Bey ” is a 
general term, apply¬ 
ing to all important 
civil officers, while 
“ Pasha ” is the de¬ 
signation of tax- 
gatherers and other 
officers who are 
both military and 
civil in function. 
A ministerial coun¬ 
cil, or cabinet,called 
the“ Divan,’’which 
is presided over by 
the Grand Vizier, 
exists, comprising eight ministerial departments, namely, War, 
Finance, Marine, Commerce, Public Works, Police, Justice 
and Education. The empire is divided into vilayets, under 
Governors, of which there are four in European Turkey, 
exclusive of the district of Constantinople. Cruelty and ve¬ 
nality are the main qualities of the Governors, whose rule is 
very arbitrary. 



VIEW OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 




















































































3°6 


ROUMANIA. 



*MONG the minor States of Europe, those which 
vMlWI' received their autonomy at the treaty of Berlin are 
jjl \y VA worthy of close attention. Roumaniais the name con- 
*1 IlY) VC ferred upon Moldavia and Wallachia when they be- 
' came united under one prince and one administration 
as a province of Turkey, in December, 1861. The represent¬ 
atives of the people met at the capital, Bucharest, May 21, * 
1877, and proclaimed absolute independence of Turkey, which 
the treaty of Berlin confirmed the following year. The Gov¬ 
ernment is an elective and strictly limited constitutional princi¬ 
pality. Karl I. is the present Prince. 

Bulgaria. 

Bulgaria, an autonomous principality tributary to Turkey, 
constituted previous to 1878 the Turkish Danubian vilayet. 
Her subjection to the Porte dates from 1392, but nearly five 
centuries of Moslem misrule and oppression have not deprived 
the people of their national pride and desire for independence. 
In 1876 they rose against their oppressors, but were unsuc¬ 
cessful, and the atrocities which the ferocious Bashi-Bazouks 
committed in suppressing the revolt, together with the lament¬ 
able condition of other Turkish provinces, led to the Turko- 
Russian war. At the treaty of Berlin, the erection of a 
Bulgarian principality was not permitted, but the province was 
granted its autonomy. Eastern Roumelia, lying to the south 
of Roumania, also was granted administrative autonomy. 

Sei^via. 

Servia gained independence of Turkey at the same time and 
in the same way as Roumania. It was virtually free, however, 
as early as 1829. Under the present Prince, Milan II., the 
fourth of his dynasty, a government similar to that of Rou¬ 
mania is carried on. 


Bosnia and Herzegovina, according to the same treaty, 
were to have their administration conducted by Austria-Hun¬ 
gary. 

flNDOppA. 

In the Eastern Pyrenees, nestling among the high mountains, 
is the tiny European republic of Andorra, which has main¬ 
tained its independence since the days of Charlemagne. Its 
area is 149 square miles, and the burden of its government 
rests lightly upon no less than twenty-four Consuls. 

San (J>abino. 

Of all the republics in the world that of San Marino enjoys 
the double distinction of being the oldest and the smallest. 
Situated in Eastern Central Italy, it has an area of twenty-two 
square miles, and a population of 10,000, an army of 819 men, 
131 officers, while the Government, since 1S47, has consisted 
of two Presidents, elective for six months, and an Executive 
Council of twelve, and a Senate consisting of sixty life mem¬ 
bers. 

CQonago. 

Still smaller than San Marino is the principality of Monaco, 
whose ruler conducts the affairs of a population of a little over 
3,000 within an area of six square miles. Monaco is a favor¬ 
ite resort for invalids, but its chief notoriety comes from its 
gambling-houses, which are here legalized, and patronized by 
European tourists. From this source a revenue of $350,000 
per annum comes to the Prince of Monaco, who spends it in 
Paris, where he has his residence. 






























































GREECE. 


3 ° 7 





i %UT little remains to-day of the glories which once 
belonged to this most remarkable and interesting 
country. Of the early history of Greece but very 
2 ^ little authentic knowledge is available. Hellen was 
claimed by the Greeks as their common ancestor, the 
popular belief being that from his sons, Dorus, Hiolus, and his 
grandsons, Ion and Achrnus, sprang the four different branches 
of the nation : the Dorians, from whom the Spartans were 
descended ; the Ionians, from whom sprang the Athenians ; the 
jEolians, whose dialect developed itself into the songs of 
Sappho ; and the Achseans, who occupied Mycenae, Argos and 
Sparta. Previous to the Hellenic inhabitants of Greece were 
the Pelasgians, who had a different language. Many indica¬ 
tions go to show that Egyptian and Phoenician immigration 
had a large influence upon Grecian civilization, whose alphabet 
is apparently of Phoenician origin. What is known as the 
heroic age of Greece is a fragment of the poetic imagination 
of such minds as Ilomer and other great poets, who told the 
story of the great deeds of heroes, who, descended from the 
gods, performed deeds of supernatural valor and strength. 
Still, modern research has shown that much which has been 
gravely condemned as fiction has been actual occurrence, the 
persistent spade of Schliemann even establishing the fact that 
the siege of Troy was no myth, and that the story of Achilles’ 
wrath may to-day be read in the ruins of the ancient city. 

From first to last Greece was divided into numerous inde¬ 
pendent States, whose union was confederate rather than 
federal. Authentic history dates from 776 B. C., when the first 
Olympiad was held. Sparta at this time was the smallest and 
least important of the States, but the genius and valor of her 
citizens made her famous and strong, and by the sixth century 
before the Christian era foreign conquest and internal advance¬ 
ment had placed her in the lead as to power and wisdom of 
administration. Greece was at this time the acknowledged 
centre of European civilization. Persia now began to dispute 
the Hellenic advancement, and the battles of Marathon, Salamis 
and Thermopylae were among the most famous encounters 
between these powerful nations. In B.C. 431 began the Pelopon¬ 
nesian war, the great civil war of Greece, which continued with 
hardly any cessation of hostilities for twenty-seven years. In 
344 began the interference by Macedon in Peloponnesian affairs, 
which led to the wars which ended with the supremacy of the 


Macedonians, whose rule lasted until 325 B.C., when the 
Athenians accomplished temporarily their independence. In 
B.C. 214 occurred the first collision between the Greeks and 
the Romans, who in B.C. 200 invaded the country, and three 
years later conquered the Macedonians. About twenty years 
later war arose again between the Romans and Macedonians, 
who were defeated and their country made a Roman province. 
In B.C. 146 occurred the battle of Leucopetra, which completed 
the dissolution of the last of the Greek leagues, the Achaean, 
and henceforth Greece was under the Roman yoke. The Roman 
Senate, and afterward the Emperors, treated the fatherland of 
their own civilization with kindness, and it was not until the 
Byzantine Empire placed its cruel foot upon the Greek neck 
that all free institutions and popular rights were disregarded. 

Though conquered in war, Greece still remained the leader 
of the world in literature and the arts. Her temples and 
statues, her schools of philosophy and rhetoric, still maintained 
her dignity among the nations. After the Byzantine invasion 
the adherents of the ancient religion only retained the name of 
the ancient Hellenes, and in the reign of Justinian, in the sixth 
century, the teaching of doctrines opposed to Chistianity was 
forbidden. From the fifth to the eighth century Slavic and 
other foreign people appeared in Greece, but they were finally 
expelled. Its ancient inhabitants regained the country, though 
the Slavic influence is still evident in certain parts of it, 
especially the Southern Peninsula. In the eleventh century, 
the Normans appeared from Sicily and plundered and ravaged 
the cities of Thebes, Athens and Corinth. In 1203 the Latin 
Princes appeared in the Crusade, conquered Constantinople, 
and divided Greece among them, establishing a number of 
principalities, which Frankish governments were swept away 
by the Turks in 1453, when they captured Constantinople and 
extended their conquests in a few years over the whole country, 
which they made a portion of the Turkish Empire. Abject 
misery was the condition of the country under the Turks. In 
i6S7the Christian League, under Venetian leadership, besieged 
and took Athens, but a few years later the Venetians were ex¬ 
pelled, and the Moslem once more ruled Greece, keeping it in 
a most deplorable condition of subjugation. Toward the 
close of the eighteenth century the national spirit again began 
to assert itself, and secretly the preparations were begun for 
throwing off the Ottoman yoke. They were completed in 1821, 


/ 


















































<*> 


\ 


- / 

308 

ASIA. 



when the Greeks arose in insurrection against the oppressor. 
On their side was the sympathy of the whole civilized world, 
and money and men were supplied the struggling State from all 
directions. In 1822, the Moslems increased the execration in 
which they were held by massacring over 100,000 of the inhabit¬ 
ants of the island of Scio, reducing the population from 120,000 
to 16,000. Four years of heroic war found the Greeks ex¬ 
hausted and at the mercy, if such existed, of the conqueror, but 
the diplomatic interference of England, France and Russia 
stayed the ferocious hand of the Turk, and proposed that Greece 
should be constituted as a tributary province, with the right to 
choose its own government. Greece was willing to accept the 
terms ; the Ottoman Empire rejected them. War was declared 
by the allied powers against Turkey, whose fleet was almost de¬ 
stroyed, and in 1828 they decided to create Greece an independent 
kingdom. The crown was offered to two foreign princes and 
was declined by the first, while the second was assassinated. 
In 1833 Otto, son of the King of Bavaria, assumed the reins 
of government, and in 1835 the capital was established at 
Athens. In 1844, in recognition of a popular clamor, a Con¬ 
stitution was granted to the people, and after a stormy reign 


of nearly thirty years he was requested to abdicate, and 
accepted the invitation. An election by universal suffrage 
resulted in the choice of Prince George of Denmark, who 
accepted the throne on condition that England surrender the 
protectorate of the Ionian Islands, against which the people 
had rebelled, which was granted by that power. In 1863, the 
new King was crowned as George I., whose reign has since 
proved acceptable to the people. In 1866, a revolution in 
Crete strained the relations of Greece and Turkey, but the 
danger was finally averted. 

Greece is governed in accordance with the Constitution 
elaborated by the constituent assembly in 1S63 and adopted in 
1864. A single chamber of representatives, known as the 
Boule, hold the legislative power. Annual meetings are held 
by the Boule, whose members are elected by manhood suffrage 
for a term of four years. Executive power is vested in the 
King and his responsible Ministers, the heads of the following 
departments: Presidency of the Council, Interior, Finance, 
Justice, Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, War, Marine and 
Foreign Affairs. A Council of State is provided for, with power 
to review or amend bills passed by the Deputies, but of late 
years its services have not been employed. 



q, .~ u ^ - 4 ?^ _ - 

(Japan, A3ia ©anS^ 


• 0 ^ 0 * 



LTHOUGH containing a vastly larger population 
of the continents—its inhabitants 
in fact outnumbering those of the remainder of 
the earth—Asia, on account of her not having 
come to any great extent under the influences of 
modern civilization, is as weak in power as she is strong in 
numbers. In ancient days this was different: the world’s his¬ 
tory was then largely framed by its Asiatic sons, who contended 
successfully against Egypt and Greece, and later on helped to 
build up the glory of the Macedonian and Roman Empires. 
It was from the regions north of the Caspian Sea that the Huns 
came, and, following the star of empire, marched westward 
and settled down in various parts of Europe. Over the plains 


of the Slav swept the victorious armies of Timour and Genghis 
Khan, and later the Caliphs, at the head of their Arabian 
troops, carried the Koran and the sword throughout Asia, 
Europe and Africa, and established religious nationalities which 
are, to a certain extent, formidable even in this day of their 
decadence. Before their march the Roman Empire gave way, 
and the Turkish dominion raised, which for so many years 
held other European powers in awe. With a population of 
834,707,000, as compared with that of Europe, 315,929,000, it 
seems as though the day must come when Asiatic supremacy 
will exist as a fact. Asia has a great deal to learn, however, of 
the modern spirit and system of government, before it can hope 
to cope with the more persistent, audacious and intelligent 
continent to the west of it 


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CHINA—JAPAN. 


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**i * ^1 * ^ * 1^ 







; YTHOLOGY, rather than history, must be cred¬ 
ited with the earlier chronicles of the Chinese, 
whose actual record, however, extends back 
2,400 years previous to the Christian era, and 
^r^prS'~ ' contains the record of a great flood, which 
many have supposed to be identical with the deluge of the 
Pentateuch. Certain it is that the Great Wall, which extends 
1,250 miles along the northern boundary of China, was erected 
250 years before the Christian era, when the Tsin dynasty was 
founded by Chwang-Siang. In the thirteenth century a Mongol 
dynasty was formed by Genghis Khan, after his capture of 
Pekin. European visits began in this century, when Marco 
Polo reached China by the overland route. Portuguese and 
Dutch traders followed, and in the seventeenth century En¬ 
gland visited the country, and after several unsuccessful negotia¬ 
tions the East India Company was allowed, in 1684, to trade 
with the natives. But little was done, however, until the 
opium trade set in, at the beginning of the present century, 
and soon attained enormous proportions. An attempt was 
made by the Chinese Government to exclude the pernicious 
drug, but the traders of the blast India Company evaded the 
restrictions placed upon its entry, and this led to the Anglo- 
Chinese w r ar, known as the opium war, which closed with the 
treaty of Nankin and the opening of five ports—Canton, 
Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai—to the British in 
1842. American trade with China was inaugurated in 1784, 
when the ship Empress made a successful voyage from New 


York to the Celestial Empire. In 1844 the first American 
treaty of amity and commerce between the United States and 
China was negotiated at Macao, and in 1867-8 a more.impor¬ 
tant one was negotiated by the Hon. Anson Burlingame, which 
was revised in 1880, in order that an understanding might be 
reached with the Chinese Government in relation to the emi¬ 
gration of its subjects to this country, where opposition to 
Chinese cheap labor had been aroused in California and other 
sections. Such treaties as the Europeans have with China 
have been wrested from that country by force of arms, and 
during a war in i860 the French troops captured the Em¬ 
peror’s summer palace, at Pekin, and carried off several 
millions of dollars’ worth of booty. The most important 
event of modern domestic Chinese history was the Taeping 
revolution, which lasted from 1851 to 1864, and had for its 
object the overthrow of the Manchoo or foreign dynasty. 
Dissensions among the insurgents and the employment of 
European and American officers by the Government were the 
main causes of the failure of the uprising. 

An Emperor rules China, aided by the Interior Council 
Chamber, which is mainly composed of high nobles. The 
provinces are govpfned by Imperial Governors and Executive 
Boards. Bribery and corruption prevail throughout the civil 
service, which is a monstrous institution. Competitive exam¬ 
ination is the basis of the service, the intention being to secure 
for official positions the most intelligent and best educated 
men of the empire. 






*** *;* 


(3APAN. 




'H 


HjRIGINALLY inhabited by a race known as the Ainos, 
who had a written language and were fairly advanced 
in civilization, the island of Japan subsequently fell 
into the hands of the Mongols, the present occupants 
^ being akin to the Chinese, whom they resemble in 
appearance. According to Japanese history, the ruling dynasty 
claims twenty-five centuries of unbroken succession, descent 
being claimed from the first Mikado, Jimmu 1 enno, who was 



reputed to have been of divine descent. Buddhism was intro¬ 
duced into japan in the sixth century. Marco Polo was the 
first European to write of Japan, and, the first Europeans to 
land upon its shores were Portuguese mariners. About the 
middle of the sixteenth century one of the smaller islands was 
visited by Fernam Mendez Pinto. In 1549 St. Francis Xavier 
landed and introduced Christianity, and he was followed by 
many others. In 1615 the priests were exiled, and nine years 


V 



























































3io 


BRITISH INDIA. 


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0 


later all foreigners except the Chinese and the Dutch were 
expelled from the island, and the emigration of natives was 
prohibited. In 1637 the massacre of the Christians began, and 
for over two centuries Japan was left to itself. In 1854, 
however, Commodore Perry, of the United States Navy, 
effected a commercial treaty with Japan, which resulted in 
opening Japanese ports to American ships, and after a struggle 
with the old court party the civilization of the West began to 
grow in popular favor, liberal ideas struck root, and national 
progress was evidenced in a number of valuable reforms. In 
1868 the executive power of the Japanese Government was 


concentrated in the Mikado, and since then the work of ad¬ 
vancement has gone on very rapidly, promising to open up to 
American enterprise a large field for the exportation of her 
machinery and other manufactures. 

Absolute power in temporal and spiritual affairs is vested in 
the Mikado. He is assisted in government by an Executive 
Ministry similar to that which existed during France’s second 
empire. A Senate of thirty members and a Council of State 
are consulted at pleasure by the Mikado. Prefects govern in 
the provinces, one being given to each of the seventy-five 
districts which make up the Mikado’s realm. 


f**S> 




H=oj=?i® British India. 


^1 






T& 







IARLY Indian history, extending back millions of 
years, is composed of a confused mass of fabulous 
chronicles. Research by careful historians leads to 
the belief that the Aryan Hindoos settled the coun¬ 
try some fifteen centuries before the Christian era, at 
which time the Brahminical religion and the social institution 
of caste are believed to have been in existence in undeveloped 
shape. About five centuries before Christ the northwestern 
provinces of the country were conquered by the Persian mon¬ 
arch Darius, and later Alexander the Great invaded India and 
conquered some of its provinces. In the eighth century the 
province of Scinde and the Southern Punjaub were invaded by 
the Mohammedans, who were later expelled by the Hindoos. 
In the beginning of the eleventh century they returned and 
conquered all Northern India. At the close of the sixteeenth 
century occurred the invasion of Tamerlane. In 1526 Baber, 
the Mogul Sultan of Cabul, invaded India, and established the 
Mogul dynasty, whose strength culminated with Aurungzebe, 
who subdued almost the entire peninsula, and Mohammed 
Shah. In 1739 occurred the invasion of Nadir Shah, King 
of Persia, who overcame the empire and occupied Delhi, from 
which city he removed enormous stores of precious stones and 
metals. The restoration of the Mogul dynasty was followed 
by another incursion of the Mahrattas, who in the eighteenth 
century were entirely overthrown by the Afghans. European 
attention was at last called to the country, and in the sixteenth 
century settlements were made upon the coast by Portuguese 
explorers whom the Dutch expelled later. Great Britain, rep¬ 
resented by the East India Company, effected settlements 
during the seventeenth century, and in the middle of the 
eighteenth came into conflict with the French, who had also 
gained a foothold, and after a hard struggle overcame them. 


Under Lord Clive the British troops vanquished the Emperor 
of Delhi and the King of Oude, and gained possession of 
Bengal, Berar and other provinces, which acquisitions were 
added to as years went by. For many years British rule was 
quietly submitted to by the natives, its enforcement being 
accomplished by the army of native troops, under English offi¬ 
cers, armed by the East India Company. 

In 1857 a revolt occurred, and the Kings of Delhi and Oude, 
at the head of the rebellious Sepoys, threatened for eighteen 
months to wrest the mastery of India from England. Fright¬ 
ful massacres, attended with indescribable atrocities, were per¬ 
petrated by the rebels, and the measures of reprisal adopted 
by the English were hardly less terrible. After the rebellion 
had been crushed the British Government assumed direct con¬ 
trol of the country, the East India Company being deprived of 
a monopoly which had brought in an annual revenue of many 
millions. Since then the British have largely advanced their 
Indian frontiers. In 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed 
Empress of India. 

The Government, which regulates the affairs of nearly two 
hundred millions of people, is practically a military despotism, 
which is made possible by the division of the native popula¬ 
tion into Hindoos and Mohammedans. A Governor-General, 
appointed by the ruler of Great Britain, holds the executive 
authority and acts under the English Secretary of State for 
India, who is advised by a Council, a majority of whom are 
appointed by the Crown. Lieutenant-Governors of the prov¬ 
inces and minor officers are appointed by the Governor-General. 
The officials are almost all Englishmen. Self-government pre¬ 
vails in the villages and townships, which levy and expend their 
own taxes under a system which has prevailed in India for ages, 
and which provides the only exception to the rule that all power 
rests in the hands of the resident Europeans. 


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AFGHANISTAN AND BELOOCHISTAN—PERSIA. 


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Afghanistan and Beloochistan. 

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S a nation, Afghanistan, although only dating from 
1747, when the successful soldier Amhed Khan 
/ v V assumed regal power, and possessing but a small 
yl territory and population, has, by her wars with for- 
' eign powers, so impressed the world with the warlike 
character of her people, that her history possesses a unique 
interest. Amhed Khan’s most important war was with the 
Mahrattas, whom he overthrew in 1761, and when he died, 
twelve years later, he left to his son, Timour, an empire reach¬ 
ing from the Indus to the Oxus, while Khorassan, Beloochistan 
and Scinde acknowledged his rule as tributary provinces. After 
Timour came anarchy, and the Punjaub and Scinde were lost, 
while Persian encroachments endangered the country. Diplo¬ 
matic relations with the English, who regard Afghanistan with 
peculiar interest, as being the “key to India,” were opened 
in 1809, and a permanent English resident at the Ameer’s 
court was appointed in 1837. The relations of the two coun¬ 
tries failed to remain friendly, and in 1838 Lord Auckland, 
the Governor-General of British India, declared war against 
the Ameer, Mohammed Khan, who was defeated. Satisfied 
with the invasion they had accomplished, the English with¬ 
drew, leaving an army of occupation behind them. In 1841 
Akbar Khan, son of the deposed Ameer, organized a con¬ 
spiracy against the English occupants of the country, which 
resulted in the murder of the British Resident and Envoy, 
after which the invaders promised to leave the country, Akbar 
Khan agreeing to provide them with an escort. This promise 
was not kept, and the army, together with camp-followers, 
the whole amounting to about 26,000 people, while leaving 


the country by way of the Khyber Pass, in the depth of 
winter, were attacked by the fanatical tribes of the districts, 
who killed men, women and children. Of the whole host 
only one man escaped to convey the tidings to the nearest 
British port, Jelalabad. An expedition was immediately fitted 
out in India, and the country was desolated, the fortresses of 
Ghurzee and Cabul being taken. Notwithstanding this terri¬ 
ble lesson, the Afghans, in 1846, allied themselves with the 
Sikhs against the British, and raised a revolt in the Punjaub, 
which was quelled only after severe fighting. The present 
Ameer, Shere Ali, has maintained the throne after many 
vicissitudes caused by the insurrections led by his own rela¬ 
tives. In 1879 the inhabitants of Cabul arose in revolt, and 
assassinated the British Resident and a large number of other 
foreigners, which led to a war in which the British arms, after 
desperate fighting, were successful, and British influence in the 
national policy was firmly established. The Government of the 
country is a monarchy. The natives are divided into clans, 
ruled over by chiefs. Revenue is raised by taxation, an officer 
collecting it in each province. Justice is administered in the 
towns by the Cadis. 

Beloochistan, a country lying to the south of Afghanistan, 
is not considered of strategic value by either British or Rus¬ 
sians. In 1839 the British stormed the capital and killed the 
ruler, after which they occupied the country for several years. 
In 1854 a treaty was formed between England and Beloo¬ 
chistan, which, however, has been violated, and no diplomatic 
relations are now sustained between the two countries. The 
country is ruled by a Khan, who, however, has little power 
over the tribes who inhabit it. 





BSI^SIA. 




-H 








UTIIENTIC Persian history begins with the revolt 
\§M O under Cyrus against Astyages, the Median King, 
)/V 1 ? which resulted in the foundation of the Persian 
Empire. Joining with Cambyses and Darius, Cyrus 
subdued Lydia and Asia Minor, and crowned his 
career by the capture of the city of Babylon, the metrop¬ 
olis of Assyria. Darius carried the Persian arms to the hol¬ 


ders of Thrace, but was defeated at Marathon, and his son 
Xerxes was not less unfortunate. About 330 years before the 
Christian era Persia was invaded by Alexander the Great, of 
Macedon, who extinguished the empire, which up to his com¬ 
ing had ruled the world. After Alexander’s successors came 
the Parthian dynasty, which was overthrown in the third cen¬ 
tury, when the ancient laws and religion were re-established 


/ 


\ 


























































■V 




312 


ARABIA—PALESTINE. 


under a descendant of the famous Cyrus, and the Sassanidse 
dynasty thus formed ruled with great energy until 628 A. D., 
when its last representative was slain, and the country fell a 
prey to the Mohammedan Arabians until 868, when a native 
dynasty was established. A Mongol invasion occurred in the 
thirteenth century, and in the fourteenth Tamerlane swept the 
land with his Tartar followers. Of the Suffavean dynasty which 
succeeded, the most famous representative was Nadir Shah, 
who invaded India and carried away $100,000,000 worth of 
spoils from the city of Delhi. Of late years Persia has not 
been able to do anything worthy of her ancient glories. Rus¬ 


sian encroachments have deprived her of important provinces. I11 
1856-57 she engaged in war with England and was defeated, which 
event led to a friendly feeling towards that country which, doubt¬ 
less, prompted the Shah, Nasr-ed-Din, in 1874, to visit Europe. 

The Government of Persia is an unlimited despotism, the 
Shah being absolute in his monarchial powers. Direct taxa¬ 
tion defrays current expenses, and the country is free from 
national debt. Law, as laid down in the Koran, is adminis¬ 
tered by mollahs (judges), whose decisions are given in accord¬ 
ance with the side of the case which possesses the greater 
power to bribe the court. 






5-—<1F 


3 - 






pF^ABIA. 



-G 1 





-m*- 


v/«t 4 LAIMING Jescent from Ishmael, the Arabs have 
l always been and still are a wandering, wild, uncon- 
trolable people, whose career and present condition 
seem to fulfil the angelic prophecy. The aborigines 
of Arabia were probably the Cushites, who passed 
into Africa and were succeeded by a race descended from 
Abraham. After the destruction of Jerusalem large num¬ 
bers of Jews entered Arabia, which subsequently welcom¬ 
ed the doctrines of Mohammad, with whose coming the 
history of the country really begins. Becoming united, they 
grew in power until in Europe, Asia and Africa empires 
were brought under their dominion. While producing impor¬ 


tant changes in the destinies of other nations, Arabia her¬ 
self underwent no great improvement, and when her day of 
conquest was over the Turks found her an easy prey, and in 
the sixteenth century captured Yemen, which they lost a 
century later. The Portuguese, too, conquered Muscat, while 
the Russians gained some temporary advantages in Arabia. In 
the eighteenth century the Wahabees made their appearance, 
and, though Mehemet Ali checked their progress, their in¬ 
fluence is still felt throughout the land. This powerful 
Egyptian subdued the seaboard of Hedjaz and part of Yemen, 
but in 1840 he was forced to withdraw his forces and 
abandon all his conquests upon the Red Sea. 





Palestine. 








ORIGINALLY inhabited by distinct nations, of whom 
the Canaanites, Amorites, Jebusites, Kenites and 
Perizites were the principal, and whose origin is not 
known, the land of Palestine was invaded by the 
Israelites after their escape from the hands of their 
Egyptian masters and their wanderings in the wilderness. 
Acting under the divine command, as interpreted to them by 
their leaders, they entered upon a merciless war of extermina¬ 
tion of the idolatrous tribes who inhabited the land, which they 
partitioned off as follows: The tribe of Reuben took Gad, 
and one-half the tribe of Manasseh took the territory east of 
the Jordan; Judah, Simeon, Dan and Benjamin occupied the 
southern portion ; Zebulon, Asher and Naphtali obtained the 


northern division; while the other half of the tribe of Manas¬ 
seh, together with Issachar and Ephraim, secured the central 
portion. Being provided for by tithes, the Levites, in their 
priestly function, were not given any separate territory, but 
were scattered among the various cities of the other tribes. 
For over three centuries the tribes were ruled by Judges raised 
to that dignity by the people for valorous deeds in war or 
display of qualities of statesmanship, and during this time the 
nation was practically a confederation of republics, their bond 
of union being made up of their common origin, language and 
religion, and the ever-present danger of invasion by external 
foes. Among the most famous of the fifteen Judges who ruled 
the land were Gideon, Jephtha, Barak, Samson, Deborah, 




\ 


o 





















































PALESTINE. 


3 T 3 


Eli, and Samuel, who was the last of the Judges and the first 
of the Prophets, but the two latter exercised also priestly 
functions. Although their rule was satisfactory, the people 
clamored for a King, and the monarchy was established with 
Saul, a Benjaminite, as ruler. A great warrior, he led the 
hosts of Israel in a succession of victories, but his merciful 
treatment of a conquered people brought about the opposition 
of Samuel. The King’s son-in-law, David, having slain the 
Philistine giant Goliath in battle, became suddenly popular, 
and, as he was taken up by the priestly party, he first aroused 
the jealousy and then incurred the enmity of Saul, who caused 
him to flee from the country. With an army of brother out¬ 
laws David made war upon the Philistines, who had befriended 
him in his hour of need, and on the death of Saul and his son, 
Jonathan, his tribe of Judah proclaimed him King. Saul’s 
son, Ishbosheth, was acknowledged by the remainder of Israel, 
and a civil war followed, 'which w r as ended by the death of 
Ishbosheth, and the assumption of the sovereignty by David. 
Under King David war was actively pursued against the natives. 
Jerusalem was wrested from the Jebusites, and the Israelitish 
domain extended south and west to Egypt and north to the 
land of the Phoenicians. With the last-named people, who 
had attained a high degree of civilization and were learned in 
the arts and sciences, the Hebrews remained on terms of 
friendship. David’s successor, Solomon, raised the power of 
Israel to its pinnacle of glory. Under his rule commerce and 
trade were cultivated, the country was fortified, profitable 
foreign alliances were made, and the beautiful Temple of Jeru¬ 
salem was built. Great attention was paid to the military arm 
of the government ; the army was enlarged and strengthened, 
and with its aid neighboring nations were kept in subjection 
and forced to pay heavy tribute. Internal disorder followed the 
death of Solomon, whose last days were not marked by the wise 
and strong government which preceded, and under the rule of 
his son, Rehoboam, the heavy taxation of the people induced a 
revolt of ten tribes, who proclaimed Jeroboam King in 
Israel, which comprised the land beyond Jordan and that to 
the north of Benjamin. Judah and Benjamin alone remained 
loyal. Many wars between the rival nations followed. 
Under licentious Kings the people of the ten tribes waxed in 
wickedness, until about 700 years B.C. the Assyrians swept 
down upon them, destroyed their capital of Samaria and car¬ 
ried the people into captivity. No record of their fate exists. 
They disappeared entirely from history, though every now and 
then some one or other of the nations of the earth is recog¬ 
nized, according to Biblical prophecy, as being the identical 
“ten tribes” of Israel. In Rehoboam’s reign Judah was 
invaded by the Egyptians, who pillaged the temple. Wars 
with the bordering nations occurred from time to time, and 
civil war was frequently aroused by the misrule of wicked 
Kings, whom even the fierce denunciations of the great Prophets 
could not entirely restrain. Weakened by these causes, the 


country came under tributary subjection to the Babylonian 
Empire, and the downfall of the people was brought about by 
the revolt of Zedekiah, who declared the nation independent, 
and defended gallantly but unsuccessfully the capital, Jerusa¬ 
lem, against the Babylonian armies. In 588 B.C. the city 
was captured, its walls and temple destroyed, and its citizens 
carried into Babylon, where they remained captive for seventy 
years. Their return to their native land was permitted when 
the Babylonians were vanquished by the Medo-Persians, and 
Darius, Ahasuerus and other Kings allowed them to rebuild 
their city and temple, and granted them many additional privi¬ 
leges. Under these favorable conditions they increased in 
strength and numbers, and when, about two centuries before 
Christ, the Syrians sought to prohibit the Plebrew religion, 
they arose in arms and fought for their religious liberty with 
such courage and vigor that the period of these wars, extend¬ 
ing from 167 B.C. to 105 B.C., is looked upon as the heroic 
era of Jewish history. Forty years later, however, the Romans 
conquered the country, and Judea became a province of that 
great power. Native rulers, known as tetrarclis, were given 
slight local power, but they were powerless to check the 
oppressions of the conquerors, and sixty-six years after the 
birth of Christ, whose earthly ministry was made while the 
people were in the depths of misery, the Jews rebelled and 
brought upon their country a scourge in the shape of Roman 
armies under Vespasian and Titus. After a four years’ siege, 
during which the inhabitants endured indescribable sufferings 
with unparalleled fortitude, Jerusalem fell; the temple was 
once more abased ; such of the inhabitants as survived were 
sold into slavery; the Hebrew nation as such passed out of 
existence. After the Roman rule passed away the Byzantine 
monarchs held the country. Christianity becoming wide¬ 
spread, Palestine became a centre of religious interest as the 
birthplace and scene of the ministry, death and resurrection of 
the Savior. Thousands of pilgrims visited the “ Holy Land,” 
and the rebuilding of Jerusalem was commenced. In the 
earlier half of the seventh century Palestine was conquered 
by the Mohammedan Arabs, but in 1099 the warriors 
of the first Crusade captured the sacred city, and made 
Godfrey of Bouillon King of Jerusalem, who extended 
his territory until it comprised the whole of Palestine. 
This lasted twenty years only, and after further crusades 
against the Saracens, in which the Christians were more or less 
successful, the latter were, in 1291, expelled by the Mame¬ 
lukes, who ruled the land until 1517, when it fell into the 
hands of the Turks, who still hold it. Several efforts have 
been made to have the European Jews return to their father- 
land, but they have declined to abandon the profitable occupa¬ 
tions elsewhere to become the agricultural colonists of a not 
very fertile land. Under Turkish rule Palestine is part of the 
province of Syria, and comprises the sub-pashalics of Acre and 
Jerusalem. 












































SIAM—AFRICA. 


+- 




(0 


314 



ARLY in the seventeenth century the Spanish, Portu¬ 
guese, Dutch and French obtained admission to the 
Siamese ports, and England shared their privileges 
about half a century later. Each of these nations 
made strenuous endeavors to gain the preponderating 
influence over the Siamese, and the French seemed for many 
years the favorites ; but in an outbreak which occurred several 
of their missionaries and traders were slaughtered, and this 
event was followed, on the part of Siam, by the inauguration 



of a policy of exclusiveness, which lasted until about fifty 
years ago, when Great Britain, France and the United States 
made treaties with Siam. A duarchial form of government 
prevails, there being two Kings, but the second is hardly more 
than a vice or lieutenant. About the court is the Council of 
Twelve, and that body, when the King dies, may defeat his 
will about the succession of the throne. There are laws to 
which the King must conform, and which render the Govern¬ 
ment, in effect, a constitutional monarchy. 




ECOND only to Asia in point of size, the continent 
of Africa, including the islands contiguous to its 
shores, has an area of 11,854,000 square miles, yet 
is the least important of all the great divisions of 
the globe, judged by the standard of civilization and 
commercial prosperity. It is only within a few years past that 
the true quality of the interior territory of Southern Africa 
has become known, through the researches of English and 
American explorers in the “ dark continent. ” Attempts to 
colonize were begun by the French, on the west coast, in the 
seventeenth century, and at the Cape of Good Elope (the 
southern extremity of the continent, which was first doubled 
by Vasco da Gama) the Dutch established a port in 1650. 
An English trading company, a century later, also located 
here. The earliest explorers were James Bruce, who in 1772 
visited Abyssinia and discovered the sources of the Blue Nile, 
and Mungo Park, who ascended the Niger in the earlier years 
of the present century, and was killed in 1806 in the kingdom 
of Iloussa by the natives. The desire to discover the source 
of the Great Nile has impelled several explorers to pierce 
Central Africa. Up to his time, the most successful of these 
was Dr. David Livingstone, who travelled in 1849 through the 
country watered by the Zambesi, and made a vast number of 





important discoveries. Burton, Speke and Baker, in their 
hunt for the Nile’s headwaters, discovered lakes Tanganyika, 
Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, which were also visited 
by Livingstone, who defined the great water system of the 
Lualaba or Chambeze. Henry M. Stanley, an American 
journalist, acting in the capacity of special correspondent of 
the New York Herald , visited Africa on a commission to find 
Livingstone, who had not been heard from for some years, 
and in 1871 he discovered him at Ujiji in great destitution, 
but still anxious to press forward into the continent, for which 
he had organized a new expedition. In 1873 Livingstone died, 
and in the following year his body was brought home and 
interred in Westminster Abbey. Stanley, after parting with 
Livingstone, explored the Congo River and accomplished dis¬ 
coveries which place him in the front rank of African trav¬ 
ellers. Commerce is following fast in the footsteps of these 
adventurous men, and the colonization of the fertile territories 
they have visited and described is only a matter of time. 
Already the English have established colonies at the Cape 
of Good Hope, Sierra Leone, Natal and on the Gold Coast; 
Liberia, on the West Coast, has been organized as a republic; 
the Portuguese have dependencies in Mozambique, Angola and 
Benguela, while Spain has colonized Fernando Po and Annobon. 


























































EGYPT—UPPER AND LOWER NUBIA. 


GYPT is another of those countries whose prehistoric 
ages are wrapped in mystery as impenetrable as the 
sources of her own Nile, whose exact location has 
baffled the most enterprising of explorers. Great 
interest attaches to the country’s early annals, but 
the stories of the dynasties which 
succeeded Menes, the founder of 
Memphis, of the rule of the Pha¬ 
raohs, and the Ptolemies and the 
Cleopatras, though pregnant with 
true historical interest, cannot here 
be told, and it will suffice to quote 
the language of a graceful historian, 
who wrote : “It (Egypt) attained 
a high position for wealth and the 
institutions of civilized society when 
all the surrounding countries dwelt 
in the darkness of barbarism. It 
had a well organized and efficient 
government long before the na¬ 
tional greatness of the Hebrews.” 

Moslem rule prevailed in the country 
after their conquest of it in 639. 

The Caliphs were expelled by the 
Turcomans, who gave way before 
the Mamelukes in 1250, whose rule 
continued until 1517, when Selim, 

Sultan of Turkey, put an end to 
their dominion and organized the 
land as a dependency of Turkey. 

For over two centuries the descend¬ 
ants of the vanquished Mameluke 
chieftains opposed the Turks. A 
descent upon Egypt was made by 
the French under Napoleon in 179S, 
but they were obliged to withdraw, 
and the Mamelukes were not over- A STREET IN 

come until the treacherous massacre 

of their leaders established the Pasha in quiet upon his vice¬ 
regal throne. Mehenret Ali, from an obscure position as an 
Egyptian villager, rose to the position of Viceroy, after a 
severe conflict with the Ottoman forces, and under him the 
country made great advancement, and, while nominally tribu¬ 
tary to Turkey, Egypt enjoyed nearly all the attributes 
of an independent nation. lie died in 1849, ail< ^ ' n *^63 


Ismail came to the throne, a man of such Oriental extrava¬ 
gance, both in public improvements and personal expenditures, 
that he became bankrupt, and his abdication was brought about 
by the combined pressure of his English and French creditors. 
His son, Mehenret Tewfik, succeeded him, but the actual 

control of the nation was placed 
in the hands of an International 
Commission of Liquidation. The 
burden of paying the interest on 
the enormous national debt which 
Ismail rolled up, amounting at the 
close of 1880 to about $500,000,000, 
has rested heavily upon the Egyp¬ 
tian people, and the rebellion against 
Tewfik, under Arabi Bey, and the 
war which England waged against 
the Egyptians, in support of the 
Khedive, are of too recent occur¬ 
rence to require more than a passing 
mention. Of late years the influ¬ 
ence of England and France — 
Egypt’s largest creditors—has alter¬ 
nately predominated in the manage¬ 
ment of Egyptian affairs, but the 
success of the English arms in the 
late war, in which the French de¬ 
clined to participate, has made the 
country virtually a protectorate in 
the hands of England, whose con¬ 
trol of the Suez Canal is a matter 
of vital importance to that power. 


AND 

-#Rubia-^ 


CAIRO, EGYPT. 


In 1820 the Egyptian Viceroy 
Mehemet Ali pursued the Mame¬ 
lukes southward and into Nubia, where they took refuge. 
In the following year he conquered the country and made it 
an Egyptian province, which it has since remained. Lower 
Nubia, almost entirely a desert, is retained by the Egyptians 
as a means of communication with the upper province, which 
contains a large area of fertile land. 


<3 














































































3 l6 


ABYSSINIA—CAPE COLONY. 




ARI,Y tradition says that the famous Queen of 
/ *• Sheba included part of this country within her 

1I\ realm, and that its subsequent rulers were descended 

f rom her. Fabulous as is the early history of the 
cjf' 3 '’ country, there is no doubt that its people had, 
even in remote antiquity, made great advancement in civiliza¬ 
tion. In the middle of the fourth century Christianity was 
introduced and made great headway. A couple of centuries 
later the Abyssinians invaded Arabia and conquered a portion 
of the southwestern province of Yemen. In the tenth century 
the reigning dynasty was overthrown by a Jewish princess, 
after which the country remained in anarchy for three cen¬ 
turies, when the restoration of the empire, under Icon Amlac, 
brought about an improved condition of affairs. In the 
fifteenth century friendly relations were cultivated with the 
Portuguese, under the influence of whose missionaries the 
royal family adopted the Roman Catholic religion. In 1541 
the Turks threatened the couxrtry, and the Portuguese assisted 


the Abyssinians, but were defeated; and in 1542 it was invaded 
by the Gallas, a race from the south, who conquered and held 
a great part of it. Although fairly well received at first, the 
Roman Catholic religion failed to gain a strong hold upon the 
people, who, in 1632, arose against the priests, and, after killing 
many of them, expelled the remainder. Theodore, who became 
King in 1855, proved a sagacious and energetic monarch, and 
under him Abyssinia was extended over several adjacent prov¬ 
inces, which had for years maintained their independence. A 
misunderstanding occurring between him and Great Britain in 
i860, he imprisoned the British Consul, with some missionaries, 
and treated them cruelly for some years. In 1868 a British 
army, under Lord Napier, invaded the country, captured 
Theodore’s stronghold, Magdala, and released the prisoners. 
Theodore, when the battle turned against him, committed 
suicide. In 1880 there was an attempt made by the Egyptians 
to conquer Abyssinia, but they were defeated and abandoned 
the enterprise. 








(©APE (©OLONY. 










-N i486 Bartholomeu Dias, a Portuguese navigator, discov¬ 
ered the Cape of Good Hope, which Vasco da Gama 
sailed round in the following year. About the middle of 
the seventeenth century the Dutch planted colonies near 
the Cape, conquering and enslaving the natives. Increas¬ 
ing in numbers and growing in strength, the colonists, in 1795, 
rebelled against the mother country, whereupon the Prince of 
Orange sent an English fleet which established British rule. 
In 1802 the colony was restored to the Dutch, who, by 1806, 
had extended their domain eastward to the Great Fish River 



and westward nearly to the Orange River. In that year the 
British again took possession of the colony, which they have 
since retained, though not without great difficulty and expense, 
the native Kaffirs, a handsome and warlike race, proving a 
stubborn enemy, in the attempted subjugation of whom several 
sanguinary wars have been waged. Government at the Cape 
was established, as it now exists, in 1S53, when the authority 
was vested in a Governor and an Executive Council approved 
by the Crown, while a Legislative Council of twenty-one mem¬ 
bers and a House of Assembly represent the people. 





























































** 




V 


MADAGASCAR—THE BARBARY STATES. 


3*7 



Vt L HgBaBiaBaBaBaBiaBiaBiaBaBiaEaEiaBaBaBi aB. p. 

jff (Qadagasgai^. 


t j% 

EaEaEaEaESE^EHEaESEaBiaESBaEHEaEBn 

— ' - ----- - 3 






kib-s- 


MADAGASCAR became known to commerce in 
the early part of the present century, at which 
time the greater part of the island was under the 
rule of King Radama I., with whom England 
— formed a treaty in 1816. From the English 
Radama learned the European art of war, and his drilled troops 
easily accomplished the subjection of the whole island. Dying in 
1828, he was succeeded by Ranavala I., who used her power to 
crush out the Christian religion, which had been readily received 
by the natives. Europeans were banished from the island and 
the missionary schools were closed. Iler cruelties at last 
aroused the Europeans to action, and in 1845 a combined En¬ 


glish and French force made an attack upon the port of Tam- 
tave, but were unsuccessful. Ranavala died in 1862 and was 
succeeded by her son, Radama II., who ceded territory to 
France. He was assassinated in 1863, and his wife, Rasua- 
herina, succeeded him. At her death a dispute between the 
natives and Europeans over the succession was ended by the 
elevation of Rainitaiarivoy to the throne as Ranavala II. 
She became a Christian and was baptized, together with her 
husband, the Prime Minister and several of the native nobility. 
Kalimalaza, the chief idol, and the temple which contained it, 
were destroyed, and, stimulated by these acts of devotion, the 
people rapidly became converted to Christianity. 




©he Bai^bai^y States. 



SHE region in North Africa known as Barbary com- 


mji prises the countries of Algeria, Morocco, Tunis and 
Jfc Tripoli. Algeria’s history runs back to the time 
.^ 7 r of Carthage. Moors and Numidians at this time 
occupied it; later it became a Roman province, and 
after them the Vandals and Arabians held sway over the 
land. In the tenth century the Moors organized an independ¬ 
ent State, but for several centuries Algeria was nothing else 
than a nest of pirates, whose vessels swept the seas as far as the 
North Sea, and forced tribute from all countries which carried 
oji commerce by water. In 1655 the capital, Algiers, was at¬ 
tacked by the English, and in 1682 and 1683 by the French, 
but no great impression was made. A Spanish expedition 
against the city in 1775 was signally defeated. In 1815 Com¬ 
modore Decatur, of the American navy, after defeating an 
Algerian squadron off Carthagena, threatened to bombard 
Algiers, and secured the release of American prisoners held by 
the Dey and his abandonment of a claim he had made for trib¬ 
ute. In 1816 a British Admiral bombarded the city and re¬ 
leased all Christians held in bondage. In 1830 France sent an 
expedition of 100 ships-of-war and 357 transports to Algeria, 
and July 4 of that year Algiers surrendered, and the French 


“*-6 


took possession of it and established a military regency. A 
holy war was declared against the invaders, which, under the 
Emir Abd-el-Kader was carried on until 1847, when he 
surrendered to General Lemonciere. The French proclaimed 
Algeria a permanent possession, but the people were restless 
under the French yoke, the Kabyles rising in insurrection in 
1851 and 1857, and several revolts having occurred since. At 
present the country is in quiet submission to France, where it 
is represented in the National Assembly by six Deputies. The 
military rule was abandoned in 1871, and a civil Governor- 
General and a Colonial Council administer the affairs of 
State. 

Morocco, not having enjoyed the blessing of occupation by 
foreigners to any very great extent, does not show the same 
promise of advancement which Algeria at present affords. Its 
early history consists of a succession of wars and invasions. In 
the eighth century the Arabs conquered the country, and since 
then they have ruled it. In 1471 the seaport of Tangier was 
captured by the Portuguese, who ceded it to the English in the 
seventeenth century. They held it for only a brief period, and 
in 1844 it was bombarded by the French. In 1859 the Span¬ 
iards declared war against Morocco and captured Tetuan, these 


/ 


-X 

































































Ql 


visitations all resulting from the piratical habits of the mari¬ 
time Moors and their enslavement of Christians who came 
within their power. A Sultan rules over the country, but his 
control over the interior is slight. 

In the palmy clays of its great commercial city, Carthage, 
Tunis was one of the most important countries of the world. 
Its inhabitants, descendants of the Phoenicians, conquered 
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and part of Spain, and visited the 
Scilly Islands and Albion in their trading vessels. Its famous 
generals, Hamilcar, Hannibal and Asdrubal, threatened the 
Roman power, but the victory of Scipio brought the proud city 
low, and the country was made a Roman province. Later 
on the Vandals and Mohammedans overran it, but in the 
thirteenth century its people obtained their independence. 
Charles V. of Spain reduced Tunis in the sixteenth century 
and made it subject to that country, and in 1575 the Turks con¬ 
quered it. Like the inhabitants of the other Barbary States, 
the Tunisians practiced piracy and enslaved Christians, which 


led them into conflicts with various European powers. Tunis 
is governed by a Governor or Bey, who receives his investiture 
from Constantinople, but wields absolute power locally, the 
country not having paid tribute to the Porte since 1871. The 
late rulers—Achmet, Mohammed and Mohammed Sadyk— 
have proved enlightened sovereigns, and under their rule the 
country has made considerable advancement. 

Tripoli, the least populous of the Barbary States, became 
subject to Rome during the Punic wars, fell into the hands of 
the Vandals in the fifth century, and was conquered by the 
Turks later. Its capital, Tripoli, was bombarded by the French 
in 1683, and early in the present century Commodore Decatur 
punished the inhabitants for injuries their pirates had inflicted 
upon American commerce. From 1815, the time of Decatur’s 
last visitation, piracy and Christian slavery have not existed in 
Tripoli. Government is administered by a Bey, who is nomi¬ 
nally a vassal of the Porte, but whose rule is absolute and inde¬ 
pendent of Turkish control. The dominant religion of all the 
Barbary States is Mohammedanism. 






- 0 * 0 — 




Republics in South flPi^iGA. 


-0”0 .— ^s> 



™.,ARTLY from national sentiment, but more as a matter 
R® of interest, the Dutch settlers at the Cape of Good 



Hope, after the acquisition of their country by Great 
Britain in 1806, emigrated in large numbers and, 
moving north and east, conquered from the warlike 
Zulus the country which is now known as Natal, and 
settled there. More than 10,000 of the Boers, as they were 
called, had thus wandered away when the British colonists 
made claim to the territory which they had occupied, and in 
1842 took possession of it. Others of the emigrant Boers set¬ 
tled on the table-land region to the north of the Orange River 
and founded the Orange Free State, whose President, in 
1848, made an attempt to drive out the British residents, but 
was defeated and driven from the country. In 1851 the British 
organized a colony of the Free State, but in 1854 they aban¬ 
doned the enterprise and permitted the Boers to organize a 
government and guaranteed them complete independence. A 
third attempt by the Boers to establish a republic resulted in 
the colonization of the Transvaal, whose independence was 
acknowledged in 1852. Success crowned this effort until the 
year 1877, when, the republic becoming bankrupt, annexation 
to Great Britain was suggested as a remedy. A vote was taken 
which resulted in the British taking possession of the country. 
Many of the resident Boers claimed that only a minority of the 
inhabitants voted upon the annexation question, and an emigra¬ 
tion westward began, which resulted in the settlement of the 
Great Namaqua land, on the Western Coast north of the 
Orange River, a movement which was checked by the British, 


who claimed that the land was under their jurisdiction. In 
1880 the Transvaal Boers, who had had enough of British rule, 
attempted to re-establish the republic. War ensued and an army 
which the British sent from Natal to quell the uprising was 
defeated with great loss. Further engagements with the Boers 
proved disastrous to the British, who finally abandoned the 
attempt to crush the republic. 

Among the minor countries of Africa is Liberia, a negro 
republic on the grain coast of Upper Guinea. Liberia is the 
original accomplishment of an association known as the Ameri¬ 
can Colonization Society, of which Henry Clay was President, 
and whose object was the foundation of a colony of emanci¬ 
pated American slaves. Failure attended the earliest attempt 
of the society, but, having obtained a suitable location in 1S21, 
operations were commenced which resulted successfully. A 
town, which was called Monrovia, after the President of the 
United States then in office, was started, and a lot of land was 
given to each settler. In 1847 Liberia declared an independent 
republic, which in the following year was recognized by Great 
Britain and, later on, by others of the European powers. 
Although the prime object of the founders of the republic has 
never been realized, comparatively few emancipated slaves hav¬ 
ing left America to settle there, Liberia has enjoyed great 
prosperity and a healthy growth. Contiguous negro tribes 
have been included within its territories, which now contains a 
population of about three-quarters of a million. A President, 
Senate and House of Representatives are charged with the 
government of the republic. 


/ 


-M 




-z <5 

" 


o 





































OCEANICA. 


3 I 9 


Sierre Leone, a British colonial settlement adjacent to and 
north of Liberia, was settled in 1787 by a body of several hun¬ 
dred destitute negroes who had been removed from London by 
a society of philanthropists. Three years later they were joined 
by over a thousand negroes from Nova Scotia. Although so 
near to the negro republic founded under American auspices, 
the latter is far healthier than Sierre Leone, which, perhaps, 
accounts for its falling far short of the progress accomplished in 
Liberia. 

Guinea, which includes the coasts of a number of African 


territories, was first visited by the French in 1364, and was no 
colonized until 1481, when a settlement was effected by the 
Portuguese. A number of colonies have since been established 
by the English, French, Dutch, Danes and Germans. Guinea 
abuts upon the territory of the King of Dahomey, whose 
atrocities, in the way of wholesale destruction of his subjects’ 
lives, have gained him great notoriety. What is known as 
Lower Guinea, extending along the Western coast of South 
Africa and comprising the States of Loango, Congo, Ango 
and Benguela, is claimed by the Portuguese. 




aJB^I&CEANICA, sometimes called Oceania, is the name 
IfllM.Wi a ppl’ e< l t° the fifth division of the globe, which com- 
.1^,,, prises the Australian Continent and a majority of the 

Sas/I islands lying between the Indian Ocean and the 
China Sea on the west, and the American Continent 
on the east. So vast is the number of these islands that only the 
historical facts relating to the largest of them can be mentioned. 
Australia comes under its own head. New Guinea, the next 
largest island in the world, was discovered by the Portuguese in 
1511. Four years later Dutch navigators visited it and raised 
on its shores a fortress which was subsequently abandoned. 

Borneo, which, until the naturalist Wallace’s explorations 
proved that New Guinea had the greater area, was believed to 
be the largest island in the world except Australia, was discov¬ 
ered in 1578 by the Portuguese. In 1690 they effected a settle¬ 
ment, but were soon driven out from it. In 1702 and 1774 
England made unsuccessful attempts to colonize the island, but 
of late years she has managed to acquire a controlling influ¬ 
ence over the northwestern coast of the island. 


Sumatra, Java, Celebes are among the larger single islands, 
while among the most important groups are the Malay Archi¬ 
pelago, in which these are included, and almost all of which 
have been subjugated by the Dutch, the Spaniards, the Portu¬ 


guese and the British ; the New Hebrides and Polynesia, which 
general terms include, among others, the Hawaiian, which is one 
of the most important in the Pacific Ocean. In 1829 the inde¬ 
pendence of these islands was acknowledged by the United 
States, who were followed in 1843 by the British, and in 1844 
by the French. King Kalakaua, who has visited the United 
States and is in many respects a progressive ruler, is the pres¬ 
ent sovereign of the islands. 

New Caledonia, an island lying to the east of Queensland, 
was taken possession of in 1853 by the French, who established 
there a naval station and a penal colony, which are still main¬ 
tained. 

New Zealand was first visited by the Dutch navigator Tas¬ 
man in 1642. A colony was first established in 1840. Gold 
fields were discovered in 1857 which brought a large immigra¬ 
tion. Executive authority is vested in a Governor appointed 
by the Crown ; there is also a General Assembly consisting of 
a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. 

Tasmania, formerly known as Van Dieman’s Land, ceased 
being a penal colony in 1853, since which time its population 
and prosperity have largely increased. A Governor appointed 
by the Crown holds the executive; there are also a Legislative 
Council and a House of Assembly. 


















































320 


AUSTRALIA. 






Strait. 


p|| 0 THING was known of this vast island until 1606, 
when a Dutch sea-captain, sent from Java in the 
yacht Duyfen on a voyage of exploration of the New 
Guinea coast, viewed its northern shores. A Portu¬ 
guese navigator the same year passed through Torres 
In 1619 the western coast was seen by a Dutch captain, 
who gave it the name of Endracht’s Land, and in 1622 the south¬ 
west coast was discovered. Tasmania was, in 1642, visited by 
Tasman, who, a month afterwards, visited New Zealand. Fre¬ 
quent new discoveries were made from time to time, and in 1770, 
Captain Cook, then on his first voyage, explored nearly the 
whole of the eastern coast, which he called New South Wales. 
Passing through the strait which bears his name, Dr. Bass, a 
navy surgeon, ascertained the separation of Australia and Tas¬ 
mania. In 1788 the English established a penal station at 
Botany Bay, New South Wales, which was afterwards removed 
to Sydney. The existence of a convict colony in their midst 
did not harmonize with the spirit of those who formed a free 
colony in New South Wales, and the station was removed to 
Tasmania, where it remained until its abolition, in 1853. 
Strenuous efforts were made to induce immigration to the 
colony, but up to 1850 only 50,000 Europeans had settled 
there. A year later, however, the discovery of gold in a dis¬ 
trict of New South Wales induced thousands to go to the 
mines, and within a year the popidation had increased by 
200,000. All ordinary occupations were given up, the gold 
fever became epidemic, business was abandoned, values were 
inflated, and when the inevitable crash came, a large amount of 
suffering occurred. At last the crisis was passed, and, settling 
down to the development of the country, the peoole soon found 


that it had vast natural resources which outweighed in impor¬ 
tance even the gold mines in productiveness. A Governor, 
nominated by the Queen, holds the executive power in New 
South Wales, and all enactments passed by the lower Legisla¬ 
ture require royal sanction before becoming law. 

Queensland, the colony which occupies the northeastern 
portion of the continent, was established in 1859. It has a Par¬ 
liament of two houses, the Legislative Council and Legislative 
Assembly. A Governor appointed by the Queen holds the 
executive power. 

South Australia was first colonized in 1836 by British 
emigrants, who suffered greatly during the earlier years of their 
settlement. Copper mines of great richness were discovered in 
1843, which gave impetus to the colony. Executive power is 
vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown, and an Execu¬ 
tive Council composed of the responsible Ministers and mem¬ 
bers especially appointed. Legislative power is vested in a 
Parliament elected by the people, voting as one district. 

Victoria was settled in 1835, and in 1840 an attempt was 
made to form a Government distinct from that of New South 
Wales, which was unsuccessful. In 1851 the colony became 
independent, and, the rush to the mines occurring in that year, 
arrivals at the rate of from twenty to thirty thousand a month 
began to swell its population. The Government is similar to 
that of the other colonies. 

Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and its devel¬ 
opment was slow for many years. Lately, however, there has 
been a marked increase of agricultural prosperity. A Governor 
and a Legislative Council administer and frame the laws. 



kL 


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WESTERN COUNTRIES. i ITALY. EASTERN EMPIRE. EASTERN COUNTRIES. 

































































































































/ 































































327 







































































































































































































































































































































































































































































A Complete Digest of Parliamentary Law and Rules. 



HE origin of Parliament¬ 
ary Law is to be found in 
the customs and rules of 
the British Parliament, the 
first deliberative body of 
the modern world. When 
the Jutes and Saxons left 
their over-crowded homes in the 
Low Dutch Lands and sailed 
to England, they carried with 
them the Witena Gemote , the 
root from which has sprung ev¬ 
ery Congress and Parliament, 
every Town Meeting and Con¬ 
vention, every Caucus and De¬ 
bating Society which the Anglo- 
Saxon race in the Old World, or the New, has 
held. 

Set rules governing the proceedings of Par¬ 
liament began first to be established about A. D. 
1180, so that now Parliamentary Science is 
about seven hundred years old. In the course 
of time these rules became more extended and 
exact, the conduct of public meetings was re¬ 
duced to a science, until at the present day the 
man who is not familiar with them is apt to ex¬ 
pose himself as one of imperfect education, and 
to make blunders which bring himself into ridi¬ 
cule, and the cause which he is supporting into 


danger. In America, where every matter, grave 
or light, affecting the public, or any part of it, 
is promptly made the subject of a meeting, the 
man who has not Parliamentary Law and Prac¬ 
tice at his fingers’ ends is compelled either 
always to take a back seat and let less able men 
come forward, or else be in constant danger of 
an absurd display of ignorance unworthy of an 
American citizen. 

P'ortunately, however, the whole subject is easi¬ 
ly mastered, and easily retained in the memory. 
It is based upon certain clearly laid down prin¬ 
ciples, and if we were asked to give in one 
sentence a comprehensive definition of Parlia¬ 
mentary Law, we should promptly answer that 
it was common sense divided into rules. Those 
things that appear strange are really founded 
upon reason, and the more the student attacks 
the subject the more evident do its harmonies 
appear. Anyone who will carefully study the 
following digest will thoroughly master the 
subject. 

CALLING A MEETING. 

It would be much easier to make a list of the subjects for 
which meetings should not be called than of those for which they 
should. Generally, all those matters which affect a considera¬ 
ble part of the community, of the church, or of the business to 
which one belongs, are proper matters for counsel and discus¬ 
sion among friends, and for meetings among citizens. The 
forms used in calling meetings si ould be very brief and pointed, 


/ 


^71 

























































































































/ 

334 

PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 



intimating plainly what the gathering is for, where and when it 
is to meet For instance, forms to be printed in the newspapers 
should take this shape: 

Notice. —The members of the Second Presbyterian Church are 
requested to meet at Mr. James Kyle’s residence, 241 Walker street, 
on Tuesday evening, January 15th, at eight o’clock, to consider ways 
and means of rebuilding the parsonage. 

Or thus: 

DEMOCRATS OP THE THIRD WARD, ATTENTION! 

A mass meeting of the Democrats of the Third Ward will be held at 
Lafayette Hall, on Locust and Main streets, on Friday evening, Oct. 
3d, at 7:30, p. m., in accordance with the order of the Central Com¬ 
mittee, to select three delegates for the City Convention on Saturday, 
Oct. 4th. The Hon. C. F. Pease, Judge Bradley Adams, Sheriff Por- 
son, and others, will address the meeting. 

Sometimes it is necessary that meetings should be called 
without publicity, when a form like this might be used: 

[ CONFIDENTIAL .] 

St. Louis, Jan. 12th, 1SS0. 

James Ashton, Esq., 

Ashton & Co., Grocers. 

Dear Sir: 

Your attention is called to the fact that 
the retail dealers in coffee are cutting prices until there is little or no 
profit left in the trade. Quite a number of us have agreed to meet at 
the Magnolia Club next Saturday evening, to discuss the situation, 
and see If some measures can not be taken which will enable all of the 
firms to do a more satisfactory business than at present. Please 
either be present yourself, or send a representative empowered to act 
for you, and oblige Yours very respectfully, 

Spotts & Tremaine. 

J. R. Osgood & Co. 

H. A. Miller & Son. 

These forms might be greatly increased in number, but the 
reader will see the shape upon which it is best to found them. 
Be sure that written notices are sent to all interested, and that 
printed ones are inserted several times before the event which 
they advertise is to occur. 

ORGANIZING A MEETING. 

As soon as a sufficient number have gathered together at the 
place of meeting, some gentleman—and it is well that the per¬ 
sons calling the meeting should select this person with care; it 
is best to choose some well-known and representative citizen— 
will mount the speakers’ stand and rap with the gavel on the 
table until the assembly is brought to order. He will then nom¬ 
inate some person present for chairman, using the simple form, 
“I move that Mr. John Gilkeson act as chairman of this meet¬ 
ing.” When the motion is seconded he will at once put it to 
the house, saying, “It is moved and seconded that John Gilke¬ 
son act as chairman of this meeting. Those in favor will say 
‘ aye’.” Those in favor of Gilkeson will vote “ aye ” in a clear 
tone of voice. The temporary chairman will continue, “Those 
opposed say ‘no’.” If Mr. Gilkeson is defeated other names 
are proposed until a chairman is elected, when the one chosen 
will be escorted to the chair, and the gavel handed to him by 
the temporary chairman, who at once leaves the stand and 
takes a seat among the members. The chairman raps for order 
and after a word or two of thanks for the honor conferred upon 
him should proceed to lay clearly before the meeting the purpose 
for which it has been called. This is not the time for eloquence 
or for attempts at fine speaking. The chairman should endeavor 
to frame his remarks so that every person in the hall will under¬ 
stand clearly and definitely just what the matter for discussion 
is. It is in good taste for the chair to call upon any other mem¬ 
ber of the meeting to express the purpose for which it has been 
called if the chairman does not feel himself thoroughly able to 


explain it. But if the chair means to call upon some other 
member to speak, he should first proceed to the election of a 
secretary, who, when elected, will read the call, and the chair 
will then call on the person whom he wishes to address the 
house; otherwise the secretary is not usually chosen until after 
the president has spoken. 

GETTING TO WORK. 

When the secretary has been elected and the purpose of the 
meeting stated, the next duty of the chairman is to get the 
assembly to work with as little delay as possible. Suppose, for 
example, it is proposed to rebuild the church parsonage lately 
destroyed by fire. The chairman will say, “ Gentlemen, you 
have heard the reasons why this meeting has been called. What 
is ,the pleasure of the house ? ” 

A member will rise to his feet and say, “ Mr. Chairman.” 

The chairman will look towards the speaker and say, “ Mr. 
McIntyre,” or, if he does not know the gentleman’s name, he 
will say, “ The gentleman to my right,” indicating the speaker 
with a wave of his hand. The purpose of this is to draw the 
attention of the meeting to the person about to speak. Mr. 
McIntyre then says, “ I move that a committee of three be 
appointed by the chair to report ways and means of raising 
$5,000 for the rebuilding of the parsonage.” 

This motion being seconded, the chair announces, “It is 
moved and seconded that a committee of three to report ways 
and means of raising $5,000 to rebuild the parsonage be 
appointed by the chair.” The matter now becomes debatable, 
and any member may rise and address the chair as to the pro¬ 
priety or impropriety of appointing such committee. When the 
discussion seems to be concluded, the chair will ask, “Are you 
ready for the question ? ” To which the members will respond 
by calling, “ Question ! ” “Question ! ” The chair will then very 
distinctly repeat the motion so that all can hear it clearly: “ It 

is moved and seconded that a committee of three be appointed 
by the chair to report ways and means of raising $5,000 to 
rebuild the parsonage. Those in favor of the motion will 
say‘aye.’” The ayes vote. “Those opposed will say‘no.’” 
The noes vote. If the chairman thinks the ayes are in a major¬ 
ity he will say, “The ayes seem to have it,” and then, after a 
pause, if no one calls for a division, “The ayes have it.” If a 
division is called for, however, the chairman will call upon those 
in favor of the motion to take one side of the hall and those 
opposed to go to the other, when he may appoint tellers to 
count the votes, or count them himself. Or he may make a 
division by causing each party to raise their hands in turn, or 
to rise up from their seats and remain standing while being 
counted. The motion having carried, the chair will proceed to 
appoint the committee, remembering that Parliamentary Eti¬ 
quette demands that the person who moved the appointment 
shall be be made chairman of the committee. The chair will 
also decide, as it was not incorporated in the motion, when the 
report shall be made. If it is probable that the work can be 
done in a half hour or an hour, he will order the committee to 
report in that time;if longer, it is wiser to adjourn over to an¬ 
other evening. The committee having gone out to work, and 
there being no business before the assembly, the chair may 
announce a recess, or call upon some one present for a speech, a 


/ 


































V 


PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 


335 


recitation or a song; in this way, or in conversation, the inter¬ 
val may be passed. When the committee is ready to report they 
come back to the hall and announce their presence to the chair¬ 
man. He raps with the gavel for order and announces, “ The 
committee is ready to report. Mr. McIntyre, please read your 
report.” 

The report is read by the Chairman of the Committee, and at 
its conclusion some member moves its adoption. This being 
seconded, the Chair announces: “ It is moved and seconded 

that the report of the committee which you have just heard read 
be adopted.” This opens discussion, after which the motion 
is voted on as before. The business of the evening being con¬ 
cluded, some one moves to adjourn. It is seconded, and this 
motion is voted just as any other. If the matter must be taken 
up again later, the date to which the body is to adjourn should 
always be incorporated in the motion. When the motion is car¬ 
ried, the Chairman announces the fact and the meeting ends. 


4 


V a’a AA A AAA AA AAA A a a a a a a a a A A AA y A a Aa aaaaaa aaaaaa 

How to Manage a Convention. 


Y.v v v v vvrv v v v v .y. v.vv.y.v v v v v v v ~\ 


'-.v vv v vv 




MM^ONVENTIONS differ from ordinary meet- 
ings both in their composition and in the 
customs which are observed. The fre¬ 
quency of their occurrence and the 
strict manner in which members are held 
to Parliamentary Rules make it necessary for 
every delegate to thoroughly master the niceties 
of their organization and government, and, al¬ 
though in the pages that follow the broad prin¬ 
ciples of Parliamentary Law are laid down so 
that those who run may read, it is necessary here 
to call attention to the peculiarities which make 
Conventions differ from other deliberative bod¬ 
ies. Conventions are made of delegates chosen 
either by sections of a political party or by di¬ 
visions, councils, encampments, or lodges of a 
society. In all cases the delegate must be pro¬ 
perly accredited to the general body, and one 
of the first things to see to is that these creden¬ 
tials are in proper shape. 

TEMPORARY ORGANIZATION. 

A Convention organizes temporarily before it 
can get to work. A Chairman, a Secretary, 


with several assistants, and several Sergeants-at- 
Arms are chosen after the usual manner. They 
are the result of nomination and election just as 
in any other deliberative body, but it is under¬ 
stood that their functions will cease as soon as 
the Permanent Organization is perfected. It is 
generally understood beforehand who is to be 
selected Temporary Chairman, however, and 
although the tenure of office is brief it is quite 
an important post. Delegates will always do 
well to act slowly during the temporary organi¬ 
zation, as it has frequently happened that it alone 
has decided the whole work which the body 
had assembled to do. The custom is to choose 
the temporary organization by a viva voce vote, 
and usually the delegates and the rest of the 
world help along in the voting with all their 
lungs. 

THE COMMITTEES. 

The temporary organization has for its sole 
purpose the selection of the Committees whose 
work must be done before the Convention can 
go to business. These are the Committees: 

On Credentials. 

On Permanent Organization. 

On Order of Business. 

On Rules. 

On Resolutions. 

Although it is common to join these last two 
committees into one. 

Every Convention consists of delegations, and 
each delegation consists of delegates. When 
the Chairman calls for the Committee on Cre¬ 
dentials the delegations each name one of their 
number to be a member of that Committee. So 
with Permanent Organization, Order of Business 
and Rules and Resolutions. Each delegation 
should have one representative on each Com¬ 
mittee. As soon as the names are given in the 
Committees retire and a recess is taken. 

. THE COMMITTEES AT WORK. 

The duties of each Committee are plainly indicated by their 
names. The credentials of each delegate should be turned in 
as rapidly as possible; generally they are put in the hands of the 




\ 


' 


<D 
















































33 6 


PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 


members of the Credential Committee from the delegation, but 
sometimes contests occur, and this is the time for the contest to 
begin properly. In political conventions some of the most im¬ 
portant work is done by the Order of Business Committee. It 
is very vital in what order candidates shall be nominated. All 
of this has to be settled at once, and the friends of a candidate, 
if they are afraid that other candidates have sold them out, 
should always try to get their nomination fixed at the beginning 
of the schedule, because they can thus make the doubtful ones 
show their hands at once. The Committee on Permanent Or¬ 
ganization must supply a full list of names for chairman, secre¬ 
taries, sergeants-at-arms, pages, etc., for the convention. The 
Committee on Rules always report the rules governing Congress, 
and the Resolutions Committee put the platform, as it is called, 
in shape. 

THE CONVENTION AT WORK. 

When the recess ends, the committees should all be ready to 
report, which they do in this order: 

Credentials. 

Permanent Organization. 

Order of Business. 

Rules and Regulations. 

The Credentials Committee gives a full list of delegates entitled 
to sit, the Permanent Organization names the officers, the Order 
of Business reports in what succession the convention shall ad¬ 
dress itself to the business before it, the Rules and Resolutions 
give shape and purpose to the whole. Each committee report 
is acted upon as soon as it is read, usually by a viva voce vote, 
and, all being accepted, the convention gets to work. The first 
step is for each delegation to select a chairman, who acts as 
spokesman for it. This can be done in the intervals between 
the reports. The permanent officials are installed, generally 
with short speeches, and the order of business is taken up. The 
chairman orders the secretary to call the roll of delegations for 
nominations, for Governor, for instance. Two or three coun¬ 
ties may be called without any nominations (for it is always 
understood beforehand who is to make the nominating speeches) 
until Butler County is reached. Then the gentleman w'ho has 
been selected arises, and, calling attention to the eminent serv¬ 
ices and peculiar fitness of the Honorable Allen Blaisdell, nomi¬ 
nates him for Governor. Another county is reached, and Mr. 
James Pierson is nominated; perhaps four or five more and 
lllaisdell is seconded, and so on until all the candidates for 
Governor are fairly in the field. The voting in conventions is 
peculiar. As soon as the nominations close, each delegate 
should hand to the chairman of his delegation a piece of paper 
with the name of the person he votes for upon it. When 
Andrews County is called the chairman rises and announces 
“Andrews County gives three for Blaisdell, two for Tierson and 
one for Holmes.” When the vote is all in, the totals are hand¬ 
ed to the president, who announces: “Total vote cast, 242; nec¬ 
essary to a choice, 122. Pierson, 98; Blaisdell, 84; Holmes, 53; 
Dawes, 7. There being no election, the convention will proceed 
to vote again.” Which is continued until by a clear majority a 
candidate has been chosen. When a candidate has been select¬ 
ed he should thank the convention for its preference, and the 
defeated candidates should also come forward and express their 
submission to the will of the party. 

TRADING. 

Trading is the name given to the transaction whereby a dele¬ 
gation, anxious to secure the nomination of their friend to office, 


agree to vote for other candidates wdio are running for other 
offices, in return for support of their nominee. This is assum- 
ing greater proportions every year, and the only note to be 
made upon the practice is that usually, from bad faith and 
treachery, it is a very uncertain one. Pledges are easily secured, 
but kept w ith difficulty. In this age of combinations the men 
who do not combine are sure to be defeated, but it is to be re¬ 
gretted that American politics should give such a premium to 
deceit as the “trading” done in conventions offers. 



Seven Things a Chairman Should Remember, 

1st. Take the chair promptly at the time for the meeting to 
open. 

2nd. Always rise to your feet when putting a question. All 
your remarks to the house should be made standing. 

3rd. Order is best maintained by a rigid enforcement of par¬ 
liamentary law r . 

4th. Except in vote by ballot, the chairman can only vote 
when the meeting is equally divided, or w'hen his vote given to 
the minority would make the division equal. 

5th. The chairman should familiarize himself thoroughly 
with the purposes of the meeting. 

6th. Common sense, decision and firmness are absolutely 
necessary to a successful president. 

7th. The president’s three duties are : to preserve order, to 
put questions, and to keep the house strictly to the business in 
hand. 


Six Things a Secretary Should Remember. 

1st. Provide the necessary stationery for the performance of 
the duties of the secretary. 

2nd. In reading minutes and papers pitch the voice to reach 
the furthest persons in the room. 

3rd. Do not attempt to write up minutes during a meeting— 
take full notes of everything that happens. 

4th. Preserve all papers carefully. Do not allow members 
to remove them after they are read. 

5th. See to it that all committees are properly warned of 
their appointment, and of the business they are to do. 

6th. In writing minutes make them as short as possible, but 
include every important matter. 


Four Things a Member Should Remember. 

1st. Unless the chair is assisted by every member in the 
maintenance of order, business will be retarded. 

2nd. Alw'ays rise when about to speak, and address the chair¬ 
man alone. Be silent until he makes the necessary recognition. 

3rd. Be careful to keep to the point in your remarks, and 
never speak twice on a matter w'hile there are other members 
waiting to be heard. 

4th. That speaker is listened to with attention who only 
speaks when he has something pertinent to say. 















































PARLIAMENTARY LAW AND RULES. 


337 


\ 


THREE HUNDRED POINTS OF ORDER. 

DECIDED AT ONE GLANCE, ON A SINCLE PACE. 

BLANKS IN COLUMNS AFFIRM STATEMENTS AT THE HEAD--THE NEGATIVE DENIES THEM. 


* Not debatable when another question is before the House, 
t An affirmative vote on this question cannot be reconsidered, 
a Limited debate only on the propriety of postponement allowed. 

b May be moved and entered on the record when another has the floor, but may not 
stop the business then in progress; may be called up by the mover as soon as 
such business is disposed of, and it then takes precedence of all other questions 
exept “ to adjourn," or “ to fix time to which to adjourn.” 
c Not debatable when decision is in a matter of breach of decorum. 
dCan be made before debate has commenced only. 

Requires to be 

seconded. 

cl 

x 

c/) 

»— ( 

May be amended. 

Can be 

reconsidered. 

Is in order when 

another has the 

floor. 

Allows reference 

to main question. 

Requires two- 

thirds vote. 

Rank of prece¬ 

dence. 

Motion to amend. 





no 

no 

no 

8th 

Motion to amend an amendment. 



no 


no 

no 

no 


Motion to amend rules. 




no 

no 



Motion to adjourn. 



no 

no 

no 

no 

no 

2(1 

Motion to fix time to which to adjourn. 


* 

no 

no 

no 

1st 

Call to order. 

no 

no 

no 

no 


no 

no 


Motion to close debate. 


no 

no 


Motion to commit. 




no 


no 

7th 

Motion to limit debate. 


no 



no 

no 


Motion to extend limits of debate. 


no 



no 

no 

no 


Motion to lay on the table. 


no 

no 

....+ 

no 

no 

no 

4th 

Motion to take from the table. 


no 

no 

....{ 

no 

no 

no 

Motion for order of the day. 

no 

no 

no 


no 

no 

:trd 

9th 

6th 

Motion to postpone indefinitely. 

no 


no 


no 

Motion to postpone to a fixed time. 




no 

no 

no 

Motion for previous question. 


no 

no 


no 

no 


5 th 

Motion to reconsider a debatable question. 


no 

no 

....b 


no 

Motion to reconsider an undebatable question. 


no 

no 

no 

....b 

no 

no 


Motion to refer a question.'. 


no 


no 


Motion to discuss a subject. 


no 

no 


no 



Motion to make subject a special order. 



no 

no 



Motion to substitute, in nature of an amendment. 





no 

no 

no 


Motion to suspend rules... 


no 

no 

no 

no 

no 



Motion to take up question out of its proper order. 


no 

no 

no 

no 



Motion to withdraw a motion. 


no 

no 


no 

no 

no 


d Objection to consideration of question. 


no 

no 

no 


no 



Motion to read papers. 


no 


no 

no 

no 


Question on priority of business. 


no 


no 

no 

no 


Question of privilege. 




no 

no 

no 


Motion to appeal from decision of Chair. 


.... c 

no 


no 

no 


Leave to continue speaking after breach of decorum. 


no 

no 


no 

no 

no 


Motion that Committee rise. 


no 

no 

no 

no 

no 

no 



FORMS IN WHICH QUESTIONS MAY BE PUT. 

On motion for previous question, the form observed is: “Shall the main question be put?” This if carried ends debate. 

On motion for order of the day: “Will the House now proceed to the order of the day?” Thisif carried supersedes interven¬ 
ing motions. 

When objection is raised to considering question: “Shall the question be considered?” 

On motion to strike out words: “Shall the words stand part of the motion?” If this be not carried, the words are 
struck out. 

On an appeal from decision of Chair: “Shall the decision be sustained as the ruling of the House?” 

When yeas and nays are ordered by the House: “As many as are in favor of-will answer aye; those opposed will 

answer no, when their names are called.” 

WTien a member has been counted on the side against which he intended to vote, the presiding officer can order the amend¬ 
ment of the vote, having first asked the member: “On which side he intended to give his voice?” This correction can be made 
only on the member’s own representation. 































































































































33 $ 


PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS. 



-V V 


* w V v t 1 4 -y-j p . ~ 



The right of Petition: is an expression frequently met with 
in English history. The earnestness with which the people of 
that country strove for the maintenance of the right is a proof 
of its great importance. The right of Petition necessarily im¬ 
plies the right of being heard and heeded. 

The bodies to whom petitions are addressed are first of all 
Congress, the President and the executive departments of the 
Government, State Governors and Assemblies, Mayors, City 
Councils, and lastly public and private corporations of every 
kind. Certain set forms are used in addressing these assemblies 
and persons, and although the matter may vary infinitely it must 
always be put in a respectful and decorous manner. The me¬ 
morial to Congress presented by the Mississippi River Conven¬ 
tion, which assembled in St. Louis October, 1881, is one of the 
best exemples of this kind extant. It will be found first among 
the forms which follow, necessarily abbreviated to fit the 
space at our disposal. 

MEMORIAL TO CONGRESS. 

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, 

in General Assembly convened : 

The Executive Committee of the Mississippi River Improvement 
Convention, held in the city of St. Louis, Missouri, in October last, 
under one of the resolutions unanimously adopted, were charged with 
the duty of preparing and presenting to the Congress of the United 
States a memorial embodying the action of the Convention, accom¬ 
panied with such statistics and information as the Committee might 
deem expedient. 

The Convention which committed this grave duty to your memor¬ 
ialists was one representing, in an unusual degree, the commercial 
and industrial power of the country. The highest order of talent, 
judgment matured by careful thought and large experience of the 
great question so intimately connected with the progress and devel¬ 
opment of the imperial domain comprehended, met in council, and 
the important question was considered by men representing twenty 
States and three Territories, and half the population of the Union. 
Not less remarkable was the variety of interests gathered and given 
utterance to there. Thefarmers andmerchants, the bankers, the man¬ 
ufacturers, the professions, and the heads of great transportation 
lines by river and by rail, with earnest zeal discussed, and with strik¬ 
ing unanimity reached the conclusion embodied in the resolutions 
adopted by the Convention, and which it now becomes the duty of 
your memorialists to urge upon the National Legislature. 
********* * * 

The aid now asked, and the benefits sought to be received through 
the liberal action of the Government, is not alone for the present, nor 
for the near succeeding years, but stretches to the distant future—that 
eventful and busy future for which it is the duty and business of 
statesmanship to prepare. The Valley States and those in the farther 
West and Southwest, bound together by the chords of a common in¬ 
terest, are fast gaining the political power which will make them the 
grantors instead of the solicitors of favors through the instrumentali¬ 
ty of the Government. A compliance now with their reasonable de¬ 
mands will be gratefully recognized, and will hereafter find reciprocal 
response. A refusal will breed an antagonism of sections which may 
lead to sectional issues. 


P 


ETITIONS. 




Committee. 


Secretary. 


PETITION TO THE PRESIDENT. 

To Chester A. Arthur, President of the United States. 

The Petitioners undersigned respectfully solicit of you the appoint¬ 
ment of W. E. Hunter as cadet at large to West Point. The young 
man is the son of Maior Wilson Hunter who distinguished himself 
and was severely wounded at the battle of Lookout Mountain. He is 
twenty years of age, of perfect form and robust health, and is a grad¬ 
uate of Madison University. He carried off the highest honors of the 
institution in mathematics and drawing, and is now engaged in the 
office of Penny & Rubold, Civil Engineers. We ask this of you 
because our Representative in Congress has already, without know¬ 
ing of Hunter’s desire, made his selection. 

We refer to accompanying papers, A, R, C and D. 

With the greatest respect, 

James T. Morgan. 

Galena, Ills., Oct. 14, 1SS2. Geo. L. Vennor. 

A. Letter of Hunter to Vennor. 

B. “ Personal Friend of President. 

C. Printed slip. 

D. Letter of Dean of Madison University. 

A. 

My Dear Mr. Vennor: 

You have so frequently shown your kind feelings towards me that I 
am sure you will not think me too presumptive in asking your assis¬ 
tance in a purpose that I have resolved upon. It is fiat I should 


********* * * 

And now we ask, can there be a more propitious time for the 
National Legislature to recognize the value and importance of the 
work ? 

The products of the Mississippi Valley, carried cheaply by the river 
route (and through its influence less expensively by rail) to the outer 
markets, have thrown the balance of the world’s trade grandly in our 
favor. Since this power and influence has been recognized, for the 
first time in our history we now have among kindred commercial na¬ 
tions the rank of creditor. The long-sought position has been ob¬ 
tained through the agency of cheap transportation from the interior 
to the sea ; a policy we can only maintain by carrying the thought to 
the utmost conclusion. 

The report of the Secretary of the Treasury, and favorably present¬ 
ed by President Arthur in his message, shows a surplus revenue of 
over $100,000,000 for the last fiscal year, and the question suggests 
itself, how can this accruing surplus ne properly and most beneficially 
expended? Those for whom we speak do not complain of the bur¬ 
dens of taxation. They do not ask for the present reduction or speedy 
extinguishment of the national debt, but they do ask that this surplus 
shall in part be applied to their great and cheap thoroughfares, feel¬ 
ing that when this is done they can bear the burdens imposed by the 
Government in the form of taxes much easier than those resulting 
from defective and crippled transportation. Now in the days of our 
prosperity, they ask those to whom they have entrusted their rights, 
to lay aside local antagonisms and sectional jealousies, to compass 
the height of the argument and conclusions presented, and meet the 
action of the Convention by the exercise of a statesmanship as broad 
and comprehensive as that which marked its deliberations. 




V- 



























































“7 


PETITIONS. 

339 


go to West Point. You know how well fitted I maybe for a cadet¬ 
ship. Should my purpose meet with your approval, I throw all my 
hopes of future success in life on you, and I know no one in this wide 
world so willing and so well able to help me. 

With the most sincere regard, Ever yours, 

Galena, Oct. 6th, 1SS2. W. E. Hunter. 

B. 

SEALED LETTER. 

My Old Friend: 

Should the application for the appointment of Hunter be favorably 
received by you, you will not only confer a favor on a most worthy 
object, but settle another matter which will be a good stroke of policy 
for our district. 

A man named Trevors is looking with hungry eyes at the position 
of U. S. Collector for this district, in which we want our friend May- 
ville retained. Trevor’s main dependence would be on Morgan and 
Vennor. Now Morgan is secretary of the Illinois State Republican 
Committee and was a power in the last convention. Vennor is a quiet 
capitalist whose subscriptions have been very heavy in any Republi¬ 
can necessity. You would find it hard to refuse either. Appoint 
Hunter and you save Mayville. They could not expect you to make 
a second move on their application. 

Pardon the length of this. 

As ever your most devoted, 

Galena, Oct. 13th. Morris Henley. 


C. 

PRINTED SLIP. 

From the Galena Times, Aug. 18th, 1882. 
********* * * 
This happy escape from what would have been a most frightful dis¬ 
aster is all owing to the presence of mind of a young surveyor in the 
employ of Penny & Rubold. We predict for Mr. Hunter, the hero 
whose coolness and courage were the means of saving so many lives, 
a most brilliant future. 


D. 

.Messrs. Penny & Rubold. 

Gentlemen: —In recommending my young friend W. E. Hunter 
to you, I can say with truth he was as a pupil all that could be desired, 
apt and studious. His proficiency in mathematics is almost phenom¬ 
enal. Respectfully, 

Miron Seymour, 

Feb. 12th, 1S82. Dean of Madison University. 


PETITION TO THE GOVERNOR. 


To Thos. T. Crittenden, Governor of the State of Missouri. 

Your Petitioner respectfully represent that the office of Clerk of the 
County Court of Dayton County in this state is now vacant by reason 
of the decease of James Allison, the regularly elected incumbent. 
Your petitioner would further represent that until the next general 
state and county election the law requires that the vacancy be filled 
by appointment of the Governor. Now feeling myself capable of fil¬ 
ling the position, and being thoroughly acquainted with the duties of 
the office, I respectfully make application and solicit you to appoint 
me Clerk of the Dayton County Court. Robert Ames. 

With our most cordial recommendation. 

Henry Warren, I Justices of the 

Thomas Harrison, ( County Court. 

William Henderson. 

S. K. Atchison. 

Richard Lord, Sheriff. 

Jesse R. Dunlap, Minister. 


PETITION TO A CORPORATION. 

To the Board of Directors of the Dubuque Gaslight Co. 

Gentlemen: —As the vacant lot adjoining your works and owned 
by you would suit my purpose, I respectfully solicit the use of it for 
the storage of cement and salt. Should it not be your intention to 
improve the lot for some time, the collection of a small rent from me 
would be better than allowing such a property to lie idle. 

Respectfully, Alex. Goldman. 


PETITION TO A STATE LEGISLATURE. 

To the Honorable, the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
State of -, in Legislature assembled: 

The undersigned petitioners, residents and tax payers of the city of 
-, respectfully represent that they 


********* * * 
and that they your petitioners fully believe that such action on your 

part would be in favor of the best interest of the city of-, and 

would be in complete accord with the will of the majority of its citi¬ 
zens, and your petitioners as in duty bound will ever pray, &c., &c. 


Signed, < 


PETITION TO CITY AUTHORITIES. 


To the Mayor and Common Council of the City of -; 

Gentlemen : Your petitioners, citizens and tax-payers of the second, 
fifth and sixth wards of this city, respectfully solicity your honorable 
body to extend the system of sewerage, already working in such ad¬ 
mirable order in the third and fourth wards, through our wards. The 
expense may be heavy but our need is still greater; for all the territory 
contiguous to the low grade streets, Adams, Pine and Lincoln, is in 
extreme danger, should the pestilence now raging in the Southern 
cities come this far north. We respectfully represent that the largest 
portion of the city revenue is collected in our wards and that the pro¬ 
posed extension will be paid for wholly by the property-owners most 
benefited by the sewers. 


Signed, 


(.City, State, Date.) 



PETITION TO A COUNTY COURT. 


To the Hon. Justices of the - County Court: 

The undersigned, residents of - Township, who are 

obliged to use the Baldwin road to market with their produce, re¬ 
spectfully inform your honor that the bridge crossing Pear Creek is so 
badly injured by the last flood that it is now dangerous and cannot be 
trusted. Hoping you will give the matter immediate attention they 
earnestly petition your honorable court to order the necessary repairs. 


Signed, 


(County, State, Date ) 



A REMONSTRANCE. 


To the Mayor and Common Council of - - : 

Gentlemen : The petition of the undersigned citizens and tax pay¬ 
ers of the sixth an seventh wards of this city respectfully represents 
that they have learned that a petition is now before you praying for 
the privilege of constructing a railroad along Jackson Street. That 
if this privilege were granted and a track laid on that street the result 
would be most injurious to the property fronting thereon and would 
obstruct the great traffic now continuous on that thoroughfare. They 
also suggest that there is no necessity for such railroad, as the one on 
Henry street two blocks south is sufficient for the needs of the public. 
They therefore respectfully and earnestly remonstrate against the 
granting of said privilege by your body. 


Signed, 


(City, Slate, Date.) 






























































LYCEUMS AND DEBATING CLUBS. 


f\ 

340 


| HE benefits derived socially and intellectually from 
attendance at Lyceums or debating societies are so 
generally conceded that there is no need of argument 
to urge their formation. 

The following form of a constitution and by-laws 
will give a clear insight into their workings: 



Constitution and By-Laws of the Ben Franklin 
Lyceum. 

PREAMBLE. 

For our mutual improvement, for the entertainment of our 
friends and for the cultivation of the amenities of social life, the 
undersigned agree to form themselves into a debating society. 

TITLE. 

ARTICLE I. 

The name of this society shall be the Ben Franklin Lyceum. 

OFFICERS. 

ARTICLE II. 

The officers of the Lyceum shall consist of a President, Vice-Presi¬ 
dent, Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian and Marshal. They shall be 
elected annually at the first regular meeting after the 15th of January 
in each year, and shall continue to perform the duties of their several 
offices until the installation of their successors, which shall take place 
at the next meeting after their election. 

DUTIES OF OFFICERS. 

ARTICLE III. 

The President shall preside at all meetings, and shall be ex-officio 
member of all standing committees, but not of special committees. 

The Vice President in the absence of the President shall take 
the chair, but will not assume his duties in committees unless the 
President shall so request. 

The Secretary’s duties shall be threefold—Recording, Corres¬ 
ponding and Financial. 

Recording. —He shall keep an accurate record of the proceedings 
of each meeting, be prepared to read them at the ensuing meeting 
and by indexing or other method be prepared to read on call the 
record of any business that may have taken place at any former 
meeting. 

Corresponding. —He shall attend to all the correspondence of the 
Lyceum. 

Financial. —He shall keep the accounts of the Lyceum with the 
members, with all parties having dealings with the Lyceum, and with 
the Treasurer. He shall collect and pay over to the Treasurer all 



<s 


dues and fines and other income. He shall write warrants on the 
1 reasurer to be signed by the President for all monies to be paid out. 

The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary all monies of the 
Lyceum and shall pay out the same only on the production of the 
Secretary’s warrant signed by the President. He shall make a quar¬ 
terly statement of the funds in his hands, which shall be verified by 
the books of the Secretary. 

The Librarian shall have charge of all books, periodicals, maps, 
Pictures, globes, curiosities and like articles either owned or borrow¬ 
ed by the Lyceum. 

The Marshal shall have charge of the hall, furniture, light, 
fuel,and comfort of the members. He shall act as doorkeeper, usher 
to visitors, and messenger. 


COMMITTEES. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Immediately after his installation the President shall appoint five 
standing committees: 

The Executive and Financial Committee, 

The Library Committee, 

Committee on Lectures, 

Committee on the Selection of Subjects for Debate, 
Committee on Criticism. 

These committees shall consist of four members each, /. e.. three 
appointed and the President himself. 

Special Committees for all other purposes shall be elected by 
the Lyceum. 

MEMBERSHIP. 

ARTICLE V. 

Active Membership. —Any person of good repute in the commu¬ 
nity,of either sex, over the age of sixteen years may become a member 
of the Lyceum by a majority vote of the members present at the next 
meeting after their proposal; the membership beginning only after 
signing the Constitution and paying the initiation fee of $1.00. 

Life Membership.— Any person of good repute, on the introduc¬ 
tion of a member and the vote of the society, may become a life 
member and have the benefit of the library and may attend all meet¬ 
ings and debates on the payment of $10.00. 

Honorary Membership may be conferred by vote of the Lyceum 
on any person. Honorary members shall pay no fees or dues. 


ORDER. 

ARTICLE VI. 

The proceedings and deliberations of the meetings of the Lyceum 
shall be governed bv the rules of order as shown in the article on Par¬ 
liamentary Law in Peale’s Manual, unless such rules conflict with this 
Constitution, its Amendments or the By-Laws. 

EXPULSION OF MEMBERS. 


ARTICLE VII. 


For sufficient reason any member may be expelled by a two-thirds 
vote of the members present at any meeting, provided the Executive 
Committee has previously considered the matter and informed the 
member of the proposed action, and that he be given opportunity to 
defend himself. 


e) \ 




























































































LYCEUMS AND DEBATING CLUBS. 


TIME OF MEETINGS. 

ARTICLE VIII. 


QUESTIONS FOR DEBATE. 




341 


The regular meetings of the Lyceum shall be held in the Ben. 
Franklin Hall at eight o’clock on every Wednesday evening. Special 
meetings may be called by the President on the request of five mem¬ 
bers. 


AMENDMENTS. 

ARTICLE IX. 

This Constitution may be altered or amended at any regular meet- 
ing by a vote of two-tlnrds of the members present: Provided that 
written notice shall have been given of the proposed amendment at a 
previous meeting. 


BY-LAWS. 


LIBRARY. 

RULE I. 

No member shall be allowed to take more than two books from the 
Library at one time. A fine of one cent per day for each volume 
shall be collected from each member keeping books more than one 
week. The Library shall be opened one hour Before the regular meet¬ 
ings of the Lyceum. 

QUORUM. 

RULE II. 

Two more than one-half the active members shall constitute a 
Quorum. 


MONTHLY DUES. 

RULE III. 

Each member shall pay a monthly due of fifty cents. Any member 
having failed to pay his dues for three months shall be notified by the 
Secretary; if he does not pay by the end of fourth month his member¬ 
ship shall be forfeited. 

DEBATES, RECITATIONS AND SPEECHES. 

RULE IV. 

The President shall appoint in turn members to take part in the 
exercises. A week’s notice shall be given, and a member failing to 
fill the appointment without good excuse shall be fined fifty cents. 

ORDER OF BUSINESS. 

RULE V. 

Call to Order. 

Roll Call. 

Reading of Minutes of Last Meeting. 
Correspondence. 

Reports of Officers. 

Reports of Committees. 

Good of the Lyceum. 

Election of Members. 

New Business. 

Debate. 

Recitation. 

Oration. 

Criticism. 

Adjournment. 



1. Ought the largest city of a State to be the capital of that State? 

2. Will the coal supply of the United States hold out? 

3. Must the Chinese go? 

4. Has the abolition of slavery improved the condition of the 

blacks? 

5. Is universal suffrage a success? 

6. Has the attendance at churches changed the character? 

7. Was the Tichborne claimant the true heir? 

S. Is the drama immortal? 

9. Will the planting of forests increase the rainfall? 

10. Should woman have the right of suffrage? 

11. Is cremation preferable to burial? 

1 2. Ought Governments to own railroads and telegraphs? 

13. Should the President of the United States be elected directly by 

the people? 

14. Does Prohibition prohibit? 

15. Should public museums and parks be opened on Sunday? 

16. Should foreign languages be taught in the Public Schools? 

17. Should the right to vote depend on a property qualification? 
iS. Are early marriages advisable economically? 

19. Have we an aristocracy? 

20. Could the Government of the United States do as well without 

the Senate? 

21. Will the colored race become amalgamated with the whites? 

22. Are competitive examinations a fair test for the fitness of appli¬ 

cants for office? 

23. Should gold be the standard of value? 

24. Should there be more Arctic expeditions sent out? 

25. Was Washington a military genius? 

26. Is the assessment of office-holders for political purposes immoral? 

27. Is communism a mistake? 

2S. Has the visit of Oscar Wilde had any effect on the public taste? 

29. Is the co-education of the sexes advisable? 

30. Has the Government been too liberal in land grants to railroads? 

31. Are inventors sufficiently protected by the patent laws? 

32. Should married women be retained as teachers in the Public 

Schools? 

33. Should convict labor be allowed to compete with honest labor? 

34. Is the present system of trial by jury the best? 

35. Should voting by ballot be introduced into all elective and 

legislative proceedings? 









































342 


THE HOME CIRCLE. 


^T 


(9 rt*T\ TIEAIELDP Tn. 




HERE is no grander word in all the languages of men 
than that one word Home! It is full to overflowing 
with rich, happy meanings. Around it cluster all the 
sweetest joys, all the most sacred memories of life. 
Men are for the most part what their homes have 
made them; and as men make communities, and communities 
make states, and states make nations, it follows that the great 
power moulding the destinies of men and nations lies mainly in 
the influences of home. Whatever, therefore, contributes to 
the development of this home influence is of vital interest. 

The future of this land, and of all lands, depends mainly on 
the character of the home life; for all the life of the land 
flows from the home as from a fountain. Nothing is wiser, 
therefore, than that we should guard this fountain with jealous 
care. We cannot exaggerate, we cannot over-estimate the 
value of the home life. America looks to-day, not to legisla¬ 
tive enactments, nor to public organizations, but to her homes, 
as containing the bud and promise of her future glory. It will 
help us to the appreciation of these homes and their worth if we 
will consider one or two important points that are apt to be 
a little overlooked. 

The Home is the True Educator. 



There can be no greater mistake than to suppose, when a 
boy, for example, has been to school and college, and has 
passed through the various grades of these establishments, that 
he has received his education. The truth is that by the study 
of these years he has only been providing himself with the tools 
for future use and education. A young student may acquire a 
great mass of information, and yet not be educated in the true 
sense. Education is more than acquirement. A man may be 
very learned, and yet not educated. You may fill a man’s mind 
with solid masses of information, and that mind may be like a 
warehouse filled with bundles of goods, and nothing more. 
Education is a word meaning to draw out and develop. There 
is an education of the heart and of the affections as well as of 


/ 


the mind. And in this respect the ideal home becomes the 
grand, prime educator. It is a very mean and contemptible 
view of home that regards it only as a natural or convenient 
boarding-house. Thousands do so regard it, though they 
scarcely care to admit the fact. Home is not the place where 
we eat and sleep only, but where the heart and mind should be 
trained, and where every noble element of manhood should be 
developed for the future battle of life. 

The Home is a Commonwealth. 

In speaking of home as a commonwealth, it is intended to 
convey the idea that, in every properly-conditioned household, 
every member should gladly contribute to the commonwealth of 
happiness. This principle lies at the very heart of all home 
comfort. Where a parent exercises his authority like a gra¬ 
cious sovereign, and the children yield a glad and loyal obedience, 
there is sure to be a peaceful, happy home. But the joy of each 
household may be considerably enhanced by each member being 
taught that he has something to do to make the home more joy¬ 
ous. From the parents down to the youngest child, there is 
something that each one can do to gladden and beautify the 
home. It is wise to teach children, very early, that they are 
for the home , as well as the hotne for them , and that it is their 
duty, and should be their joy, to show their appreciation of 
home by adding to its brightness and increasing its delights. 
Every member of the family ought so to live in the family that 
his absence will be sorely felt—a chord missed from the music, 
a link gone from the chain. 

HOW TO DEVELOP TALENT IN THE HOME. 

There are few more important questions than this, and there 
are few questions about which there has been more blundering. 
It is not to be supposed that every household contains a brilliant 
genius ; at the same time there are very few houses that do not 
contain a good deal of latent undeveloped talent. Genius, 
like love and murder, “ will out there is always force enough 


<s 











































A 


/ 


THE HOME CIRCLE. 


343 


in true genius to push its way to the front. Genius wastes no 
fragrance on the desert air, but talent often lies hidden and 
undeveloped and unknown. There is talent enough in any 
household where the members of the family range from seven to 
twelve to make up a complete ideal society, and if the ordinary 
talent of these homes were fully developed, we should hear no 
more of “ long, dreary evenings, ” or “ dull homes, ” or “ monoto¬ 
nous lives. ” The very idea of having to go away from home for 
entertainment arises in nine cases out of ten from ignorance and 
neglect of the undeveloped resources of home. Take an ordi¬ 
nary family of seven members—father and mother and five 
children, ranging, say, from seventeen to three years old. If the 
father be what is called “ a family man, ” it is wonderful what 
methods he will devise for the entertainment and social develop¬ 
ment of his children, and it is equally wonderful what varieties 
of taste and talent these children will evince. One will play or 
sing in a style most interesting; another will draw and paint; 
another—the oldest boy perhaps—will have a taste for some 
scientific subject ; the younger members of the family—in the 
playtime of their years—will manifest even in their play the 
bent of special preferences. 

Two great ends are served by this home training of the tal¬ 
ents. The first and great end is the preparation of the youth¬ 
ful members of the household for the social obligations that 
await them on their entrance into the larger and wider experi¬ 
ence of life. The young people who have had their musical, or 
literary, or scientific talents developed at home, are in a large 
measure prepared to take their places in society with comfort 
and credit to themselves. But another and by no means unim¬ 
portant end is gained by this training of the talents of the 
household : the home itself becomes increasingly delightful. 
Everything that adds to the gladness and joy of home is a 
distinct gain. 

It is possible to make almost any home so thoroughly enjoy¬ 
able that its inmates would never think of going elsewhere for 
the mere sake of social entertainment. It is very pitiful to 
hear parents confessing that they cannot keep their children at 
home. In too many instances the home is so cheerless, and 
dull, and uninteresting, that these young people show their 
good taste by seeking a more congenial atmosphere. Peale’s 
Popular Educator is a book pre-eminently designed to aid 
in the development of those gifts and talents that, once aroused 
and set in action, will make life in the home a charm and a 
delight. 

Henry Clay said, the only way to reform was to reform, and 
perhaps the same answer might serve in this case. The only 
way to do this much-needed work for the home is just to do it, 
and to do it right away. If the father of any household is set 
on this work, the firmness of his purpose will be half the 
battle, and he will find little difficulty in devising methods the 
most appropriate for the culture and entertainment of his own 
household. Nevertheless a few hints on the subject, suggested 
by experience, may be helpful; and as a great statesman once 
said, “ One example is worth a thousand arguments, ” it will 
perhaps be best to give an illustration in full. 

In the winter of 1882-3 the snow-storms out West were 
heavy and continuous ; the family of Mr. Alexander Fielding— 
consisting of Mr. and Mrs. Fielding and the six children, Alec, 



Gertrude, Herbert, Frank, Jim and Maud—were completely 
snowed up for nearly two weeks. Happily the house, which 
was situated on the border of the prairie, and therefore subject 
to the heavy drifts, was well provisioned. There was, there¬ 
fore, no occasion for alarm, and, indeed, the novelty of the 
situation was rather amusing than otherwise, especially to the 
younger children. The days passed merrily enough, but the 
nights grew long and tedious. They grew tired of games, and 
at last a happy thought struck Alec, and he said if Gertrude 
would help him he would try and institute a series of grand 
literary and musical entertainments. To shorten a long story, 
this snowed-up family, thrown upon their own resources, were 
surprised to find what talents they possessed. Mr. and Mrs. 
Fielding fell in heartily with Alec’s scheme. They recited, and 
sang, and played charades, and had tableaux ; and so delightful 
were the nights, that when the snow melted away little Maud 
said : “It was just a shame, so it was.” 

The end of it all was, that it was determined to spend one 
night a week in a family entertainment, in which every mem¬ 
ber was to take a part. Thursday evening was the night 
appointed ; the entertainment was to take place at seven o’clock 
in the evening, and, at the suggestion of Mrs. Fielding—who 
contends that the most delightful club in the world ought to 
be the home club—it was agreed to call this happy home 
organization the Lamplight Club. Herbert, who was a 
beautiful writer, was appointed secretary, and it was his duty 
to arrange and prepare the programme. Every Thursday 
morning the programme was placed on the breakfast table. 
And in order to meet the desires of those who are anxious 
to know how the Fielding family developed their native talents 
and made home cheerful and glad, we invite the reader to 
spend 

AN EVENING WITH “THE LAMPLIGHT CLUB.” 

It was the custom for each member of the club to preface 
the reading or recitations with a few observations explanatory 
of the piece to be read or recited. We present a sample even- 
ing, with a copy of Herbert’s programme to start with : 


THE LAMPLIGHT CLUB. 


PROGRAMME. 

Thursday Evening, October 18, 1883. 


Reading— “The Soldier’s Reprieve," 
Tableau— The Babes in the Wood, 
Reading— “The Heritage,” - 
Song—“ I built a Bridge of Fancies," 
Recitation—“ Total Annihilation,” 


Mr. Alex. Fielding. 
Jimmy and Maud. 
Herbert Fielding. 

Miss Fielding. 
- Frank Fielding. 


SERVICE OF FRUIT. 

Reading— “He who Readeth Ruleth,” - 
Duet— “The Wayside Flowers,” 

Reading— “Hymn to the Night,” 


Alec Fielding. 
- Jimmy and Maud. 
Mrs. Fielding. 


Mr. Alex. Fielding, 

Chairman. 


Herbert Fielding, 

Secretary. 


The meeting, on the night in question, was held in the dining¬ 
room. Gertrude’s writing-desk was placed at the end of the 
dining-room table, and the chairs arranged in a semi-circle, so 


















































344 


THE HOME CIRCLE. 


that the reader had a full view of all the audience. On this 
particular evening there were five or six visitors present, who 
had been specially invited, in order that they might see how the 
club was managed. At 7 o’clock Mr. Fielding took his place 
at the head of the table, rang a little silver bell, and then the 
meeting proceeded according to the following order : 

Mr. Fielding —My Dear Children and Friends : Theshort 
story which I have undertaken to read to you to-night is one of 
the most pathetic little narratives I ever remember to have 
read. It records a very touching incident said to have trans¬ 
pired during the late dreadful war. It shows that a great, ten¬ 
der heart beat in the breast of Abraham Lincoln, and how just 
and wise and gentle he could be. But I want to point out one 
important thought—especially for young people—and it is 
this : the boy named Bennie in this story was a genuine hero in 
lowly life. He was only a farmer’s son, but he was worthy to 
be ranked with the noblest men the world has ever seen. You 
young people are apt to revere great heroes of the past, and it 
is right you should ; but I want you to believe that there are 
thousands of men and women and children in America to¬ 
day, many of them very poor, and some of them very sick, 
who are really as heroic as any of the great men and women 
you so much admire. And what is more important, I want 
you to feel that life may bring even to you many oppor¬ 
tunities of real heroism. And if it does, I am sure you will try 
and be what our own poet, Longfellow, calls “ Heroes in the 
Strife.” I will now read this little story, which is called: 

THE SOLDIER’S REPRIEVE. 

“ I thought, Mr. Allen, when I gave my Bennie to his country, that 
not a father in all this broad land made so precious a gift—no, not one. 
The dear boy only slept a minute, just one little minute, at his post; I 
know that was all, for Bennie never dozed over a duty. How prompt and 
reliable he was! I know he only fell asleep one little second—he was so 
young and not strong, that boy of mine. Why, he was as tall as I, and 
only 18! and now they shoot him because he was found asleep when doing 
sentinel duty. Twenty-four hours the telegram said, only twenty-four 
hours. Where is Bennie now ?” 

“We will hope with his heavenly Father,” *aid Mr. Allen, sooth¬ 
ingly. 

“ Yes, yes ; let us hope ; God is very merciful! ” 

“‘I should be ashamed, father,’ Bennie said, ‘when I am a man, to 
think I never used this great right arm ’—and he held it out so proudly 
before me—'for my country, when it needed it. Palsy it rather than 
keep at the plow.’ 

“ ‘ Go, then, go, my boy,’ I said, ‘ and God keep you ! ’ God has kept 
him, I think, Mr. Allen! ” and the farmer repeated these last words 
slowly, as if, in spite of his reason, his heart doubted them. 

“ Like the apple of His eye, Mr. Owen ; doubt it not.” 

Blossom sat near them listening, with blanched cheek. She had not 
shed a tear. Her anxiety had been so concealed that no one had noticed 
it. She had occupied herself mechanically in the household cares. Now 
she answered a gentle tap at the kitchen door, opening it to receive from 
a neighbor’s hand a letter. “ It is from him,” was all she said. 

It was like a message from the dead ! Mr. Owen took the letter, but 
could not break the envelope, on account of his trembling fingers, and 
held it toward Mr. Allen, with the helplessness of a child. 

The minister opened it and read as follows: 

“Dear Father: When this reaches you I shall be in eternity. At 
first it seemed awful to me ; but I have thought about it so much now 
that it has no terror. They say they will not bind me nor blind me, but 
that I may meet my death like a man. I thought, father, it might have 
been on the battle-field, for my country, and that when I fell it would be 
fighting gloriously ; but to be shot down like a dog for nearly betraying it 

Y -- 


—to die for neglect of duty! Oh, father,I wonder the very thought does 
not kill me! But I shall not disgrace you. I am going to write you all 
about it, and when I am gone you may tell my comrades. I cannot 
now. 

“You know I promised Jemmie Carr’s mother I would look after her 
boy ; and when he fell sick I did all I could for him. He was not strong 
when he was ordered back into the ranks, and the day before that night, 
I carried all his luggage, besides my own, on our march. Towards night 
we went in on double quick, and though the luggage began to feel very 
heavy, everybody else was tired too ; and as for Jemmie, if I had not 
lent him an arm now and then, he would have dropped by the way. I 
was all tired out when we came into camp, and then it was Jemmie’s turn 
to be sentry, and I would take his place ; but I was too tired, father. I 
could not have kept awake if a gun had been pointed at my head ; but I 
did not know it until—well, until it was too late.” 

“ God be thanked! ” interrupted Mr. Owen reverently. “ I knew Ben¬ 
nie was not the boy to sleep carelessly at his post.” 

“ They tell me to-day that I have a short reprieve, given to me by 
kindness—‘time to write to you,’ our good colonel says. Forgive him, 
father, he only does his duty ; he would gladly save me if he could : and 
do not lay my death up against Jemmie. The poor boy is heart-broken, 
and does nothing but beg and entreat them to let him die in my stead. 

“ I can’t bear to think of mother and Blossom. Comfort them, father! 
Tell them I die as a brave boy should, and that, when the war is over, 
they will not be ashamed of me, as they must be now. God help me ; it 
is very hard to bear! Good-by, father! God seems near and dear to 
me ; not at all as if He wished me to perish forever, but as if He felt 
sorry for His poor, sinful, broken-hearted child, and would take me to be 
with Him and my Savior in a better, better life.” 

A deep sigh burst from Mr. Owen’s heart. “ Amen,” he said solemnly, 
“ Amen.” 

“ To-night, in the early twilight, I shall see the cows all coming home 
from pasture, and precious little Blossom standing on the back stoop, 
waiting for me! But I shall never, never come! God bless you all! 
Forgive your poor Bennie.” 

Late that night the door of the “back stoop” opened softly, and a little 
figure glided out, and down the footpath that led to the road by the mill. 
She seemed rather flying than walking, turning her head neither to the 
right nor to the left, looking only now and then to Heaven, and folding 
her hands as if in prayer. Two hours later the same young girl stood at 
the Mill depot, watching the coming of the night train ; and the conduc¬ 
tor, as he reached down to lift her into the car, wondered at the tear- 
stained face that was upturned toward the dim lantern he held in his hand. 
A few questions and ready answers told him all ; and no father could 
have cared more tenderly for his only child, than he for our little Blos¬ 
som. She was on her way to Washington, to ask President Lincoln fot 
her brother’s life. She had stolen away, leaving only a note to tell where 
and why she had gone. She had brought Bennie’s letter with her ; no 
good, kind heart like the President’s could refuse to be melted by it. The 
next morning they reached New York, and the conductor hurried her on 
to Washington. Every minute, now, might be the means of saving her 
brother’s life. And so, in an incredibly short time, Blossom reached the 
Capital, and hastened immediately to the White House. 

The President had just seated himself to his morning task of overlook¬ 
ing and signing important papers, when, without one word of announce¬ 
ment, the door softly opened, and Blossom, with downcast eyes and 
folded hands, stood before him. 

“ Well, my child,” he said, in his pleasant, cheerful tones, “ what do you 
want so bright and early in the morning? ” 

“ Bennie’s life, please, sir,” faltered Blossom. 

“ Bennie. Who is Bennie ? ” 

“ My brother, sir. They are going to shoot him for sleeping at his 
post.” 

“Oh, yes;” and Mr. Lincoln ran his eye over the papers before him. 

“ I remember. It was a fatal sleep. You see, child, it was at a time of 
special danger. Thousands of lives might have been lost for his culpable 
negligence.” 

“ So my father said,” replied Blossom, gravely. “ But poor Bennie was 
so tired, sir, and Jemmie so weak. He did the work of two, sir, and it 



































3 




was Jemmie’s night, not his; but Jemmie was too tired, and Bennie never 
thought about himself, that he was tired, too.” 

“What is this you say, child ? Come here; I do not understand,” and 
the kind man caught eagerly, as ever, at what seemed to be a justification 
of an offence. 

Blossom went to him; he put his hand tenderly on her shoulder, and 
turned up the pale, anxious face toward his. How tall he seemed! and 
he was President of the United States, too! A dim thought of this kind 
passed for a moment through Blossom’s mind; but she told her simple and 
straightforward story, and handed Mr. Lincoln Bennie’s letter to read. 

He read it carefully; then, taking up his pen, wrote a few hasty lines, 
and rang his bell. 

Blossom heard this order given : “Send this dispatch at once.” 

The President then turned to the girl and said: “ Go home, my child, 
and tell that father of yours, who could approve his country’s sentence, 
even when it took the life of a child like that, that Abraham Lincoln thinks 
the life far too precious to be lost. Go back, or—wait until to-morrow; 
Bennie will need a change after he has so bravely faced death; he shall go 
with you.” 

“God bless you, sir,” said Blossom; and who shall doubt that God 
heard and registered the request ? 

Two days after this interview the young soldier came to the White 
House with his little sister. He was called into the President’s private 
room, and a strap fastened upon his shoulder. Mr. Lincoln then said: 
“The soldier that could carry a sick comrade’s baggage, and die for the 
act so uncomplainingly, deserves well of his country.” Then Bennie and 
Blossom took their way to their Green Mountain home. A crowd gathered 
at the Mill depot to welcome them back, and, as Farmer Owen’s hand 
grasped that of his boy, tears flowed down his cheeks, and he was heard 
to say, fervently: 

“'The Lord he J>raised!” 

At this point Jimmy and Maud retired smiling from the 
room. In a few moments, at the sound of a bell, the folding 
doors were thrown open and the tableau of “The Babes in the 
Wood” was presented. Of course a good deal was left to 
the imagination. Curtains cutely folded had to serve for a 
forest, and the grass was composed mostly of three green 
hearth-rugs. But Jimmy and Maud looked really bonny, lying 
there covered with beautiful autumn leaves, which Gertrude 
and they had gathered the day before. After the audience had 
expressed their delight at this mimic picture of the sleeping 
babes, the doors were closed and the programme was continued. 

Herbert Fielding — The short piece I am about to 
read is quite in harmony with the remarks father made at the 
beginning of the meeting. You will not be surprised that my 
selection is from the poet Lowell, for you know I think him 
to be one of the wisest and most truthful of living poets. The 
piece is called : 

THE HERITAGE. 

The rich man’s son inherits lands, 

And piles of brick and stone and gold; 

And he inherits soft, white hands, 

And tender flesh that fears the cold, 

Nor dares to wear a garment old— 

A heritage, it seems to me. 

One would not care to hold in fee. 

The rich man’s son inherits cares: 

The bank may break, the factory burn; 

Some breath may burst his bubble shares; 

And soft, white hands would hardly earn 
A living that would suit his turn— 

A heritage, it seems to me. 

One would not care to hold in fee. 


The rich man’s son inherits wants: 

, His stomach craves for dainty fare; 

With sated heart, he hears the pants 
Of toiling hinds with brown arms bare, 

And wearies in his easy-chair— 

A heritage, it seems to me, 

One would not care to hold in fee. 

What does the poor man’s son inherit? 

Stout muscles and a sinewy heart; 

A hardy frame, a hardier spirit; 

King of two hands, he does his part 
In every useful toil and art— 

A heritage, it seems to me, 

A king might wish to hold in fee. 

What does the poor man’s son inherit? 

Wishes o’erjoyed with humble things; 

A rank adjudged by toil-won merit; 

Content that from employment springs; 

A heart that at his labor sings— 

A heritage, it seems to me; 

A king might wish to hold in fee. 

What does the poor man’s son inherit? 

A patience learned by being poor; 

Courage, if sorrow comes, to bear it; 

A fellow feeling that is sure 
To make the outcast bless his door— 

A heritage, it seems to me, 

A king might wish to hold in fee. 

O rich man’s son! there is a toil 
That with all other level stands; 

Large charity doth never soil, 

But only whitens, soft, white hands; 

That is the best crop from your lands— 

A heritage, it seems to me. 

Worth being rich to hold in fee. 

O poor man’s son! scorn not thy state; 

There is worse weariness than thine, 

In merely being rich and great; 

Work only makes the soul to shine. 

And makes rest fragrant and benign— 

A heritage, it seems to me, 

Worth being poor to hold in fee. 

Both, heirs to some six feet of sod, 

Are equal in the earth at last; 

Both children of the same dear God, 

Prove title to your heirship vast. 

By record of a well-filled past— 

A heritage, it seems to me, 

Well worth a life to hold in fee. 

At this point Gertrude sang very sweetly that deservedly 
popular old song, “ I Built a Bridge of Fancies. ” It may be that 
Patti or Nilsson or Gerster might have sung it with finer exe¬ 
cution and more trills and grace notes. But Gertrude sang 
without affectation, and her audience was delighted. Frank, 
who is the humorous boy of the family, had his turn next. 

Frank Fielding —Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen : I 
think it was real kind of Mr. Secretary Herbert to invite me to 
take part in this entertainment. Though I confess when Pa was 
reading that mournful story, and you, ladies and gentlemen, were 
all in tears, I began to wish that Ma had “ put me in my little 
bed ” before this entertainment began, because the little piece I 
am about to recite is not of the melancholy kind. The subject, 


A] 


V 


i 







































THE HOME CIRCLE. 


V 

346 


as you will see by the programme, is “ Total Annihilation.” I 
have heard Pa and the minister talk a good deal about the sub¬ 
ject. I think I have heard Pa say that he could not imagine 
such a thing as total annihilation. Well, perhaps not; but I 
hope he will not be angry with me if I give him an example of 
that awful doctrine. So, “ by your gracious patience,” as Mr. 
Othello remarked, “ I will a round, unvarnished tale deliver, ” 
of— 

TOTAL ANNIHILATION. 

Oh, he was a Bowery bootblack bold, 

And his years they numbered nine ; 

Rough and unpolished was he, albeit 
He constantly aimed to shine. 

As proud as a king on his box he sat, 

Munching an apple red, 

While the boys of his set looked wistfully on, 

And “ Give us a bite ! ” they said. 

But the bootblack smiled a lordly smile ; 

“ No free bites here ! ” he cried, 

And the boys they sadly walked away, 

Save one who stood at his side. 

“ Bill, give us the core,” he whispered low. 

That bootblack smiled once more, 

And a mischievous dimple grew in his cheek— 

“ There ain’t goin’ to be no core ! 

At this point Maud and Jimmy handed round plates of fruit 
in quite a graceful manner, and after a few moments’ inter¬ 
mission the programme was resumed. 

Alec Fielding —The piece I am about to read is very 
brief, but I think very beautiful. I found it in a copy of an 
old English newspaper of the year 1865. The writer sets forth 
in most eloquent terms the wealth of mind resulting from the 
study of literature. And I am sure you will all agree with me, 
that our experience as members of our Lamplight Club has 
taught us that there are mines of more than golden treasure in 
the books to which our attention has been called since this 
club was formed. Let me now read to you this eloquent 
passage. 

“HE WHO READETH RULETH.” 

There is an old Italian proverb which says, Chi legge regge —“ he who 
readeth ruleth.” Not always, perhaps, over a kingdom of this world ; 
although, when action joins with study in a rich and vigorous nature, the 
world obeys the thought, word or deed of an educated king. But chi 
legge regge in another sense, too ; the bookworm is the monarch of a 
shadowy realm. Think of what he is master when, one by one, he has 
furnished himself with those golden keys to his palace chambers, which 
we name the languages. He does not dangle them at his girdle in what 
is called conversation ; it was for his brain, and not his tongue, that he 
hung them one by one upon his memory. And you call him shy, distrait, 
stupid ; but look what company he keeps, and judge if the real bookworm 
can descend to modern manners at any given moment He unlocks the 
Greek chamber, and Plato comes forth to tell him in stately Attic how 
Socrates died, when the chill of the hemlock cup mounted to his heart, 
and they covered up that divine smile upon his face. He unlocks his 
Latin gallery, and Cicero thunders in the Senate, or Horace braids the 
roses in Pyrrha’s hair, or Tacitus talks State with him in stern, condensed 
sentences. Or he turns the jewelled key of the Oriental courts, and the 
kings of the Solar and Lunar dynasties are his companions. Old, old 
civilizations live for him again ; the Pandhara Princes fight under his 
eyes ; he talks Buddhism with Gautama ; he hears the elder Gods explain 

/ 


themselves ; he knows the secrets of Zoroaster ; he looks in at the palaces 
of Assyria ; he walks Bagdad with Haroun-al-Raschid, and sails the 
Indian Sea with Sinbad. Pan is not dead for him, nor Aphrodite, nor 
Pallas ; and those eternal granite gods of old Nile say to him : “ Who 
readeth ruleth ! read the meaning of our immortal calm, and rule the 
kingdom of thy mind in majesty and contentment.” Nor are modern 
times less his : he turns the silver Italian key, and Chi legge regge is true 
in its own tone. He is free of Heaven and Hell with Dante, soars to the 
moon with Ariosto and Astolfo, reads Laura’s sonnets over her graceful 
shoulder ; can go into Armida’s garden when he likes, or loll at Fiesole 
with Boccaccio, laugh with Cervantes, make love with Camoens, look right 
through man’s heart with Goethe, launch into infinite mental space with 
Kant and Hegel, or come back and scoff with melancholy Heinrich Heine, 
and then let Emerson re-gild the worn world with his wise optimisms. 
This is the society the real bookworm keeps. Stupid did we call him? 
He has come out of kings’ treasuries and queens’ gardens, and the glitter 
and the glory are in his eyes ; our owl-light embarrasses him. 

Jimmy and Maud now played their duet, after which Mrs. 
Fielding read, in a quiet, gentle voice, Longfellow’s beautiful 
“ Hymn to the Night. ” 

The silver bell sounded once more, and the session of the 
Lamplight Club was ended. 

An Important Question Answered. 

The reader will be sure to ask a question at this point : 
“ How can these meetings for home culture be conducted for 
any length of time without becoming monotonous ? ” The 
answer to that question is not difficult. In the first place, let 
the secretary look ahead and arrange for the utmost variety in 
the character of the meetings. Let science and art, as well as 
music and literature, have a place. The materials for this cul¬ 
ture are most abundant; the only thing required is diligence in 
search and judgment in selection. All the world of literature 
is open for such purposes. Current events are often very ap¬ 
propriate material. But there is no better aid in the world for 
such purposes than 

Peale’s Popular Educator. 

This valuable work is a library of the most important 
information in one volume, and contains material enough to 
carry on a Lamplight Club perpetually. The subjects of 
which it treats are those upon which young people require 
most to be educated, and just the subjects to be made most 
interesting to a family bent on mutual culture. Beside a judi¬ 
ciously selected list of themes for essays and debates, its general 
departments afford ample material for the most exhaustive 
treatment. As, for example, the Biographical Dictionary 
will furnish the data for many brief biographical sketches ; the 
Panorama of History will give invaluable help in the arrange¬ 
ment of historical essays, and especially the table of contempo¬ 
raneous history, which is perfectly unique ; the chapters on 
Success in Life, on Physiology, on Medicine, on Architecture, 
on Etiquette, on Poetry, on Heroes and Heroines, form 
rich material for household culture. There are, moreover, 
an enormous number of statistics which might be wisely 
used. There is a “ poetry in figures, ” if we wisely use them, 
and never was the subject of statistics better dealt with than 
in this book. In a word, Peale’s Popular Educator 
was designed entirely with a view to aid the home education of 
the times. 

































THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 


347 





THE ORIGIN 

——iOF 2——■ 

I?H^ENOIiOGY. 


Franz Joseph Gall, born at Tie- 
fenbrunn, in Baden, March 9, 1758, 
was the first to mark the separate functions of the human 
mind and trace the location of the respective organs in the 
human brain. After studying the natural sciences at Strasburg, 
he graduated as a physician at Vienna in 1785. practicing there 
for many years. As a boy he had observed that among his 
schoolmates good memories were invariably indicated by large 

£ 


eyes, and from this he conceived the idea that individual char¬ 
acteristics could be determined by external signs. The result 
of long-continued observation in schools, prisons, lunatic asy¬ 
lums and other places was the conviction that the brain, and 
not the heart, was the seat of all mental manifestations. After 

twenty years of study he decided 
the location of some twenty distinct 
mental organs and satisfied himself 
that their degree of activity could be 
determined from the shape of the 
skull. In 1791 he published “Medi¬ 
cal and Philosophical Researches 
on Nature and Art,” and in 1796 
he began lecturing in Vienna on his 
novel theories, creating a marked 
sensation. In 1802 his lectures 
were prohibited by the Austrian 
government as dangerous to religion, 
but in company with Johann Gaspar 
Spurzheim, he made considerable 
headway in Central and Northern 
Europe. His principal work is 
entitled, “ The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System 
and of the Brain.” 


MEASUREMENT OF THE HEAD. 

Other things being equal, the size of the head, and of the brain, the differ¬ 
ent portions of which are called organs, and classified according to their par- 


HE science of Phrenology is based on the 
theory that the faculties of the mind are 
shown on the surface of the human skull. 
It points out those connections and rela¬ 
tions which exist between the 
conditions and developments 
of the brain and the mani- 
I festations of the mind, dis¬ 
covering each from an obser¬ 
vation of the other. 




n 


FRANZ JOSEPH GALL. 




• N 


" 7r E 


















































































THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 



ticular functions, constitutes the principal phrenological condition by which 
character is determined. Most great men have had great heads. Webster’s 
head measured a little more than 24 inches, and Clay’s considerably over 23. 
Napoleon’s reached nearly 24. Hamilton’s hat passed over the ears of a 
man whose head measured 23^. Burke’s head was very large; so was 
Jefferson’s, while Franklin's hat passed over the ears of a 24-inch head. 
Small and average heads often astonish us by their brilliancy and learning, 
and perhaps eloquence, yet fail in that commanding greatness which im¬ 
presses and sways. 

The general rule laid down for head-measurement of adults is as follows : 
The smallest size compatible with fair talents, 205^ ; moderate, 20% to 
; average, 21 to 22 ; full, 22 to 22% ; large, 22 to 23^ ; very large, 
above 23^. Female heads J 4 to % below these averages; but as some 
heads are round, others long, some low and others high, these measure¬ 
ments cannot be depended upon to carry any 
accurate idea of the actual quantity of brain. 

In judging of the manifestations of 
the mind, the activity of the brain is 
a consideration quite as important as 
its size. While size gives 
power or momentum of 
intellect and feeling, activi¬ 
ty imparts quickness, 
intensity, willingness 
and even a restless 
desire to act, which 
go far to produce 
efficiency of mind, 
with accompanying 
effort and action. 

Under the heads of 
size, given below, the 
effects of the different 
degrees of activity 
are presented. 

Very Large. One 

having a very large 
head, with activity 
average or full, 
on great occasions, or 
when his powers are 
thoroughly roused, 
will be truly great, but 
ordinarily will sel¬ 
dom manifest any remarkable 
amount ofmind or feeling, and 
perhaps pass through life with 
the credit of being a person 
of good natural abilities and judgment, 
yet nothing more. With activity great, 
strength, and the intellectual organs the same, will 
be a natural genius, endowed with very superior 
powers of mind and vigor of intellect; and even 
though deprived of the advantages of education, his natural talents will sur¬ 
mount all obstacles. With activity very great, and the organs of practical 
intellect and of the propelling powers large or very large, will possess the first 
order of natural abilities, manifest a clearness and force of intellect that will 
astonish the world, and a power of feeling that will carry all before him, and, 
with proper cultivation, enable him to become alright star in the firmament 
of intellectual greatness; his mental enjoyments will be most exquisite, and 
his sufferings equally excruciating. 

Large. One having a large-sized brain, with activity average, will 
possess considerable energy of intellect and feeling, yet seldom manifest it 
unless it is brought out by some powerful stimulus. With activity full, will 
be endowed with an uncommon amount of the mental power, and be capable 
of doing a great deal, yet require considerable to awaken him to that vigor¬ 
ous effort of mind of which he is capable. If the perceptive faculties are 
strong or very strong, and his natural powers put in vigorous requisition, he 


mg 


will manifest a vigor and energy of intellect and feeling quite above medioc¬ 
rity. With activity great or very great, will exercise a commanding influ¬ 
ence over those minds with which he comes in contact; when he enjoys, will 
enjoy intensely, and when he suffers, suffer equally so ; be susceptible of 
strong excitement, and with the organs of the propelling powers and of 
practical intellect large or very large, will possess all the mental capabilities 
for conducting a large business, for rising to eminence, if not to pre¬ 
eminence, and discover great force of character and power of intellect and 
feeling. With activity moderate, when powerfully excited, will evince con¬ 
siderable energy of intellect and feeling, yet be too indolent and too sluggish 
to do much ; lack clearness and force of idea and intensity of feeling; un¬ 
less literally driven to it, will not be likely to be much or do much, and yet 
actually possess more vigor of mind and energy of feeling than he will mani¬ 
fest. With activity small, will border oh idiocy. 

Full. One having a full-sized brain, with activity great or very great, 
with the organs of practical intellect and of the 
propelling powers large or very large, although 
he will not possess greatness of intel¬ 
lect, nor a deep, strong mind, will be 
very clever; have consider¬ 
able talent, and that so dis¬ 
tributed that it will show to 
be more than it really is; 

is capable of being 
a good scholar, doing 
a fine business, and 
with advantages and 
application, of dis¬ 
tinguishing himself 
somewhat, yet he is 
inadequate to a great 
undertaking, can not 
sway an extensive in¬ 
fluence, nor be really 
great. With activi¬ 
ty full or average, 
will do only tolera¬ 
bly well, and mani¬ 
fest only a common 
share of talents. With 
activity moderate or 
small, will neither 
be nor do much 
worthy of notice. 
Average. Onehav- 
an average-sized brain, 
with activity only average, 
will discover only an ordinary 
amount of intellect; be inade¬ 
quate to an important undertaking, 
yet, in a small sphere, or one that 
requires only a mechanical routine 
of business, may do well. With activity 
great or very great, and the organs of the 
propelling powers and of practical intellect 
large or very large, is capable of doing a fair business and may pass for a 
man of some talent. With moderate or small activity, will hardly have 
common sense. 

Moderate. One with a head of only moderate size, combined with 
great or very great activity, and the organs of the propelling powers and 
of practical intellect, large, will possess a tolerable share of intellect. With 
others to plan for and direct him, will execute to advantage, yet be un¬ 
able to do much alone. Will have a very active mind, and be quick of 
perception, yet, after all, lack momentum both of mind and character. 
With activity only average or /air, will have but a moderate amount of 
intellect. With activity moderate or small, will be an idiot. 

Small or Very Small. One with a very small head, no matter what 
may be the activity of his mind, will be incapable of intellectual effort, 
of comprehending even easy subjects, or of experiencing much pain or 
pleasure ; in short, will be a natural fool. 


<5 

















































THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 


349 


IDLENESS. 


DISSIPATION. 


WRECK. 


VVVT^ 


frvv 


. ■ '5 


HE illustrations on this page are intended to 
show the effects of training and circumstances 
and different modes of life upon the human 
countenance. Although the inheritance at birth 
of a sound constitution, well-balanced mental 
organization and favorable temperament are most impor¬ 
tant factors in shaping character, yet the possessor of all 
these natural endowments may so pursue the path of life 
that the close will find him a miserable wretch, to go 
from beggary and vice to an unhonored grave. On the 
contrary, education and moral training can atone for the 
lack of natural advantages, and make of a less favored 
child a useful and honored citizen. The human face has 
in it something expressive of that which enters into 
and constitutes the character of a man, and on it are 
written, by an unseen hand, but in indelible lines which 
all may read, the records of life’s history. 

Who can divine, on looking at the head and face of the 
child represented above, what that young intelligence will 
become in the future of his life ? Look at the eye, nose 
and mouth of the boy at school, and you will not fail to 
perceive, from the very contour of the countenance, that 
his destiny depends on the influences by which he may be 
surrounded. 

In the one instance you see him choosing his profes¬ 
sion and contemplating a settlement in life, wedding 
himself to a virtuous, loving and devoted woman, and in 
course of time becoming surrounded by a loving family ; 
in the other you see the man emerging from the scenes of 
brutal intoxication to plunge into deeper, darker vices, 
until life becomes a burden, and he goes down to the 
grave unlamented and unwept. How different this from 
the career of the man whose happiest days are spent in 
the bosom of his loving family, and who grows old amid 
the most genial influences, honored, revered, beloved; 
who goes down to his last resting-place amid the prayers 
and tears of those he loved, cheered by the hope of a 
happy reunion in a world where life is perfect and joy 
complete. 


INDUSTRY AND STUDY. 


HONORABLE SUCCESS. 





















































350 


THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 


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Physiognomy, or Face-Reading. 


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BBSS 



-PHRENOLOGISTS do not claim that the system in 
\Y*Jh) which they believe is perfect, but that they have 
demonstrated the following facts beyond question: 

That the brain is the organ through which the mind 
manifests itself, and that each faculty of the mind 
has a separate and distinct organ in the brain; that the 
organs relating to each other are grouped together in the 
brain; that, other things being equal, the power of the brain 
may be estimated by its size ; that the manifestations of 
brain are affected by the 
bodily conditions ; that every 
faculty of the mind is devised 
for a good purpose, and that 
every faculty maybe enlarged 
and cultivated by exercise, or 
may be lessened by neglect. 

While differences of opinion 
may exist as to the right 
which Phrenology has to be 
considered one of the exact 
sciences, all mankind tacitly 
acknowledges the fact that 

the face is a reliable reflex of fig. i. the grades of intelligence 

the mind and character. Upon meeting a stranger we instinct¬ 
ively scan his face to learn whether we will like or dislike 
him. Our judgment is instantaneous, the impression being 
favorable or unfavorable. To what instinct or fact do we 
ascribe this? We of course judge by the expression of the 
face—in other words, by the physiognomy. This unfailing 



index tells whether he is intellectual 
or dull, kind or brutish, strong or 
weak of mind. 

Beyond and outside of all physical 
characteristics, it is claimed that the 
mental peculiarities of the individual 
\ i\ - - can seen anc ^ known in the tone 

i/J X. of the voice, the rapidity of speech, 

•ti. ^ f'J the sprightliness of motion, the grasp 

of the hand, etc. 

The five faces given above, in 
Figure x, illustrate the various grades 
of intelligence. 

The face at the left is easily recog¬ 
nized as one of intellectual vigor. 
The one to the right, with its thick lips and retreating chin 
and forehead, bears all the evidence of intellectual feeble¬ 
ness. The intervening faces represent the gradations from 
a high to a low state of intelligence, and our opinion as 
to the relative intellectuality of these five faces is instan¬ 



FIG. 3. 


taneously formed by the shape of the head, the nose, the 
chin and the lips. 

In the next illustrations are contrasted a pair of faces whose 
features and expression exemplify boldly the theory of 
physiognomy. Figure 2, with its straight, darting, frank 
eye, its intellectual Grecian nose, forehead which bears the 
stamp of strong perceptive faculty, firm closed lips and res¬ 
olute chin, at once impresses the beholder with the presence 
of a person of strong and clearly defined characteristics, which 

have been improved by culti¬ 
vation. Figure 3, on the other 
hand, bears all the evidences 
of vulgarity and ignorance, 
un tempered by culture’s 
softening influences. The 
smoothly rounded and re¬ 
treating brow, the small and 
sunken eye, the coarse, mis¬ 
shapen nose, thick and sen¬ 
suous lips, and weak, reced¬ 
ing chin, indicate at a glance 
a nature which is strong only 
in vulgar and vicious pro¬ 
pensities, and lacking almost entirely the intellectual and 
moral power to restrain them. 




THE TEMPERAMENTS. 



One of the arguments frequently used against the claim that 
mental ability can be determined by 
the size of the brain is the fact that 
men with small heads often accom¬ 
plish more than those who have heads 
and bodies of much greater size. 

The reply of phrenologists to this 
is that there are four temperaments, 
viz.: the Lymphatic , the Sanguine , 
the Bilious and the Nervous; and 
that every person possesses more or 
less of these in his physical consti¬ 
tution. 

The Lymphatic. 

The Lymphatic temperament is FIG> 2 

indicated by the predominance of stomach, which makes 
roundness of form, softness of flesh, a weak pulse and a 
languid condition of the system. With such the hair is light, 
complexion pale, eyes blue and dull. 


























































The Motive temperament, cor¬ 
responding to the Bilious, has a 
strong, bony system, an abund¬ 
ance of muscle, dark, wiry hair, 
dark eyes, rough, prominent fea¬ 
tures, dark complexion and great 
executive force. The Motive 
temperament, in its influence on 
mental manifestation, is favorable 
to dignity, sternness, determi¬ 
nation, power of will and desire 
to govern and control others. 
It gives slowness of passion, 
desire for heavy labor or large 
business, and a liability to mias¬ 
matic diseases. 

The Yital. 

The Vital temperament is 
evinced by large lungs, a power¬ 
ful circulatory system, and large 






The Sanguine. 

The Sanguine temperament largely depends upon a pre¬ 
ponderance of the arterial system. He who possesses it will 
have light hair and blue eyes, will be 
fairly rounded in muscle, will be ardent, 
active and enthusiastic. 


The Bilious. 

With the Bilious temperament the liver 
is taken as the basis. This is indicated by 
black eyes and hair, a dark and tawny skin, 
solid and spare flesh, angular form, great 
energy and activity, and, if coupled with 
superior mental development, large power. 

The Nervous. 

The Nervous temperament rests upon 
a preponderance of the nervous system. 

Those possessing it are known by their 
delicacy of health, thin and angular fea¬ 
tures, light, thin hair, rapid 
movements and mental ac¬ 
tivity. 

COMBINATION OF 
TEMPERAMENTS. 

Fortunately these temper¬ 
aments are generally found 
blended more or less with 
each other, and out of the 
combination phrenologists 
designate another class of 
temperaments called the 
Motive, the Vital and the 
Mental. 

The Motive. 


DANIEL 


BSTER 


VITA 


MME. DE STAEL—A PERFECT UNION AND BALANCE 
OF THE TEMPERAMENTS. 


digestive and assimilating organs, abundance of blood and 
animal spirits. The form is plump and limbs rounded and 
tapering, the complexion light or florid, with an inclination 
to take on flesh as age advances. This 
temperament is a combination of the 
Sanguine and the Lymphatic, as set forth 
by Combe and other writers; but as the 
digestive and assimilating organs, which 
constitute the Lymphatic temperament, 
together with the respiratory and circu¬ 
latory systems, which constitute the San¬ 
guine temperament, are really vital organs, 
their combination into one, under the name 
of Vital temperament, is both convenient 
and philosophical. 

The Mental. 

The Mental temperament depends on 
the development of the brain and nervous 
system, and is indicated by 
mental activity, light frame, 
thin skin, fine hair, delicate 
features, and large brain as 
compared with the body. 

It imparts sensitiveness and 
vivacity to the mind, a dis¬ 
position to think, study, or 
follow some light and deli¬ 
cate business. 

The structures which, in 
excess or great predomi¬ 
nance, determine these tem¬ 
peraments, exist in each 

individual. In one person one 
temperament may predominate; 
in the next, another. They can 
be modified by proper training. 
When combined, they give har¬ 
mony of character and excellent 
health. 


There are still other condi¬ 
tions upon which the phrenolo¬ 
gist rests his case, without which 
he admits the mental power of 
the individual cannot be deter¬ 
mined. It is claimed, for in¬ 
stance, that a loose and flabby 
flesh reveals a soft and spongy 
brain, and that a close-knit 
frame and firm flesh show in¬ 
tellectual power. Then, again, 
the state of the health must be 
taken into consideration. In 
perfect health the brain is strong. 




The Brain. 

















































& 



F)0W TO I^EAD (§HAI^AGTEI^. 14*^#- 


A SYNOPSIS OF THE VARIOUS ORGANS OF THE BRAIN. 





m$h¥ 


T is only by a careful study of all the organs in combination 
that one may come to understand the various mental char¬ 
acteristics as shown by Phrenology. The accompanying 
diagrams give the exact location of the organs, and through 
< * 3 P' the kindness of Messrs. Fowler & Wells we are enabled to 
give on the following pages a brief description of them, accom¬ 
panied by an explanation 
of their influence on the 
character as determined 
by their size. 

1:* Amativeness. 

Reciprocal attachment 
and love of the sexes. 

Very large, experiences 
a power and activity of 
sexual love almost un¬ 
controllable. Large, is 
an ardent admirer and 
tender lover of the other 
sex ; feels strong sexual 
impulses, desire to marry, 
etc. Full, feels much 
love and tenderness for 
the opposite sex; yet, 
with activity great, has 
excitability rather than 
power. Average, loves 
the other sex, and enjoys 
their society well. Mod¬ 
erate, is rather deficient 
in sexual love, attentions 
to the opposite sex, etc. 

Small, feels little sexual 
or connubial love, or 
desire to marry. Very 
small, seldom or never 
experiences this feeling. 

2. Philoprogeni- 
tiveness. 

Parental attachment; 



FIG. 4. THE PHRENOLOGICAL ORGANS SYMBOLICALLY ILLUSTRATED. 

The above chart shows the location of the phrenological organs, and in the field of 
each organ its character is symbolically illustrated. Thus Firmness is indicated by the 
stability of the pyramid and the obstinacy of the mule, or the man who is contending 
with him; V<:neration, by the attitude of prayer, and the courtesy of the boy toward 
old age ; Benevolence , by the Good Samaritan ; Cautiousness, by the frightened hen that 
fears detriment to her chicks; Secretiveness, by the fox ; Acquisitiveness, by the miser, 
etc. These symbols are intended to make vivid the impression and thus help the memory. 


love of one’s offspring. 

Very large, is passionately fond of all children; a general 
favorite with them; idolizes his own children; is liable to over¬ 
indulge them. Large, feels strong, tender parental love; is 
devotedly attached, and very kind to his own if not all children. 


Full, is tender, but not indulgent; fond of his own children, 
yet not partial to others. Average, loves his own children, 
yet not fondly; dislikes those of others. Moderate, loves his 
own children some, yet bears little from them. Small, feels 
little interest in even his own children. Very small, has no 
parental love; hates all children. 

3. Adhesiveness. 

Friendship; social feel¬ 
ing; love of society. Very 
large, loves friends with 
indescribable tenderness 
and strength of feeling; 
will sacrificealmostevery- 
thing upon the altar of 
friendship. Large, is 
eminently social; an ar¬ 
dent, sincere friend ; en¬ 
joys friendly society ex¬ 
tremely ; forms strong if 
not hasty attachments. 
Full, is highly social, 
yet not remarkably warm¬ 
hearted. Average, is 
quite friendly, yet will 
not sacrifice much for 
friends. Moderate, loves 
friends some, yet self 
more ; quits friends often. 
Small, is unsocial, cold- 
hearted; likes and is liked 
by few or none.' Very 
small, is a stranger to 
friendly social feeling. 

A. Conjugality. 

Monogamy, union for 
life, first love, the pairing 
instinct. Very large, se¬ 
lects some one of the op¬ 
posite sex as the sole 
object of love; concen¬ 


trates the whole soul on 
the single one beloved, magnifying excellences and overlooking 
faults; longs to be always with that one; is exclusive, and requires 
a like exclusiveness; is true and faithful in wedlock, if married 
in spirit. Large, seeks one, and but one, sexual mate, and 


s 


* The numbers refer to Fig. 5. 














































THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 


353 


feels perfectly satisfied in the society of that one. Full, can love 
cordially, yet is capable of changing the object. Average, 
is disposed to love but one for life, yet, with secretiveness and 
approbativeness large, and conscientiousness only full, is capa¬ 
ble of coquetry. Moderate, is somewhat disposed to love 
only one, yet allows stronger faculties to interrupt that love. 
Small, has but little conjugal love and seeks the promiscuous 
society and affection of the opposite sex, rather than a single 
partner for life. Very small, manifests none of this faculty. 

4. Inhabitiveness. 

Love of home as such; attachment to the place where one 
has lived; unwillingness to change it; patriotism. Very large, 
regards home as the dearest, sweetest spot on earth; feels 
homesick when away; dislikes changing residences; is pre¬ 
eminently patriotic; thinks of his native place with intense in¬ 
terest. Large, soon becomes strongly attached to the place in 
which he lives; loves home and country dearly; leaves them 
reluctantly; is unhappy without a home of his own. Full, 
loves home well, yet does not grieve much on leaving it. 
Average, forms some, though not strong, local attachments. 
Moderate, has some, but not great, regard for home as such. 
Small or very small, makes any place home. 

5. Concentrativeness. 

Unity and continuity of thought and feeling; power of entire 
and concentrated application to one thing. Very large, places 
his mind upon subjects slowly; cannot leave them unfinished, 
nor attend to more than one thing at once; is very tedious; has 
great application, yet lacks intensity and point. Large, is 
able and inclined to apply his mind to one, and but one, subject 
for the time being, till it is finished; changes his mental opera¬ 
tions with difficulty; is often prolix. Full, is disposed to 
attend to but one thing at once, yet can turn rapidly from thing 
to thing; is neither disconnected nor prolix. Average, pos¬ 
sesses this power to some, though to no great, extent. Moder¬ 
ate, loves and indulges variety and change of thought, feeling, 
occupation, etc.; is not confused by them ; rather lacks applica¬ 
tion ; has intensity, but not unity, of the mental action. Small, 
craves novelty and variety; has little application; thinks and 
feels intensely, yet not long on anything; jumps rapidly from 
premise to conclusion ; fails to connect and carry out his ideas. 
Very small, is satisfied only with constant succession. 

E. Vitativeness. 

Love of existence as such; dread of annihilation. Very 
large, however wretched, shrinks from and shudders at the 
thought of dying and being dead ; feels that he cannot give up 
existence. Large, loves and clings tenaciously to existence 
for its own sake; craves immortality and dreads annihilation, 
even though miserable. Full, desires life, but not eagerly, 
from love of it and of pleasure. Average, is attached to life 
and fears death, yet not a great deal. Moderate, loves life, 
yet is not very anxious about living. Small or very small, 
heeds not life or death, existence or annihilation. 

6. Combativeness. 

Feeling of resistance, defence, opposition, boldness, willing¬ 
ness to encounter, courage, resentment, spirit. Very large, is 


powerful in opposition, prone to dispute, attack, etc.; contrary; 
has violent temper, governs it with difficulty. Large, is res¬ 
olute and courageous, spirited and efficient as an opponent, 
quick and intrepid in resistance, loves debate, boldly meets, if 
he does not court, opposition. Full, seldom either courts or 
shrinks from opposition ; when roused, is quite energetic; may 
be quick-tempered, yet is not contentious. Average, is pacific, 
but when driven to it, defends his rights boldly. Moderate, 
avoids collision; is rather pacific and inefficient. Small, has 
feeble resistance, temper, force, etc.; is cowardly. Very 
small, withstands nothing; is chicken-hearted, an arrant 
coward. 

7. Destructiveness. 

Executiveness, indignation, force, severity, sternness; a 
destroying, pain-causing disposition. Very large, when pro¬ 
voked, is vindictive, cruel, disposed to hurt, take revenge, etc.; 
bitter and implacable as an enemy; very forcible. Large, when 
excited, feels deep-toned indignation ; is forcible, and disposed 
to subdue or destroy the cause of his displeasure. Full, can, 
but is loth to, cause or witness pain or death; has sufficient 
severity, yet requires considerable to call it out. Average, has 
not really deficient, yet none too much, indignation. Moderate, 
is mild, not severe or destructive enough; when angry, lacks 
power; can hardly cause or witness pain or death. Small, 
would hardly hurt one if he could, or could if he w r ould; 
has so feeble anger that it is derided more than feared. 
Very small, is unable to cause, witness or endure pain or 
death. 

8. Alimentiveness. 

Appetite for sustenance; cause of hunger. Very large, 
sets too much by the indulgence of his palate; eats with the 
keenest appetite; perhaps “ makes a god of his belly.” Large, 
has an excellent appetite, a hearty relish for food, drink, etc.; 
enjoys them much; is a good liver; not dainty. Full, has 
a good appetite, yet can govern it; is not greedy. Average, 
enjoys food well, but not very well; hence is particular. 
Moderate, has not a good, nor very poor, but rather poor, 
appetite. Small or very small, is dainty, mincing, particu¬ 
lar about food: eats with little relish. 

9. Acquisitiveness. 

Love of acquiring and possessing property as such ; desire to 
save, lay up, etc.; innate feeling of mine and thine, of a right 
to possess and dispose of things. Very large, makes money 
his idol; grudges it; is tempted to get it dishonestly; penurious, 
sordid, covetous, etc. Large, has a strong desire to acquire 
property ; is frugal, saving of money, close and particular in his 
dealings, devoted to money-making, trading, etc.; generally 
gets the value of his money. Full, values property, both for 
itself and what it procures, yet is not penurious; is industrious 
and saving, yet supplies his wants. Average, loves money, 
but not greatly; can make it, but spends freely. Moderate, 
finds it more difficult to keep than to make money; desires it 
more to supply wants than to lay up; is hardly saving enough. 
Small, will spend money injudiciously; lays up little; disre¬ 
gards the prices of things. Very small, cannot be taught the 
value or use of money. 

























THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 


\ 

354 


10. Secretiveness. 

Desire and ability to secrete, conceal, etc. Very large, 
seldom appears what he is, or says what he means; often equiv¬ 
ocates and deceives; is mysterious, dark, cunning, artful, given 
to double-dealing, eye-service, etc. Large, seldom discloses 
his plans, opinions, etc.; is hard to be found out; reserved; 
non-committal. Full, can keep to himself what he wishes to, 
yet is not cunning. Average, is not artful nor very frank; is 
generally open ; can conceal. Moderate, is quite candid and 
open-hearted; loves truth; dislikes concealment, underhand 
measures, etc.; seldom employs them. Small, speaks out 
just what he thinks; acts as he feels; does not wish to learn or 
tell the secrets of others, yet freely tells his own ; is too plain- 
spoken and candid. Very small, has a transparent heart. 

11. Cautiousness. 

Carefulness; provision against danger. Very large, hesi¬ 
tates too much; suffers greatly from groundless fears; is timid, 
easily frightened, etc. Large, is always watchful; on the look¬ 
out ; careful, anxious, solicitous; provident against real and 
imaginary danger, etc. Full, has prudence and forethought, 
yet not too much. Average, has some caution, yet hardly 
enough for success. Moderate, is rather imprudent, hence 
unlucky; liable to misfortunes caused by carelessness; plans 
too imperfectly for action. Small, acts impromptu ; disregards 
consequences; fears nothing; is imprudent, luckless, often in 
hot water. Very small, is destitute of fear and forethought. 

12. Approbativeness. 

Sense of honor; regard for character; ambition; love of 
popularity, fame, distinction, etc. Very large, regards his 
honor and character as the apple of his eye; is even morbidly 
sensitive to praise and censure; over-fond of show, fashion, 
praise, style, etc.; extremely polite, ceremonious, etc. Large, 
sets everything by character, honor, etc.; is keenly alive to the 
frowns and smiles of public opinion, praise, etc.; tries to show 
off to good advantage ; is affable, ambitious, apt to praise himself. 
Full, desires and seeks popularity and feels censure, yet will 
neither deny nor trouble himself to secure or avoid either. 
Average, enjoys approbation, yet will not sicnfice much to 
obtain it. Moderate, feels reproach some, yet is little affected 
by popularity or unpopularity ; may gather the flowers of applause 
that are strewed in his path, yet will not deviate from it to col¬ 
lect them. Small, cares little for popular frowns or favors; feels 
little shame; disregards and despises fashions, etiquette, etc.; is 
not polite. Very small, cares nothing for popular favor. 

13. Self-Esteem. 

Self-respect; high-toned, manly feeling; innate love of per¬ 
sonal liberty, independence, etc.; pride of character. Very 
large, has unbounded self-confidence; endures no restraint; 
takes no advice; is rather haughty, imperious, etc. Large, is 
high-minded, independent, self-confident, dignified, his own 
master; aspires to be and do something worthy of himself; 
assumes responsibilities ; does few little things. Full, has much 
self-respect; pride of character; independence. Average, 
respects himself, yet is not haughty. Moderate, has some self- 
respect and manly feeling, yet too little to give ease, dignity, 


weight of character, etc.; is too trifling. Small, lets himself 
down; says and does trifling things ; associates with inferiors; 
is not looked up to ; lacks independence. Very small, is ser¬ 
vile, low-minded, destitute of self-respect. 

14. Firmness. 

Decision, stability, fixedness of character, etc. Very large, 
is wilful, and so tenacious and unchangeable of opinion, pur¬ 
pose, etc., that he seldom gives up anything. Large, may be 
fully relied on; is set in his own way ; hard to be convinced or 
changed at all; holds on long and hard. Full, has persever¬ 
ance enough for ordinary occasions, yet too little for great 
enterprises; is neither fickle nor stubborn. Average, has some 
decision, yet too little for general success. Moderate, gives over 
too soon; changes too often and too easily ; thus fails to effect 
what greater firmness would do. Small or very small, lacks 
perseverance; is too changeable to be relied upon. 

15. Conscientiousness. 

Innate feeling of duty, accountability, justice, right, etc.; moral 
principle; love of truth. Very large, is scrupulously exact in 
matters of right; perfectly honest in motive ; always condemn¬ 
ing self and repenting; makes duty everything, expediency 
nothing. Large, is honest; faithful; upright at heart; moral 
in feeling; grateful; penitent; means well; consults duty 
before expediency; loves, and means to speak, the truth; cannot 
tolerate wrong. Full, strives to do right, yet sometimes yields 
to temptation; resists besetting sins, but may be overcome, and 
then feels remorse. Average, has right intentions, but their 
influence is limited. Moderate, has considerable regard for 
duty in feeling, but less in practice; justifies himself; is not very 
penitent, grateful or forgiving; often temporizes with principle; 
sometimes lets interest rule duty. Small, has few conscientious 
scruples; little regard for moral principle, justice, duty, etc. 
Very small, does not feel the claims of duty or justice. 

16. Hope. 

Anticipation; expectation of future happiness, success, etc. 
Very large, has unbounded hopes; builds castles in the air. 
Large, expects, attempts and promises a great deal; is gener¬ 
ally sanguine, cheerful, etc.; rises above present troubles; 
though disappointed, hopes on still; views the brightest side of 
prospects. Full, is quite sanguine, yet realizes about what he 
expects. Average, has some, but reasonable, hopes ; is seldom 
elated. Moderate, expects and attempts too little; succeeds 
beyond his hopes ; is prone to despond ; looks on the darker side. 
Small, is low-spirited; easily discouraged; fears the worst; 
sees many lions in his way; magnifies evils; lacks enterprise. 
Very small, expects nothing good; has no hope of the future. 

17. Spirituality. 

Belief in the supernatural; credulity. Very large, is 
very superstitious ; regards most things with wonder. Large, 
believes and delights in the supernatural, in dreams, ghosts, etc.; 
thinks many natural things supernatural. Full, is open to 
conviction; rather credulous; believes in divine providences, 
forewarnings, the wonderful, etc. Average, believes some, 
but not much, in wonders, forewarnings, etc. Moderate, be¬ 
lieves but little that cannot be accounted for yet is open to 































THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 


355 




conviction; is incredulous, but listens to evidence. Small, 
is convinced only with difficulty; believes nothing till he sees 
facts, or why and wherefore, not even revelation farther than a 
reason is rendered; is prone to reject new things without exam¬ 
ination. Very small, believes little else than his senses. 

18. Veneration. 

The feeling of worship for a Supreme Being; respect for 
religion and things sacred, and for superiors. Very large, 
is eminent, if not pre-eminent, f or piety, heart-felt devotion, 
religious fervor, seriousness, love of divine things, etc. Large, 
loves to adore and worship God, especially through his works; 
treats equals with respect and superiors with deference. Full, 
is capable of much religious fervor and devotion, yet is not 
habitually serious; generally treats his fellow-men civilly. 
Average, may feel religious worship, yet little respect for men. 
Moderate, disregards religious creeds, forms of worship, etc.; 
places religion in other things; is not serious nor respectful. 
Small, feels little religious worship, reverence, respect, etc. 
Very small, seldom if ever adores God. 

19. Benevolence. 

Desire to see and make sentient beings happy; kindness. 
Very large, does all the good in his power; gladly sacrifices 
self upon the altar of pure benevolence; scatters happiness 
wherever he goes; is one of the kindest-hearted of persons. 
Large, is kind, obliging; glad to serve others, even to his 
injury; feels lively sympathy for distress; does good to all. 
Full, has a fair share of sympathetic feeling, and some, though 
not great, willingness to sacrifice for others. Average, has 
kind fellow-feeling without much active benevolence. Moder¬ 
ate, has some benevolent feeling, yet too little to prompt to 
much self-denial; does good only when he can without cost. 
Small, feels little kindness or sympathy; is almost deaf to the 
cries of distress; hard-hearted, selfish, etc. Very small, is 
destitute of all humanity and sympathy. 

20. Constructiveness. 

Mechanical dexterity and ingenuity; desire and ability to use 
tools, build, invent, employ machinery, etc. Very large, is a 
mechanic of the first order; a true genius. Large, shows great 
natural dexterity in using tools, executing mechanical opera¬ 
tions, working machinery, etc.; loves them. Full, has fair 
mechanical ingenuity, yet no great natural talent or desire to 
make things; with practice will do well; without it, little; 
Average, has some, yet not great, relish for and tact in using 
tools. Moderate, with much practice, may use tools quite 
well, yet dislikes mechanical operations; owes more to art than 
nature. Small, hates, and is awkward and bungling in, using 
tools, etc. Very small, has no mechanical skill or desire. 

21. Ideality. 

Imagination ; taste; fancy ; love of perfection; poetry, polite 
literature, oratory, the beautiful in nature and art, etc. Very 
large, often gives rein to his erratic imagination; experiences 
revellings of fancy, ecstasy, rapture of feeling, enthusiasm. 
Large, has a lively imagination; great love of poetry, elo¬ 
quence, fiction, good style, the beauties of nature and art. 
Full, has refinement of feeling, expression, etc., without sickly 


delicacy; some love of poetry, yet not a vivid imagination. 
Average, has some taste, though not enough to influence him 
much. Moderate, has some, but not much imagination; is 
rather plain in expression, manners, feeling, etc.; dislikes 
poetry, finery, etc. Small, or very small, lacks taste, niceness, 
refinement, delicacy of feeling, etc. 

B. Sublimity. 

Conception of grandeur; sublime emotions excited by con¬ 
templating the vast, magnificent or splendid in nature or art. 
Very large, is a passionate admirer of the wild and romantic; 
feels the sublimest emotions while contemplating the grand or 
awful in nature. Large, admires and enjoys scenery, a 
vast prospect, etc., exceedingly; hence, enjoys travelling. Full, 
enjoys magnificent scenes well, yet not remarkably so. Aver¬ 
age, sometimes, but not to a great degree, experiences this 
feeling. Moderate, has some, though not at all vivid, emo¬ 
tions of this kind. Small or very small, discovers little to 
awaken this feeling. 

22. Imitation. 

Disposition and ability to take pattern, imitate. Very large, 
can mimic, act out and copy almost anything; describe, relate 
anecdotes, etc., to the very life; has a theatrical taste and talent; 
seldom speaks without gesturing. Large, has a great propen¬ 
sity and ability to copy, take pattern from others, do what he 
sees done, etc.; needs but one showing; gesticulates much; 
describes and acts out well. Full, with effort, copies some, but 
not well; cannot mimic. Average, copies some, yet too little 
to deserve or excite notice. Moderate, cannot mimic at all; 
can copy, draw, take pattern, etc., only with difficulty ; describes, 
relates anecdotes, etc., poorly. Small, dislikes and fails to copy, 
draw, do after others, etc. Very small, has little ability to 
imitate or copy anything. 

23. Mirthfulness. 

Intuitive perception of the absurd and ridiculous; a joking, 
fun-making, ridiculing disposition and ability. Very large, is 
quick and apt at turning everything into ridicule, throws off 
constant sallies of wit; is too facetious, jocose, etc. Large, 
has a quick, keen perception of the ludicrous; makes a great 
amount of fun; too much for his own good; is quick at repartee; 
smiles often; laughs heartily at jokes. Full, has much mirth¬ 
ful feeling; makes and relishes jokes well. Average, perceives 
jokes, and relishes fun, but cannot make much. Moderate, 
has some witty ideas, yet lacks quickness in conceiving, and tact 
in expressing them; is generally quite sober. Small, makes 
little fun; is slow to perceive, and still slower to turn jokes; 
seldom laughs; thinks it wrong to do so. Very small, has 
few if any witty ideas or conceptions. 

24. Individuality. 

Observing and individualizing power and desire; curiosity to 
see and know; disposition to specify, personify. Very large, 
has an insatiable desire to see and know everything; extraor¬ 
dinary observing powers; is eager to witness every passing event. 
Large, has a great desire to know, investigate, examine, ex¬ 
perience, etc.; is a great observer of men and things; quick of 
perception; sees what is transpiring, what should be done, etc. 




























THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 


K 

35 6 


Full, has fair observing powers, and desire to see things. 
Average, has some, yet no great, curiosity and desire to see 
things. Moderate, is rather deficient, yet not palpably so, in 
observing power and desire; not sufficiently specific. Small, 
is slow to see things; attends little to particulars. Very small, 
sees scarcely anything; segards things in the gross. 

25. Form. 

Cognizance and recollection of shape or configuration. Very 
large, never forgets the countenance, form, etc., of persons and 
things seen; easily learns to read and spell correctly; reads and 
sees things at a great distance; has excellent eyesight. Large, 
notices, and for a long time remembers, the faces, countenances, 
forms, looks, etc., of persons, beasts, things, etc., once seen ; 
knows by sight many whom he may be unable to name. Full, 
recognizes persons, countenances, etc., well. Average, recol¬ 
lects forms, faces, etc., quite well, but not very well. Moder¬ 
ate, must see persons several times before he can recollect 
them ; sometimes doubts whether he has seen certain persons. 
Small or very small, has 
a miserable memory of per¬ 
sons, looks, shapes, etc.; 
fails to recognize even those 
he sees often. 

26. Size. 

Cognizance and knowl¬ 
edge of relative magnitude, 
bulk, etc. Very large, 
detects disproportion, and 
judges of size, with won¬ 
derful accuracy, by intui¬ 
tion, and as well without 
as with instruments; cannot 
endure inaccuracy. Large, 
has an excellent eye for 
measuring proportion, size, 
height, angles, perpendic¬ 
ulars, etc.; quickly detects disproportions in them. Full, 
can measure ordinary and familiar distances well, yet shows no 
remarkable natural talent in it. Average, measures bulk with 
tolerable, though not great, accuracy. Moderate, is rather de¬ 
ficient in measuring by the eye ; with practice, may do tolerably 
well in short, but fails in long, distances. Small, judges of 
relative size, etc., very inaccurately. Very small, can hardly 
distinguish mountains from molehills. 

27. Weight. 

Intuitive perception and application of the principles of spe¬ 
cific gravity, projectile forces, momentum, balancing, resistance. 
Very large, has this power to,a wonderful extent. Large, can 
walk on a high or narrow place; hold a steady hand, throw a 
stone or ball, and shoot, straight; ride a fractious horse, etc., 
very well. Full, keeps his centre of gravity well, but ventures 
little. Average, balances himself tolerably well in ordinary 
cases, yet has no great natural talent in this respect. Moderate, 
maintains his centre of gravity, etc., rather poorly. Small or 
very small, is unlike one with Weight large. 


28. Color. 

Perception and recollection of colors, hues, tints, etc. Very 
large, resembles one with Color large, but excels him. Large, 
has taste and talent fdr comparing, arranging, mingling, apply¬ 
ing and recollecting colors; is delighted with paintings. Full, 
with practice, compares and judges of colors well; without it, 
does not excel. Average, can discern and recollect colors, yet 
seldom notices them. Moderate, aided by practice, can discern 
and compare colors, yet owes less to nature than art; seldom 
notices colors unless obliged to, and then soon forgets them. 
Small, seldom observes the color of one’s hair, eyes, dress, etc.; 
cannot describe persons by what they wear, or compare colors 
apart; hardly distinguishes primary colors by candlelight. Very 
small, can tell white from black, but do little more. 

29. Order. 

System; physical arrangement; a place for things. Very 
large, is very precise and particular to have every little thing 
in its place ; literally tormented by disorder; is fastidious. Large, 

has a place for things, and 
things in their places; can 
find, even in the dark, 
what he alone uses; is sys¬ 
tematic; annoyed by dis¬ 
order. Full, likes order; 
takes much pains to keep 
things arranged. Average, 
appreciates order, yet not 
enough to keep it. Mod¬ 
erate, likes but does not 
keep order; allows con¬ 
fusion. Small or very 
small, is nearly destitute 
of order. 

30. Calculation. 

Intuitive perception of 
the relations of numbers; 
ability to reckon figures in the head; numerical computation. 
Very large, has an intuitive faculty of reckoning even compli¬ 
cated sums of figures in his head; delights in it. Large, can 
add, subtract, divide, etc., in his head, with facility and correct¬ 
ness ; become a rapid, correct accountant; delights and excels in 
arithmetic. Full, aided by rules and practice may excel in 
reckoning figures, and do well in his head, but not without 
them. Average, by practice and rules may reckon figures 
quite well. Moderate, does sums in his head rather 
slowly and inaccurately. Small, is dull and incorrect in add¬ 
ing, dividing, etc.; dislikes it. Very small, can hardly count. 

31. Locality. 

Cognizance and recollection of relative position, looks and 
geography of places, etc.; desire to travel, see the world, etc. 
Very large, never forgets the looks, location or geography of 
any place, or even thing, he has ever seen; is even passion¬ 
ately fond of travelling, scenery, geography, etc. Large, rec¬ 
ollects distinctly the looks of places where he saw things, etc.; 
seldom loses himself, even in the dark ; has a strong desire to 




































£t 


X 


THE STUDY OF CHARACTER. 



travel, see places, etc. Full, remembers places well, yet is lia¬ 
ble to lose himself in a city or forest; ordinarily shows no defi¬ 
ciency; seldom loses himself. Average, has a fair, though not 
excellent, recollection of places. Moderate, recollects places 
rather poorly ; sometimes gets lost. Small or very small, sel¬ 
dom observes where he goes, or finds his way back. 

32. Eventuality. 

Recollection of actions, phenomena, occurrences, what has 
taken place, circumstantial and historical facts. Very large, 
never forgets any occurrence, even though it is trifling; has a 
craving thirst for information and experiment; literally devours 
books, newspapers, etc.; commands an astonishing amount of 
information. Large, has a clear and retentive memory of his¬ 
torical facts, general news, what he has seen, heard, read, etc., 
even in detail. Full, recollects leading events, and interesting 
particulars, and has a good memory of occurrences, yet forgets 
less important details. Average, has neither a good nor bad 
memory of occurrences, etc. Moderate, recollects generals, 
not details; is rather forgetful. Small, has a treacherous, con¬ 
fused memory. Very small, forgets almost everything. 

33. Time. 

Cognizance and recollection of succession, the lapse of time, 
dates, how long ago things occurred, etc. Very large, remem¬ 
bers with wonderful accuracy the time of occurrences; is punc¬ 
tual; tells the time of day, etc., by intuition. Large, tells dates, 
appointments, ages, time of day, etc., well. Full, recollects 
about, but not precisely, when things occurred. Average, 
notices and remembers dates, times, etc., some, but not well. 
Moderate, has rather a poor idea of dates, the time when, etc. 
Small, can seldom tell when things took place; forgets dates. 
Very small, is liable to forget even his age. 

34. Tune. 

Tone; sense of melody and musical harmony; ability to learn 
tunes and detect chord and discord by ear; propensity to sing. 
Very large, learns tunes by hearing them sung once or 
twice; is literally enchanted by good music; shows intuitive 
skill, and spends much time in making it; sings from the heart, 
and with melting pathos. Large, easily catches tunes; learns 
to sing and play on instruments by rote ; delights in singing; 
has a correct musical ear. Full, can learn tunes by ear well, 
yet needs help from notes. Average, likes music; with prac¬ 
tice, may perform tolerably well. Moderate, aided by notes 
and practice, may sing, yet it will be mechanically; lacks that 
soul and feeling which reaches the heart. Small, learns to 
sing or play tunes either by note or rote with great difficulty; 
sings mechanically, and without emotion or effect. Very small, 
can hardly discern one tune or note from another. 

35. Language. 

Power of expressing ideas, feelings, etc., by means of words; 
ability to talk. Very large, has, by nature, astonishing com¬ 
mand of words, copiousness and eloquence of expression, and 
verbal memory; quotes with ease ; is an incessant talker; has 
too many words. Large, is a free, easy, ready, fluent talker and 
speaker; uses good language; commits easily; seldom hesi¬ 
tates for words. Full, commands a fair share of words, yet 


uses familiar expressions; is neither fluent nor the reverse; when 
excited, expresses himself freely, yet not copiously. Average, 
can communicate his ideas tolerably well, yet finds some diffi¬ 
culty; uses common words; can write better than speak. Mod¬ 
erate, often hesitates for words; employs too few; may write 
well, and be a critical linguist, but cannot be an easy, fluent 
speaker. Small, employs few words, and those commonplace ; 
in speaking, hesitates much ; is barren in expression ; commits 
slowly. Very small, can hardly remember or use words. 

36. Causality. 

Cognizance of the relations of cause and effect; ability to 
apply them, or to adapt means to ends; power of reasoning, 
etc. Very large, is endowed with a deep, strong, original, 
comprehensive mind, powerful reasoning faculties, great vigor 
and energy of thought, first-rate judgment, and a gigantic intel¬ 
lect. Large, plans well; can think clearly and closely; is 
always enquiring into the why and the wherefore, the causes and 
explanation of things; always gives and requires the reason; has 
by nature excellent judgment, good ideas, a strong mind, etc. 
Full, adapts means to ends well; has an active desire to ascer¬ 
tain causes, yet not a deep, original, cause-discovering and ap¬ 
plying mind. Average, has some, but not great, ability to plan 
and reason. Moderate, is rather slow of comprehension; defi¬ 
cient in adapting means to ends; has not good ideas or judg¬ 
ment. Small, has a weak, imbecile mind; cannot contrive or 
think. Very small, little idea of causation; is a natural fool. 

37. Comparison. 

Perception of analogies, resemblances, differences; ability to 
compare, illustrate, criticise, classify, generalize, etc. Very 
large, is endowed with an extraordinary amount of critical 
acumen, analytical, comparing and illustrating power. Large, 
has a happy talent for comparing, illustrating, criticising, argu¬ 
ing from similar cases, discriminating between what is and is 
not analogous or in point, classifying phenomena, and thereby 
ascertaining their laws, etc. Full, illustrates, discriminates, etc., 
well, but not remarkably so. Average, perceives striking anal¬ 
ogies ; illustrates tolerably well. Moderate, may discern 
obvious similarities, yet overlooks others. Small or very 
small, is almost destitute of this power. 

C. Human Nature. 

Discernment of character and perception of motive. Large 
or very large, perceives, as if by intuition, the character and 
motives of men from their physiognomy, conversation, etc.; is 
suspicious, and seldom deceived; naturally understands human 
nature. Moderate or small, seldom suspects others; is easily 
imposed upon, learns human nature slowly; does not know well 
how to take men. 

D. Suavity. 

Ability to render oneself agredable; pleasantness. Large 
or very large, readily wins confidence and affection, even of 
enemies; can say and do hard things without creating difficulty; 
obtain favors; get along well; so say and do things that they 
take. Average or full, neither excels nor is deficient in this 
respect. Moderate or small, is deficient in the power de¬ 
scribed ; says pleasant things unpleasantly, and does not succeed 
in winning people’s good graces. 


' f 





















CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 


Q_ 

K 


358 







^CAUSES 0F-^cr : 


IS THERE ONE WHOM DIFFICULTIES 
DISHEARTEN -WHO BENDS TO THE 

storm? He will do little. Is 

THERE ONE WHO WILL CONQUER? 
That kind of a man NEVER fails/* 
John Hunter. 


'S 


/MHILE it is impossible, in a world made 
U P of widely differing individuals, to 
; /■' VI■) formulate a set of rules by which each 
could be shown the surest and swiftest 
way to secure success in life, still it is possible 
to call attention to certain qualities of mind 
and character whose possession has come to 
be universally looked upon as essential to those 
who may aspire to struggle into the front rank 
of the world’s workers. As a matter of fact, it 
would be as difficult to define the common 
expression “success in life” as it would be to 
lay down a royal road which leads to it. Given 
a hundred definitions, from as many men, each 
treating the subject from his own standpoint, 
and no two of them would be found alike; and 
the opinion of each of these, as time passed 
along with its inevitable ups and downs, would 
be found to vary considerably. Flushed with 
recent success, the speculator to-day would 
see in the possession of millions and in the 
control of vast interests the only proper goal 
for a man of his great genius ; tamed a few 
days later by unexpected reverses, and he sees 
in some conservative enterprise the fittest 
sphere of his future usefulness. Perhaps, then, 
without attempting the impossible, in a defi¬ 
nition of success in life which will fit all who 
are seeking it, it will do to look upon it as the 


accomplishment of the laudable life-purpose of 
a man of natural or cultivated parts, who has 
found an object in life worth living and working 
for, and has worked honestly and perseveringly 
to attain it. As a rule, the larger the endow¬ 
ment of those faculties which go to build up 
success in life, the higher the aim which accom¬ 
panies them; but it must not be forgotten that 
man is the most cultivable of all God’s crea¬ 
tures, and that by careful and intelligent study 
of the qualities which have enabled others to 
shine, one may acquire them and employ them 
in building up similar accomplishments. This 
being so, it does not lie in the power of the 
young man who feels that he possesses only a 
moderate share of intelligence, force and abil¬ 
ity, to decide, on this account, that he is not 
called upon to make fight for one of the front 
places in the life of his generation. The most 
brilliant lives have often been those of men of 
ordinary gifts, who, exerting to the utmost such 
power as has been given them, have accom¬ 
plished more than hundreds of men who were 
much more bountifully supplied with mental 
qualifications. If any man look among the 
circle of his acquaintances he will be surprised 
to see how few have made the voyage of life 
successfully, and sorrow cannot but arise when 
he considers the impotent conclusions to which 

























































































CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 


359 


young men of brilliant parts frequently come. 
Every day witnesses the triumph of patient and 
studious mediocrity, and men of great intellect 
are constantly being forced to acknowledge, 
with surprise, the success of persons whose 
abilities, in comparison with their own, have 
been deemed inconsiderable. These men 
know precisely the scope of their faculties, and 
never wander beyond them. They wait pa¬ 
tiently for opportunities which are of the kind 
they can improve, and they never let one pass 
unimproved. Being unnoticed, they excite so 
much the less opposition, and at last they sur¬ 
prise the world by the attainment of an object 
which others deemed as far away from their 
ambition as it seemed beyond their reach. 

How to Avoid Failure. 

It is a common thing, with both the brilliant and the 
mediocre, when the reward of their exertions and the result 
of their plans seem unsatisfactory, to blame the ever-ready 
scapegoat, bad luck, as the cause of the untoward outcome. 
One of the most healthful and profitable exercises which a 
young man who has just experienced failure of any kind can 
perform, will be to analyze the whole transaction with merci¬ 
less candor, finding out just what proportion of the disaster 
is due to his own fault and what is due to fortuitous circum¬ 
stances, and then make a cold-blooded comparison. If this 
were more generally done than it is, there would be far fewer 
believers in, or rather blamers of, luck as a business marplot 
than are at present to be found. To come down to the facts 
in the case, without going so far as to dispute the existence 
of such a thing as chance, in almost all cases of failure the 
cause is to be found in the man, and the reason it is not found 
there is because that is the last place in which the man hunts 
for it. “ Untoward accidents,” “fate,” “destiny,” “ill- 
fortune,” “evil star,” “chance,” “luck,” or some other 
synonym of the scapegoat, suggests itself to the victim of ill- 
success, and he consoles himself with charging upon it his 
failure. He has the poets on his side, too. Does not Shak- 
spere say : 

“ There’s a divinity that shapes our ends, 

Rough-hew them how we will.” 

And Byron: 

“ Men are the sport of circumstances, when 
The circumstances seem the sport of men.” 

And, after all has been said, it were better, perhaps, that 
the young business man place some little, very little, credence 
in luck’s existence, just enough, in fact, to cause him to so 
organize upon solid and substantial foundation each of his 
enterprises, and to so honestly and perseveringly conduct 
them, that the smallest possible loop-hole will be left for ill- 
luck to make its appearance. 


Choosing an Occupation 

Is seldom an easy matter. In some few cases, a young 
man feels the possession of such an unmistakable bias to 
some peculiar profession that neither he nor his friends have 
any hesitancy in deciding upon his future. In most cases, 
however, there is no particular preference, and a wise decis¬ 
ion is not reached before many considerations have been 
carefully weighed. In far too many cases wrong considera¬ 
tions are given attention, and a decision is reached whose 
ultimate result is a life failure which, had the profession been 
selected with greater wisdom, would not have happened. A 
socially ambitious father and mother check their young son’s 
honest ambition to become a mechanic, send him to college, 
and make a briefless barrister out of the material which could 
have been moulded into an honest and efficient artisan. 
Many a boy whose soul yearned for the higher walks of 
intellectual culture, to share in which he had been endowed, 
has been doomed by injudicious parents, who despised 
colleges, to dull life at a dry-goods counter or counting- 
room desk. Parents are not by any means infallible judges 
upon this point, and every young man about to start out in 
search of success in life should study himself carefully in 
order to discover his aptitudes. The natural bent may be 
hard to find, but the disccfvery will well repay the search. 
Historical biography teems with the lives of men whose 
peculiar aptitude was early displayed to the advantage of 
themselves and the world. Napoleon, a school boy at 
Brienne, led the mimic armies of his youthful associates ; 
Nelson had conceived the idea of future greatness as a sailor 
before he entered the navy; Pascal contributed to the mathe¬ 
matical literature of his age before he was seventeen; Pope 
acknowledged that 

“ While yet a child and still a fool of fame, 

I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came 

Dryden illustrated the growth of natural aptitude when he 
wrote: 

“ What the child admired 
The youth endeavored, and the man acquired ; ” 

Michael Angelo stayed away from school to draw pictures ; 
Murillo covered his text-books with them; West, at seven, 
plundered the cat’s tail of hair with which to make pencils; 
Calhoun, a student, held his own in debate with the college 
president—and so on, until the examples of the theory of 
natural aptitude become too numerous for recapitulation. 

Taking for granted that one has discovered, or believes 
that he has discovered, his bent, he must beware of the danger 
which lies in fickleness of purpose, which may, shortly after 
the weariness of work begins to be felt, lead him to suppose 
that he has chosen unwisely, and that some other field of use¬ 
fulness would be more suitable to his temper and parts. It 
is the practical repetition of the old story of the traveller in 
the express train sighing for the quiet pleasure of the farmer, 
whose broad fields are flying past, while the farmer looks 
longingly at the train as it dashes by, and dreams of the enjoy¬ 
able excitements of a life of endless bustle, stir and energy. 
Whatever the calling, there will be toil and trial for its 



































3 6 ° 


CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 


follower, and these come from him rather than from the occu¬ 
pation, which might be changed a dozen times in the vain 
hope of escaping from them. Having deliberately selected a 
profession, stick to it. The longer you remain in it, the more 
expert you become and the easier becomes the work and the 
larger the pay. It is only the early days which bring weari¬ 
ness and pain. These conquered by perseverance, the rest 
is easy, and the success in conquering the first pleadings of 
the siren fickleness of purpose, who is of closer kin to laziness 
than one might think, lays the corner-stone of success in life. 

Excelsior! 

Having chosen his occupation, the young man of proper 
ambition will not be long in selecting for himself an honorable 
position in it, to be filled as soon as he has shown himself 
worthy and able. What men have accomplished shows that 
hardly any ambitious longing can be considered as unwise 
on the part of those who are willing to undertake all work 
and suffer all want in the struggle. 

The extremest poverty has been no obstacle in the way of 
men devoted to the duty of self-culture. Professor Alexander 
Murray, the linguist, learned to write by scribbling his letters 
on an old wool-card with the end of a burnt heather-stem. 
The only book which his father, who was a poor shepherd, 
possessed, was a penny Shorter Catechism; but that, being 
thought too valuable for common use, was carefully preserved 
in a cupboard for the Sunday catechizings. Professor Moor, 
when a young man, being too poor to purchase Newton’s 
“Principia,” borrowed the book, and copied the whole of it 
with his own hand. Many poor students, while laboring 
daily for their living, have only been able to snatch an atom 
of knowledge here and there at intervals, as birds do their 
food in winter time when the fields are covered with snow. 
They have struggled on, and faith and hope have come to 
them. A well known author and publisher, William Cham¬ 
bers, of Edinburgh, speaking before an assemblage of young 
men in that city, thus briefly described to them his humble 
beginnings for their encouragement: “I stand before you,” 
he said, “ a self-educated man. My education is that which 
is supplied at the humble parish-schools of Scotland; and it 
was only when I went to Edinburgh, a poor boy, that I 
devoted my evenings, after the labors of the day, to the 
cultivation of that intellect which the Almighty has given me. 
From seven or eight in the morning till nine or ten at night 
was I at my business as a bookseller’s apprentice, and it 
was only during hours after these, stolen from sleep, that I 
could devote myself to study. I did not read novels; my 
attention was devoted to physical science and other useful 
matters. I also taught myself French. I look back to those 
times with great pleasure, and am almost sorry I have not to 
go through the same experience again; for I reaped more 
pleasure when I had not a sixpence in my pocket, studying in 
a garret in Edinburgh, than I now find when sitting amid all 
the elegancies and comforts of a parlor.” 

William Cobbett learned English grammar when he was a 
private soldier on the pay of sixpence a day. 


These are men who have selected an aim in life and have 
attained it through sticking to it. Concentration of purpose 
carried them through. The “Admirable Crichtons” are 
scarce geniuses, and no young man need be ashamed, in 
these days of special accomplishment, of having decided to 
follow a single pursuit in life—to become a man of one idea— 
provided it is a good one. Almost all the great men in war, 
literature, science, diplomacy, business, the professions, have 
been men of “one idea,” not because they were incapable of 
harboring more than one, but because, having selected some 
one object as worthy of attainment, they gave themselves up 
to it solely. If was often long of coming, but it came at last. 
Adam Smith gave ten years to his “Wealth of Nations;” 
Edward Gibbon, twenty to the “Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire;” Bishop Butler, twenty to his famous 
“Analogy;” Kant, fifty years to his metaphysical re¬ 
searches ; Dr. Johnson, seven years to his Dictionary. These 
men sought one prize and gained it. As many years have 
been spent by thousands of men of equal ability, who sought 
each a number of prizes a'nd gained none. 

A Sound Body 

Is another of the essentials of success in life which are largely 
attainable by those who lack their possession. Mental as 
well as physical accomplishment depends largely upon the 
condition of the worker’s digestion, and the thorough aeration 
of his blood. This can only be obtained with healthy exercise, 
which can only be taken by those whose muscles and nerves 
and wind are in good condition. “ Walk twelve miles before 
speaking and you’ll never break down,” says Sidney Smith 
to an English Parliamentary debater. A strong intellect 
cannot well work with a weak body as its case. Energy 
without talent will accomplish more than talent without 
energy. The sharp edge of the woodman’s axe avails noth¬ 
ing until the sinewy arm throws it, stroke upon stroke, against 
the monarchs of the forest. Take the great men of the 
century, and it will be seen that they combined intellectual 
force with physical vigor. In England, Brougham, Lynd- 
hurst, Peel, Bright, Gladstone, Palmerston; in America, 
Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, Lin¬ 
coln—all these were men capable of strong muscular exertion 
and of standing a prolonged physical as well as mental strain. 
It is told of Lord Brougham that he once worked six days on 
a stretch without sleep, slept from Saturday night to Monday 
morning, and began work again thoroughly refreshed. These 
men are the conservers as well as the possessors of physical 
force, and the young man who seeks to retain the “sound 
mind in a sound body ” will remember that it is not so much 
in the cultivation of additional body strength as in the 
economy of what he already possesses that the art of physical 
culture is best applied. The idea used to be that mus¬ 
cularity and rowdyism were natural associates, but people 
found out that it is possible for a young man to be a good 
rower, or boxer even, and still be a worthy Christian and 
admirable member of society, and even that it was difficult 
for him to be these unless with the employment of manly 






































£> 


\ 


CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 


361 


"71 


exercises he brought his physical condition up to the healthy 
standard. This is merely a recurrence to the old belief of the 
Greeks, who reverenced the muscular body as one of the 
noble parts of man, and made gymnastics and calisthenics a 
regular school exercise. Without good health and a sound 
body, moderate success in life may be painfully possible; 
with it a place in the front rank may be attained with far 
greater ease than otherwise. 

Self-Reliance. 

Among all the mental qualifications which help on to 
success in life, there is none which is of more importance 
than self-reliance. If you want a thing well done, do it 
yourself, says the old saw, and hence comes it that those who 
rely most upon themselves for the accomplishment of any 
aim are the ones who do the best work. “Heaven helps 
those who help themelves ” is a well-tried maxim, embody¬ 
ing in small compass the results of vast human experience. 
The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in 
the individual; and, exhibited in the lives of many, it consti¬ 
tutes the true source of national vigor and strength. Help 
from without is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from 
within invariably invigorates. Whatever is done for men or 
classes, to a certain extent takes away the stimulus and neces¬ 
sity of doing for themselves; and where men are subjected 
to over-guidance and over-government, the inevitable tendency 
is to render them comparatively helpless. 

It is energetic individualism which produces the most 
powerful effect upon the life and actions of others, and really 
constitutes the best practical education. The determination 
to be one’s own helper is the secret of this individual develop¬ 
ment and strength. No greater misfortune could befall an 
ambitious and able young man than a legacy. A story is told 
of a critic who, after l'eviewing the promising work of a young 
artist, praised it, but added : “ It is a pity that he can never 
make a great painter.” “ And why not?” rejoined his com¬ 
panion. “Because he has ten thousand pounds a year,” was 
the sententious response. When John C. Calhoun was ridi¬ 
culed by his fellow-students at Yale for his intense application 
to study, he raised a louder laugh against himself by replying, 
“I am forced to make the most of my time that I may acquit 
myself creditably when in Congress,” and then, when the 
laugh was over, adding, “ I assure you, if I were not satisfied 
of my ability to reach Congress in three years, I would at 
once leave college.” Here was self-reliance and self-help. 
Calhoun knew the difficulties that lay between him and the 
goal of his ambition, and, while the other students were 
laughing at him, he was helping himself to overcome them. 
“The man who dares to think for himself and act independ¬ 
ently, does a service to his race,” says one of the brightest 
modern thinkers, and daily experience shows that it is ener¬ 
getic individualism which produces the most powerful effects 
upon the life and action of others, and really constitutes the 
best practical education. Schools, academies and colleges 
give but the merest beginnings of culture in comparison with 
it. Far more influential is the life-education daily given in 


our homes, in the streets, behind counters, in workshops, 
at the loom and the plough, in counting-houses and manu¬ 
factories, and in the busy haunts of men. This is that 
finishing instruction as members of society which Schiller 
designated “the education of the human race,” consisting in 
action, conduct, self-culture, self-control—all that tends to 
discipline a man truly, and fit him for the proper performance 
of the duties and business of life—a kind of education not to 
be learned from books, or acquired by any amount of mere 
literary training. With his usual weight of words, Bacon 
observes that “studies teach not their own use; but that is a 
wisdom without them and above them won by observation ”— 
a remark that holds true of actual life as well as of the culti¬ 
vation of the intellect itself. For all experience serves to illus¬ 
trate and enforce the lesson that a man perfects himself by 
work more than by reading—that it is life rather than litera¬ 
ture, action rather than study, and character rather than 
biography, which tend perpetually to renovate mankind. 

Attention to Detail 

Is a matter which constitutes much more than half of the battle 
in many spheres of usefulness, and, the more intellectual 
the task, the greater the necessity, very frequently, of careful 
and constant devotion to the little things which help to form 
it. Sedulous attention and painstaking industry always mark 
the true worker. The greatest men are not those who “de¬ 
spise the day of small things,” but those who improve them 
the most carefully. Michael Angelo was one day explaining 
to a visitor at his studio what he had been doing at a statue 
since his previous visit. “I have retouched this part— 
polished that—softened this feature—brought out that mus¬ 
cle—given some expression to this lip, and more energy to 
that limb.” “ But these are trifles,” remarked the visitor. 
“ It may be so,” replied the sculptor, “but recollect that 
trifles make perfection, and perfection is no trifle.” So it was 
said of Nicolas Poussin, the painter, that the rule of his con¬ 
duct was, that “ whatever was worth doing at all was worth 
doing well;” and when asked, late in life, by his friend 
Vigneul de Marville, by what means he had gained so high a 
reputation among the painters of Italy, Poussin emphatically 
answered, “ Because I have neglected nothing.” On the first 
publication of Wellington’s dispatches, one of his friends 
said to him, on reading the records of his Indian campaigns: 
“ It seems to me, Duke, that your chief business in India was 
to procure rice and bullocks.” “And so it was.” replied 
Wellington, “for, if I had rice and bullocks, I had men; and 
if I had men, I knew I could beat the enemy.” All men who 
have accomplished success in life have been conspicuous for 
minute attention to details as well as for general scope and 
vigor. The great Napoleon was a wonderful example of this. 
His correspondence shows him arranging for supplies of 
saddles, directing where cattle could be purchased, advising 
the procurement of shoes for the infantry, and making sugges¬ 
tions as to various minor details, and complaining because of 
discovered carelessness in the reports upon matters of detail 
supplied by others. Lord Brougham, alluding to this quality, 






<5" 


O 




























3 62 


CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 


said: ‘'The captain who conveyed Napoleon to Elba ex¬ 
pressed to me his astonishment at his precise and, as it were, 
familiar knowledge of all the minute details connected with 
the ship.” 

In the face of these examples, no one should come to the 
conclusion that details are beneath one’s notice, or that one is 
less brilliant in the great things of life because he pays atten¬ 
tion to the little things. Of General Thomas it is said that 
he was careful in all the details of a battle, but, once in the 
fight, was as “furiousand impetuous as Jackson.” Attention 
to details makes a business man, or any other kind of man, 
“sure that he is right,” and then, of course, it only remains 
for him to “ go ahead.” 

Perseverance 

Is the ever ready and kindly ally of those who are seeking 
success and feel that they do not possess the ability to attain 
it so quickly as others. The greatest results in life are usually 
attained by simple means and the exercise of ordinary quali¬ 
ties. The road of human welfare lies along the old highway 
of steadfast well-doing; and they who are the most per¬ 
sistent, and work in the truest spirit, will usually be the most 
successful. Buffon’s definition of genius, “It is patience,” 
may be exaggerated, but it hardly seems so when the accom¬ 
plishments of patience are considered. Fortune has often 
been blamed for her blindness; but Fortune is not so blind as 
men are. Those who look into practical life will find that 
Fortune is usually on the side of the industrious, as the winds 
and waves are on the side of the best navigators. In the pur¬ 
suit of even the highest branches of human inquiry, the com¬ 
moner qualities are found the most useful—such as common 
sense, attention, application and perseverance. Genius may 
not be necessary, though even genius of the highest sort does 
not disdain the use of these ordinary qualities. The very 
greatest men have been among the least believers in the 
power of genius, and as worldly-wise and persevering as 
successful men of the commoner sort. 

The extraordinary results effected by dint of sheer industry 
and perseverance have led many distinguished men to doubt 
whether the gift of genius be so exceptional an endowment as 
it is usually supposed to be. Thus Voltaire held that it is 
only a very slight line of separation that divides the man of 
genius from the man of ordinary mould. Beccaria was even 
of opinion that all men might be poets and orators, and Rey¬ 
nolds that they might be painters and sculptors. If this were 
really so, that stolid Englishman might not have been so very 
far wrong, after all, who, on Canova’s death, inquired of his 
brother whether it was “his intention to carry on the 
business!” Locke, Helvetius and Diderot believed that all 
men have an equal aptitude for genius, and that what some 
are able to effect, under the laws which regulate the opera¬ 
tions of the intellect, must also be within the reach of others 
who, under like circumstances, apply themselves to like pur¬ 
suits. But, while admitting to the fullest extent the wonder¬ 
ful achievements of labor, and recognizing the fact that men of 
the most distinguished genius have invariably been found the 


most indefatigable workers, it must nevertheless be sufficiently 
obvious that, without the original endowment of heart and 
brain, no amount of labor, however well applied, could have 
produced a Shakspere, a Newton, a Beethoven or a Michael 
Angelo. 

The world’s history is full of the triumphs of those who 
have had to fight from beginning to end for recognition. 
Carey, the great missionary, began life as a shoemaker; the 
chemist Vanquelin was the son of a peasant; Richard Cob- 
den was the son of a small farmer; Cook, the navigator, and 
Burns, the poet, were day-laborers; Ben Jonson was a brick¬ 
layer; David Livingstone, the traveller-missionary, was a 
weaver; Sturgeon, the electrician, and Bloomfield, the poet, 
were shoemakers; Andrew Johnson, President of the United 
States, was a tailor. At the plow, on the bench, or at 
the loom, these men dreamed of their future greatness, and 
persevered in their endeavors to accomplish it, and did so at 
last. Literature has provided several examples of single- 
handed triumph over difficulties by the persevering. Lord 
Brougham, working for over sixty years at law, literature, 
politics and science, and achieving distinction in all, was 
advised by Sir Sidney Smith to confine himself to only the 
transaction of so much business as three strong men could 
get through. 

Another hard-working man of the same class was Lord 
Lytton. Few writers did more, orachieved higher distinction 
in various walks—as a novelist, poet, dramatist, historian, 
essayist, orator and politician. lie worked his way step by 
step, disdainful of ease, and animated throughout by the 
ardent desire to excel. On the score of mere industry there 
are few living English writers who have written so much, and 
none that have produced so much of high quality. Like 
Byron, his first effort was poetical (“ Weeds and Wild Flow¬ 
ers”) and a failure. His second was a novel (“Falkland”), 
and it proved a failure too. A man of weaker nerve would 
have dropped authorship; but Bulwer had pluck and per¬ 
severance; and he worked on, determined to succeed. He 
was incessantly industrious, read extensively, and from failure 
went courageously onward to success. “Pelham” followed 
“Falkland” within a year, and the remainder of Lord 
Lytton’s life was a succession of triumphs. 

The late Premier of England, Lord Beaconsfield, affords a 
similar instance of the power of industry and application in 
working out an eminent public career. His first achieve¬ 
ments were, like Bulwer’s, in literature; and he reached 
success only through a succession of failures. His “Won¬ 
drous Tale of Alroy ” and “Revolutionary Epic” were 
laughed at, and regarded as indications of literary lunacy. 
But he worked on in other directions, and his “ Coningsby,” 
“Sybil” and “Tancred” proved the sterling stuff of which 
he was made. As an orator, too, his first appearance in the 
House of Commons was a failure. It was spoken of as 
“more screaming than an Adelphi farce.” Though com¬ 
posed in a grand and ambitious strain, every sentence was 
hailed with “loud laughter.” “Hamlet” played as a com¬ 
edy were nothing to it. But he concluded with a sentence 






































K- 

CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 


363 


7f 


which embodied a prophecy. Writhing under the laughter 
with which his studied eloquence had been received, he ex¬ 
claimed, “I have begun several times many things, and have 
succeeded in them at last. I will sit down now, but the time 
will come when you will hear me.” The time did come; 
and how Disraeli succeeded in at length commanding the 
attention of the first assembly of gentlemen in the world 
affords a striking illustration of what energy and determina¬ 
tion will do; for Disraeli earned his position by dint of 
patient industry. He did not, as many young men do, hav¬ 
ing once failed, retire dejected, to mope and whine in a corner, 
but diligently set himself to work. He carefully unlearned 
his faults, studied the character of his audience, practiced 
sedulously the art of speech, and industriously filled his mind 
with the elements of parliamentary knowledge. He worked 
patiently for success; and it came, but slowly; then the 
House laughed with him instead of at him. The recollection 
of his early failure was effaced, and by general consent he 
was at length admitted to be one of the most finished and 
effective of parliamentary speakers, and finally became the 
favored Prime Minister of Queen Victoria. 

Decision of Character 

Is one of the greatest of God’s gifts to man, and, as every 
man has the germ of this quality, it can be cultivated to great 
advantage. It outstrips even talent and genius in the race for 
success in life. Thousands and thousands of brilliant men 
have failed for the want of courage, faith and decision, perish¬ 
ing in the sight of less gifted but more adventurous competi¬ 
tors. As Sidney Smith says, “ We must not stand shivering 
on the brink and thinking of the cold and the danger, but 
jump in and scramble through as well as we can.” 

The old poem says : 

“ He either fears his fate too much, 

Or his deserts are small, 

That dares not put it to the touch, 

To gain or lose it all.” 

Decision of character enables one to do the right thing at 
the right time. Every one knows that 

“ There is a tide in the affairs of men 
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;” 

but not every one has the ability to tell the time of flood, and 
many, after telling it, have lost its advantages through lack 
of nerve to embark upon it before the ebb came, and the 
opportunity was lost. In the smoke and din of battle, it was 
the genius of Napoleon which enabled him to see where one 
or two bold and rapid movements would secure the advantage ; 
but it was his decision of character which enabled him to 
profit to the full by the discovery. To be decisive on im¬ 
portant occasions, one must keep cool. The Duke of 
Wellington’s calmness never forsook him, even in the most 
trying emergencies. At sea, one terrible night, the captain 
of the vessel rushed to the Duke, who was preparing for bed, 
and announced that the vessel would soon sink. “Then I 
shall not take off my boots,” the imperturbable hero of Water¬ 


loo responded as he paused in his preparations for sleep. 
There is need for this coolness of manner and decision of 
action in all lines of business. The surgeon, brought face to 
face with a sudden complication in the case beneath his knife; 
the lawyer, surprised by the springing of the trap which his 
wily opponent had prepared for him; the merchant, apprised 
of a turn in his enterprises that threatens immediate disaster— 
all are called upon to exercise this quality, and in thousands 
of cases the dullest man in a company has obtained the prize 
simply because he grasped it while others were revolving in 
their minds what they had better do in order to secure it. 

Other Causes of Success and Failure. 

Attention, application, accuracy, method, punctuality and 
dispatch are the principal qualities required for the efficient 
conduct of business of any sort. These, at first sight, may 
appear to be small matters ; and yet they are of essential im¬ 
portance to human happiness, well-being and usefulness. 
They are little things, it is true ; but human life is made up 
of comparative trifles. It is the repetition of little acts which 
constitutes not only the sum of human character, but which 
determines the character of nations; and where men or 
nations have broken down, it will almost invariably be found 
that neglect of little things was the rock on which they split. 
Every human being has duties to be performed, and, there¬ 
fore, has need of cultivating the capacity for doing them— 
whether the sphere of action be the management of a house¬ 
hold, the conduct of a trade or profession, or the government 
of a nation. 

It is the result of every-day experience that steady attention 
to matters of detail lies at the root of human progress; and 
that diligence, above all, is the mother of good luck. 
Accuracy is also of much importance, and an invariable mark 
of good training in a man—accuracy in observation, accuracy 
in speech, accuracy in the transaction of affairs. What is 
done in business must be well done; for it is better to accom¬ 
plish perfectly a small amount of work than to half-do ten 
times as much. A wise man used to say, “ Stay a little, that 
we may make an end the sooner.” 

Too little attention, however, is paid to this highly impor¬ 
tant quality of accuracy. As a man eminent in practical 
science lately observed to us, “It is astonishing how few 
people I have met with in the course of my experience who 
can define a fact accurately.” Yet in business affairs, it is 
the manner in which even small matters are transacted that 
often decides men for or against you. With virtue, capacity 
and good conduct in other respects, the person who is hab¬ 
itually inaccurate cannot be trusted ; his work has to be gone 
over again; and he thus causes an infinity of annoyance, 
vexation and trouble. 

Method is essential, and enables a larger amount of work 
to be accomplished satisfactorily. “ Method,” said the 
Rev. Richard Cecil, “is like packing things in a box ; a good 
packer will get in half as much again as a bad one.” Cecil’s 
dispatch of business was extraordinary, his maxim being, 
“ The shortest way to do many things is to do only one thing 



































3 6 4 


CAUSES OF SUCCESS AND FAILURE. 


at onceand he lever left a thing undone with a view of 
recurring to it at a period of more leisure. 

A French Minister, who was alike remarkable for his 
dispatch of business and his constant attendance at places of 
amusement, being asked how he contrived to combine both 
objects, replied, “ Simply by never postponing till to-morrow 
what should be done to-day.” Lord Brougham has said that 
a certain English statesman reversed the process, and that his 
maxim was never to transact to-day what could be postponed 
till to-morrow. Unhappily, such is the practice of many 
besides that Minister, already almost forgotten ; the practice 
is that of the indolent and the unsuccessful. Such men, 
too, are apt to rely upon agents, who are not always to 
be relied upon. Important affairs must be attended to in 
person. “ If you want your business done,” says the proverb, 
“go and do it; if you don’t want it done, send some one 
else.” 

An indolent country gentleman had a freehold estate pro¬ 
ducing about five hundred a year. Becoming involved in 
debt, he sold half the estate, and let the remainder to an in¬ 
dustrious farmer for twenty years. About the end of the 
term the farmer called to pay his rent, and asked the owner 
whether he would sell the farm. “ Will you buy it ? ” asked 
the owner surprised. “Yes, if we can agree about the price.” 
“ That is exceedingly strange,” observed the gentleman; 
“pray, tell me how it happens that, while I could not live 
upon twice as much land for which I paid no rent, you are 
regularly paying me two hundred a yeaf for your farm, and 
are able, in a few years, to purchase it?” “The reason is 
plain,” was the reply; “you sat still and said Go; I got up 
and said Come: you lay in your bed and enjoyed your estate; 
I rose in the morning and minded my business.” 

Men of business are accustomed to quote the maxim that 
time is money ; but it is more: the proper improvement of it 
is self-culture, self-improvement and growth of character. 
An hour wasted daily on trifles or in indolence would, if 
devoted to self-improvement, make an ignorant man wise in a 
few years, and, employed in good works, would make his life 
fruitful and death a harvest of worthy deeds. Fifteen minutes 
a day devoted to self-improvement will be felt at the end of 
the year. Good thoughts and carefully gathered experience 
take up no room, and may be carried about as our com¬ 
panions everywhere, without cost or encumbrance. An 
economical use of time is the true mode of securing leisure ; 
it enables us to get through business and carry it forward, 
instead of being driven by it. On the other hand, the mis¬ 
calculation of time involves us in perpetual hurry, confusion 
and difficulties ; and life becomes a mere shuffle of expedients, 
usually followed by disaster. Nelson once said, “I owe all 
my success in life to having been always a quarter of an hour 
before my time.”' 


Some take no thought of the value of money until they have 
come to an end of it, and many do the same with their time. 
The hours are allowed to flow by unemployed, and then, 
when life is fast waning, they bethink themselves of the duty 
of making a wiser use of it. But the habit of listlessness 
and idleness may already have become confirmed, and they 
are unable to break the bonds with which they have permitted 
themselves to become bound. Lost wealth may be replaced 
by industry, lost knowledge by study, lost health by temper¬ 
ance or medicine, but lost time is gone forever. 

A proper consideration of the value of time will also inspire 
habits of punctuality. “Punctuality,” said Louis XIV., “is 
the politeness of kings.” It is also the duty of gentlemen, 
and the necessity of men of business. Nothing begets con¬ 
fidence in a man sooner than the practice of this virtue, and 
nothing shakes confidence sooner than the want of it. 
He who holds to his appointment and does not keep you 
waiting for him, shows that he has regard for your time as 
well as for his own. Thus, punctuality is one of the modes by 
which we testify our personal respect for those whom we are 
called upon to meet in the business of life. It is also con¬ 
scientiousness, in a measure; for an appointment is a con¬ 
tract, express or implied, and he who does not keep it breaks 
faith, as well as dishonestly uses other people’s time, and 
thus inevitably loses character. We naturally come to the 
conclusion that the person who is careless about time is care¬ 
less about business, and that he is not the one to be trusted 
with the transaction of matters of importance. When Wash¬ 
ington’s secretary excused himself for the lateness of his 
attendance, and laid the blame upon his watch, his master 
quietly said, “ Then you must get another watch or I another 
secretary.” 

Napoleon was a thorough man of business. Though he had 
an immense love for details, he had also a vivid power of 
imagination, which enabled him to look along extended lines 
of action, and deal with those details on a large scale with 
judgment and rapidity. He possessed such knowledge of 
character as enabled him to select, almost unerringly, the best 
agents for the execution of his designs. But he trusted as 
little as possible to agents in matters of great moment, on 
w'hich important results depended. 

Like Napoleon, the Duke of Wellington was a first-rate 
man of business; and it is not perhaps saying too much to 
aver that it was in no small degree because of his possession 
of a business faculty amounting to genius that the Duke never 
lost a battle. His magnificent business qualities were every¬ 
where felt; and there can be no doubt that, by the care with 
which he provided for every contingency, ,and the personal 
attention which he gave to every detail, he laid the foundations 
of his great success. 



































\ 




K 





COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 


365 


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Notes, Bills, Orders, Checks, Drafts and Receipts Properly Drawn for Every State. 



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\' S P‘~\ VERY business man has felt the neces- 
sity of a simple and thorough explana¬ 
tion of the legal principles and usages 
which underlie all business transactions. 
The law presumes that no man is ignorant of 
the law, and consequently, when such vital 
issues are at stake, no one can afford to be 
ignorant. Not a day passes by in a large 
counting-house that some question does not 
arise which involves legal knowledge in its cor¬ 
rect solution. To those who have felt the 
need of a safe and simple adviser in those 
every-day difficulties of trade, we will offer the 
chapters which follow. All the matters in¬ 
cluded in the routine of business will be found 
fully treated, while such explanations are 
appended as will make the study one in which 
a mistake will be found impossible. 

All men should know so much of the ordi¬ 
nary law as protects their common and uni¬ 
versal rights, and it must be admitted by every 
student that business men should understand 
the most general laws of business—the law of 
partnership; how to make agreements; how 
to conduct sales; how to draw notes; how to 
collect them, and the like. Knowledge of the 
principles of business law will prevent, every 
day, important mistakes leading to trouble and 
loss. The laws have here been made plain by 


themselves, so that a thorough and satisfactory 
answer is at hand for every question. 

The forms given will be found exceptionally 
complete and accurate, having been prepared 
with care and examined with close scrutiny. 

NEGOTIABLE PAPER. 

Confidence is the broad foundation on which the whole 
superstructure of business, as it exists to-day, has been built. 
The steps in this progress have been, first, barter in kind, 
the exchange of a bushel of wheat for a handful of arrow¬ 
heads, as business is still conducted among the savages; 
next, the substitution of money as a medium of exchange; 
and finally, the substitution of negotiable paper, that is, docu¬ 
mentary evidence of debt, for money, completing the pro¬ 
gression. Negotiable paper includes promissory notes, due 
bills, drafts, checks, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, 
bank bills. Treasury notes (greenbacks), and all other evi¬ 
dences of debt, the ownership of which may be transferred 
from one person to another. 

The mere acknowledgment of debt is not sufficient to 
make negotiable paper; the promise of payment or an order 
on some one to pay is indispensable. This promise must be 
for money only. The amount must be exactly specified. 
The title must be transferable. This feature must be visible 
on the face of the paper by the use of such words as 
“bearer” or “order.” In some of the States peculiar 
phrases are ordered by statute, as “ Payable without defalca¬ 
tion or discount,” or “ Payable at-,” naming the bank 

or office. 


Promissory Notes. 


A written agreement, signed by one person, to pay another, 
at a fixed time, a stated sum of money, is a promissory note. 
It becomes negotiable by being made payable to an order on 


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366 


COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 


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some one or to bearer. As it is a contract, a consideration 
is one of its essential elements. Yet, although it be void as 
between the two first parties, being negotiable and coming 
into the hands of another person who gives value for it, not 
knowing of its defect, it has full force and may be collected. 

The date is of great consequence on all such paper. In 
computing time, the day of date is not counted, but it is the 
fixed point beginning the time at the end of which payment 
must be made. Omission of the date does not destroy a note, 
but the holder must prove to the time of its making. The 
promise to pay must be precise as to time which the note is 
to run. It must be at a fixed period, or conditional upon the 
occurrence of something certain to happen, as “at sight,” 
“five days after sight,” “on demand,” “three months after 
date,” “ten days after the death of John Doe.” The time 
not being specified, the note is considered “payable on 
demand,” and suit may be entered immediately. 

The maker, the person who promises and whose signature 
the note bears, must be competent. Insane people and idiots 
are naturally , and aliens, minors and married women may 
be legally, incompetent. The maker is responsible and binds 
himself to pay the amount stated on the note at its maturity. 
He need not pay it before it becomes due, but should he do 
so and neglect to cancel the note, he would be again respons¬ 
ible if any other person, without knowledge of such pay¬ 
ment, acquired it for value before maturity. Even a receipt 
for payment from the first payee would not stand good 
against the subsequent holder. 


The payee is the person in whose favor the note is drawn; 
the legal holder, the person to whom the money must be 
paid. When a note is made payable simply to bearer, with¬ 
out naming the payee, any one holding the note honestly 
may collect. 

A subsequent party, one who comes into possession of the 
note after the original holder, has a better claim than the 
first one, for the reason that between the maker and the 
first payee there may have been, in the contract, some under¬ 
standing or condition militating against the payment when it 
would become due, but the third person, knowing nothing of 
this, gives his value and receives the note. The law will 
always sustain the subsequent party. 

The endorser is held responsible if the maker fails to pay 
when the note arrives at maturity. A note payable to order 
must be endorsed by a holder upon passing it to another, and, 
as value has been given each time, the last holder will look 
to his next preceding one and to all the others. 

A note, being on deposit as collateral security, becoming 
due, the temporary holder is the payee and must collect. 

Endorsements. 

The following form will illustrate the shape in which a note 
should be drawn and endorsed. An endorsement is a writing 
across the back of a note, which, as will be seen further on, 
makes the" writer responsible for the amount of the note. 


COMMON FORM OF NEGOTIABLE NOTE, WITH ENDORSEMENTS. 


$J2yfOO. Qfy /cfcfcf. 

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In Blank. 


In Full. 




ENDORSEMENTS. 
General. Qualified. 


Pay 

Chas. Evans 
or order , 
without re¬ 
course. 


Conditional. 


Restrictive. 




L. A. Davis. 


Pay 

Chas. Evans 
or order, 
unless payment 
forbidde7i be¬ 
fore maturity. 

L. A. Davis. X 







<5 










































COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 


3 6 7 


The Endorser’s Responsibility. 

It has been generally admitted that the three first endorse¬ 
ments given amount to the same thing; that is, either the 
blank endorsement, the full endorsement or the general 
endorsement entitles the holder of the note to the money, 
and to look to Davis for payment if Benson defaults. It has 
even been held that in a general endorsement the holder had 
the right to fill in the words ‘'or order” after Chas. Evans’ 
name, if he saw fit. The qualified endorsement releases the 
endorser from any liability in case Benson defaults, the 
words “without recourse” meaning that the holder is with¬ 
out recourse against the endorser. The conditional and 
restrictive endorsement explain themselves by their wording, 
and, it is needless to say, are only used in special cases. 
Each endorser is severally and collectively liable for the 
whole amount of the note endorsed if it is dishonored, pro¬ 
vided it is duly protested and notice given to each. The 
endorser looks to the man who endorsed it before him, and 
so back to the original maker of the note. As soon as a note 
is protested, it is vitally necessary that notice should be sent 
to each person interested at once. 

Necessary Legal Points. 

Bearing the preceding facts in mind, any form of note 
which conforms to these requirements will hold in law: It 
must promise to pay a specified sum of money. To be on 
the safe side, however, it is well to see to it that any note 
offered for negotiation— 

Is dated correctly; 

Specifies the amount of money to be paid; 

Names the person to whom it is to be paid; 

Includes the words “or order” after the name of the 
payee, if it is desired to make the note negotiable; 

Appoints a place where the payment is to be made; 

States that the note is made “for value received; ” 

And is signed by the maker or his duly authorized repre¬ 
sentative. 

In some States phrases are required in the body of the 
note, such as “without defalcation or discount;” but, as 
a general thing, that fact is understood without the statement. 


FORMS OF NOTES. 

A Note Negotiable without Endorsement. 


F" 

§j $2yO, 


St. Louis, June 8, iSSj 

Thirty days after date I promise to pay J. H. 
Ames, or bearer, Two Hundred and Fifty Dollars, 
at the Third National Bank in St. Louis, for value 
received. 

Charles Cams. 




A Note Negotiable Only by Endorsement. 

•?200. Chicago, Nov. 26, 18S3. 

Three months after date I promise to pay John H. Woltering, or 
order, Two Hundred Dollars, value received. 

J. T. Norton. 

A Note Not Negotiable. 

$200. St. Louis, Nov. 17, 1883. 

Ninety days after date I promise to pay Charles C. Collins Two 
Hundred Dollars, value received. 

Samuel Atkinson. 


A Note Bearing Interest. 

$100. Baton Rouge, La., Nov. 26, 1SS3. 

Six months after date I promise to pay R. V. Jennings, or order, 
One Hundred Dollars, with interest, for value received. 

John Q. Watson. 

A Note Payable on Demand. 

$150. Philadelphia, Nov. 30, 1SS3. 

On demand I promise to pay Lainonte Whittlesey, or bearer, One 
Hundred and Fifty Dollars, value received. 

John Q. Chaffington. 


A Note Payable at Bank. 

$ioo. Cincinnati, Dec. 24, 1883. 

Thirty days after date I promise to pay Thomas I. Rankin, or order, 
at the Second National Bank, One Hundred Dollars, value received. 

Frank T. Morrison. 


Principal and Surety. 

8793. Newark, N. J., Dec. 28, 1883. 

Sixty days after date I promise to pay Daniel O’C. Patterson, or 
order. Seven Hundred and Ninety-three Dollars, with interest, value 
received. 

John G. Watterson, Principal. 
T. R. Graham, Security. 


A Married Woman’s Note in New York. 

$400. New York, Dec. 13, 1SS3. 

Three months after date I promise to pay Johnson, Dunham & Co., 
or order, Four Hundred Dollars, with interest. And I hereby charge 
my individual property and estate with the payment of this note. 

Clara C. Dickerson. 


A Joint Note. 

83,000. Detroit, Mich., Dec. 12, 1SS3. 

One year after date we jointly promise to pay E. C. Langworthy, 
or order, Three Thousand Dollars, value received. 

John C. Jennings. 
Walter D. Curtis. 


A Joint and Several Note. 

83,000. Detroit, Mich., Dec. 12, 1SS3. 

One year after date we jointly and severally promise to pay E. C. 
Langworthy, or order, Three Thousand Dollars, value received. 

John C. Jennings. 
Walter D. Curtis. 


A Partnership Note. 

No.- Boston, Mass., November 26, 1SS3. 

One month after date, without grace, we promise to pay to the 
order of ourselves Two Hundred and Fifty Dollars, at any bank in 
Boston. 

Johnson & Co., 

209 Temple Place. 

$180. Due Dec. 26, 18S3. 














































s 


\—- 

368 COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 


A Note Payable by Instalments. 

$3,000. Pittsburg, Nov. 18, 18S3. 

For value received, I promise to pay R. P. Donaldson & Co., or 
order, Three Thousand Dollars, in the manner following, to wit: 
One Thousand Dollars in one year, One Thousand Dollars in two 
years, and one Thousand Dollars in three years, with interest on all 
said sums, payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. 

Hugo R. Mueller. 


A Judgment Note, with Collateral Note Combined. 

[The portions enclosed in brackets are used in collateral notes 
only.] 

Chicago, Dec. 20, 1S83. 

One year after date, for value received, I promise to pay to the 
order of Jeremiah B. Shelton Three Hundred and Sixty-Five Dollars, 
with interest at the rate of eight per cent per annum [after due, hav¬ 
ing deposited with the legal holder hereof, as collateral security, 
* * *. And I hereby give said legal holder, his, her or their as¬ 
signs, authority to sell the same, or any part thereof, at the maturity 
of this note, or at any time thereafter, or before, in the event of said 
security depreciating in value, at public or private sale, without 
advertising the same, or demanding payment, or giving notice, and 
to apply so much of the proceeds thereof to the payment of this note 
as maybe necessary to pay the same, with all interest due thereon, 
and also to the payment of all expenses attending the sale of the said 
collaterals, and in case the proceeds of the sale of the same shall not 
cover the principal, interest and expenses, I promise to pay the defi¬ 
ciency forthwith after such sale, with interest at ten per cent per 
annum. And it is hereby agreed and understood that if recourse is 
had to such collateral, any money realized on sale thereof in excess 
of the amount due on this note shall be applicable to the payment of 
any other note or claim which the said legal holder may have against 
me, and in case of any exchange of, or addition to, the collateral 
above named, the provisions of this note shall extend to such new or 
additional collateral.] 

And to further secure the payment of said amount, I hereby author¬ 
ize, irrevocably, any attorney of any court of record to appear for 
me in such court, in term time or vacation, at any time hereafter, 
and confess a judgment without process in favor of the holder of this 
note, for such amount as may appear to be unpaid thereon, together 
with costs and twenty-five dollars attorney’s fee, and also to file a 
cognovit for the amount thereof with the agreement therein, that no 
writ ot error or appeal shall be presented upon the judgment en¬ 
tered by virtue hereof, nor any bill in equity filed to interfere in any 
manner with the operation of said judgment, and to waive and re¬ 
lease all errors which may intervene in any manner with the opera¬ 
tion of said judgment; and to waive and release all error which may 
intervene in any such proceedings, and consent to immediate execu¬ 
tion upon such judgment. Hereby ratifying and confirming all that 
said attorney may do by virtue hereof. 

John T. Stratford. [Seal.] 

A judgment note in Illinois requires the power of attorney 
to confess it. Many, and, in fact, most people deem a judg¬ 
ment note a sort of mortgage. It has no such effect, how¬ 
ever, and creates no lien or claim different from any other 
note, and differs from any other note in this only, that the 
holder can take it and go into court, enter up a judgment 
and have execution against the maker at once. Thus, by 
the judgment so entered up, the holder gets a lien, and not 
by any lien created by the note before judgment. 


A Short Form of Judgment Note. 

$460. Brooklyn, N. Y., Nov. 16, 1S83. 

On demand, for value received, I promise to pay, to the order of 
Alexander A. McHatton, Four Hundred and Sixty Dollars. And I 

y ----— --- 


hereby confess judgment for said sum with interest and costs, a re¬ 
lease of all errors, and a waiver of all rights of appeal and to the 
benefit of all laws exempting property from levy and sale. 

Ezekiah Partington. 


Sealed Note. 

$S,ooo. Cincinnati, O., Nov. 16, 1883. 

For value received, I promise to pay Edgar & Co., or order, Five 
Thousand Dollars, in three years from the date hereof, with interest 
payable semi-annually, without defalcation or discount. And in 
case of default of my payment of the interest or principal aforesaid 
with punctuality, I hereby empower any attorney-at-law, to be ap¬ 
pointed by said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, to appear in any court 
which said Edgar & Co., or their assigns, may select, and commence 
and prosecute a suit against me on said note, to confess judgment for 
all and every part of the interest or principal on said note, in the pay¬ 
ment of which I may be delinquent. 

Witness my hand and seal, this 16th day of November, A. D. 1SS3. 

John White. [Seal.] 

Attest: George Oldham. 


Forms of Notes in Several States. 

MISSOURI. 

<$60.00. St. Louis, Mo., July 24, 1883. 

Three months after date, I promise to pay to the 
order of Edgar M. Voll Sixty Dollars, for value re¬ 
ceived, negotiable and payable without defalcation or 
discount. 

Sigmund A. Abeles. 


INDIANA. 


$ 3 1 5 - Indianapolis, Ind., July 28, 1883. 

On demand, for value received, I promise to pay 
William Westerniann § Co., or order, Three Hundred 
and Fifteen Dollars, without interest, payable with¬ 
out any relief whatever from value or appraisement. 

Richard M. Sylvester. 


PENNSYLVANIA AND NEW JERSEY. 

P $ 3 °°< Philadelphia, Pa., July 26, 1883. 

Ei Ninety days after date, I promise to pay to the | 
[ order of Lafayette Armstrong Three Hundred Dol- 'j 

[ lars, at Third National Bank, value received, with- | 

>1 . | 

h out defalcation. 3 

| George Miller. $ 


7 














































Q 


G) 


V 


COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 


369 


~ 7 [ 


A Swindling Note. 


Carlyle, III., October3, 1883. 
One year after date, / promise to pay R. Tucker or 
order Four Hundred and Seventy-five Dollars {$HS) 
for value received, at ten per cent per annum, 
payable at Carlyle, Illinois. 

JOHN WILSON, 

Witness : John Roe. 


Although the above venerable scheme of the confidence 
man has been exposed time after time, it still continues to 
add yearly to its list of victims. A paper is drawn up 
wherein a farmer agrees to pay ten or twenty dollars when he 
has sold goods to a given amount. By tearing off the right- 
hand end of this paper, what is apparently an agreement for 
a small amount becomes a promissory note for a considera¬ 
ble sum. This note is sold at a bank, thereby becoming the 
property of a third and innocent party, and the signer of the 
agreement is called upon to pay the note. 

This shows how important it is that a man should read and 
carefully examine every paper presented to him for his signa¬ 
ture. 




bearer Ten Dollars, when I sell by 
worth of Patent Fanning Mills, 
Said Ten Dollars when due is 


DUE BILLS. 

A Due Bill differs from a note in the fact that it is a simple 
acknowledgment of a debt. It may be payable in money or 
merchandise. It is the simplest form of negotiable paper. 

$20.00. Philadelphia, May 8, 18S3. 

Due John Jackson, or order, for value received, Twenty Dollars. 

Henry Folsom. 


In acknowledgment of debt, a form of due bill called an 
I O U is sometimes given. 


IOU Three Hundred and Fifty Dollars. 


Wm. Johnson. 


Due Bill Payable in Merchandise. 

$50.00. St. Louis, May 14, 1SS3. 

Due Enos Baldwin, Fifty Dollars, payable in goods from our store 

Sontag & Weber. 


on demand. 


Due Bill Payable in Money and Merchandise. 

$50.00. St. Louis, May 14, 1SS3. 

Due Howard Read, Fifty Dollars, payable, Twenty-five Dollars 
cash, Twenty-five Dollars in goods from our store, on demand. 

Sontag & Weber. 


Agent for R. Tucker. 


ORDERS. 

An Order for Money. 

Waco, Texas, April 1, 1883. 


Mr. B. J. Ring: 

Please pay W. H. Cavanagh Ten Dollars on my account. 

M. F. Crenshaw. 


An Order for Merchandise. 

Dallas, Texas, May 15, 1883. 

Mr. N. W. Bechtel: 

Please pay L. W. Motsuff Thirty Dollars in Merchandise and 
charge the same to my account. 

L. E. Kittrell. 


RECEIPTS. 

For Money 011 Account. 

$15.00. Kirkwood, Mo., Jan. 1, 1883. 

Received of J. M. Hardy Fifteen Dollars on account. 

P. D. Rich. 


In Full of All Demands. 

$150. Des Moines, Iowa, Sept. 2, 1SS3. 

Received of J. C. O’Neal One Hundred and Fifty Dollars, in 
full of all demands to date. 

Alfred W. Gregory. 


For Rent. 


$80. St. Louis, Mo., Nov. i, 1S83. 

Received of W. F. George Eighty Dollars, in full for one month’s 
rent of residence at 2S07 Olive St. 

John G. Stewart. 


For Money Advanced on a Contract. 

$500. Denver, Col., May 15, 1883. 

Received of L. W. Logan Five Hundred Dollars, in advance, on 
a contract to build for him a dwelling-house at No. 315 Cheyenne 
Ave., Denver. 

John T. Sherffy. 


/ 




(a 




































1ST 


37 ° 


7 

COMMERCIAL LAW AND FORMS. 


_A_i-k_A_ A _iT_A_-T <lLS®S£s. T*_A_id:_A_ T- A _sk_A_ Li 

POINTS OF BUSINESS LAW. 

V -t-" V" -t- ' V '"-t-" V -I'- V •T- v ■-'l- V 


C HECKS made payable to “Cash” or order, or to some 
character, or number, or order, are held to be payable 
to bearer. 

A past-due note entrusted for collection to an agent 
was converted by him to his own use, and was afterwards sold 
under an execution against him. The court decided that the 
purchaser had not acquired any interest in the note and could 
not maintain an action against the maker. 

In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the 
holder is not required to notify a surety that the note is not 
paid, before the settlement of the maker’s estate. 

Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated per¬ 
son, are not collectible. A note made by a minor is void. 

If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on 
demand. 

An endorser can avoid liability by writing “ without re¬ 
course ” beneath his signature. 

A check endorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in 
the drawer’s hands. 

A signature written with a lead pencil is valid. 

No contract is good unless there be legal consideration. 

An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a 
partial payment. 

In case of a note made payable one day after date, with 
interest from date at the rate of 12 per cent per annum, in¬ 
terest to b.e paid annually, it was held that the note would 
draw the same rate of interest after maturity until paid. 

The revised statutes of Indiana provide that notes payable 
“to order” or “to bearer,” in that State, are negotiable as 
inland bills of exchange, and the payees and endorsers 
thereof may recover as in case of such bills. 

Payment is the performance of an agreement or the fulfil¬ 
ment of a promise, the discharge in money of a sum due. 
Pleaded as a defence, payment of money or of an equivalent 
accepted in its place, to the plaintiff or his authorized repre¬ 
sentative, must be proved by defendant. To extinguish the 
debt, payment must be made by a person having the right 
to do so, to a person entitled to receive it, at the appointed 
place and time, and in something proper to receive, both as to 
kind and quality. Proof that anything has been done or 
accepted as payment is proof of payment. A receipt is 
prima facie evidence of payment; so also is the possession 
by the debtor of a security after the day of payment 

ACCOMMODATION PAPER. 


a draft in Jones’ hand is accommodation paper and cannot 
be used as an implied contract against Smith; if discounted 
at a bank, or transferred for money to an individual, it be¬ 
comes business paper as far as the holder is concerned, and 
its payment may be enforced. 

Forged Paper. 

The endorsee generally obtains a perfect title when paper 
is transferred before maturity; but if the first endorsement 
is forged, no title rests in the holder. If the signature of the 
maker of a note is forged, the holder has no recourse against 
him. Negotiable paper is void when the consideration is 
either contrary to the general principles of common law or is 
prohibited by statute. 

Want of Consideration. 

Want of consideration—a common defence interposed to 
the payment of negotiable paper—is a good defence between 
the original parties to the paper; but after it has been trans¬ 
ferred before maturity to an innocent holder for value, it is 
not a defence. 

Stolen or Lost Paper. 

Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or endorsed in blank, 
which has been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the 
thief or finder, but a holder who receives it in good faith be¬ 
fore maturity, for value, can hold it against the owner’s claims 
at the time it was lost. 

Payment Before Maturity. 

Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand 
payment before maturity; for instance, when a draft has been 
protested for non-acceptance and the proper notices served, 
the holder may at once proceed against the drawer and 
endorsers. 

State Laws as to Payment. 

If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is 
made, the contract will be governed by the laws of that State. 
When negotiable paper is payable in a State other than that 
in which it is made, the laws of that State will govern it. 
Marriage contracts, if valid where they are made, are valid 
everywhere. Contracts relating to personal property are 
governed by the laws of the place where made, except those 
relating to real estate, which are governed by the laws of the 
place where the land is situated. 


Drafts as well as notes are employed as accommodation 
paper. For example, Smith, being willing to lend Jones 
money which the later needs, and having none immediately 
available, draws a draft on Robinson, who is his debtor, and 
makes it payable to Jones, who gives no value for it. Such 


Collateral Security. 

If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for the 
payment of a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to 
demand payment and have it protested when dishonored, the 
bank is liable to the owner for the full amount of the paper. 








































LAWS RELATING- TO INTEREST. 


371 


Tfje Lawg of the United fStsateg and Canada Relating to Infefegt 

COMPILED FROM THE LATEST STATE AND TERRITORIAL STATUTES. 


Laws of Each State and Territory Regarding Rates of Interest and Penalties for Usury, with the Law or Custom as to 

Day of Grace on Notes and Drafts. 


STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

LEGAL 

RATE OF 

INTEREST. 

RATE 

ALLOWED BY 

CONTRACT. 

PENALTIES FOR USURY. 

GRACE OR NO 

GRACE. 

Alabama. 

Per cent. 

8 

Per cent. 

8 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Arizona. 

10 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Arkansas. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of principal and interest. 

No statute. 

California. 

7 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

No grace. 

Colorado. 

10 

Any rate. 

No penalty, except of excess. 

Grace. 

Connecticut.. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess. 

Grace. 

Dakota. 

7 

12 

Forfeiture of interest. 

Grace. 

Delaware. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of principal. 

Grace. 

District of Columbia. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Florida. 

8 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

No statute. 

Georgia. 

7 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Idaho. 

10 

18 

Fine of $100 or imprisonment. 

No grace. 

Illinois. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Indiana. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Grace. 

Iowa. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of 10 per cent on amount. 

Grace. 

Kansas. 

7 

12 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Grace. 

Kentucky. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Grace. 

Louisiana. 

5 

8 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Maine. 

6 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

G race. 

Maryland.,. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Grace. 

Massachusetts.. 

6 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Michigan. 

7 

10 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Minnesota. 

7 

12 

Forfeiture of excess over 12 per cent. 

Grace. 

Mississippi. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Missouri. 

6 

10 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Montana. 

10 

Any rate. 

N 0 penalty. 

No grace. 

Nebraska. 

7 

10 

Forfeiture of interest and cost. 

Grace 

Nevada. 

10 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

New Hampshire. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of thrice the excess. 

Grace. 

New Jersey. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

New Mexico. 

6 

12 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

No statute. 

New York. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of principal and interest. 

Grace. 

North Carolina. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Ohio. 

6 

8 

Forfeiture of excess above 6 per cent. 

Grace. 

Oregon. 

8 

10 

Forfeiture of principal and interest. 

Grace. 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Grace. 

Rhode Island. 

6 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

South Carolina. 

7 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Tennessee. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess of interest and $ 100 fine. 

Grace. 

Texas. 

8 

12 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Utah. 

10 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Vermont. 

6 

6 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Grace. 

Virginia. 

6 

6 * 

Forfeiture of excess over 6 per cent. 

Grace. 

Washington Territory. 

West Virginia. 

Wisconsin. 

10 

6 

Any rate. 

6 * 

No penalty. 

Forfeiture of excess of interest. 

Grace. 

7 

10 

Forfeiture of entire interest. 

Grace. 

Wyoming. 

12 

Any rate. 

No penalty. 

Grace. 

Canada.. 

6 

Any rate. 


Grace. 

New Brunswick. 

6 

Any rate. 


Grace. 

Nova Scotia. 

6 

Any rate. 


Grace. 


* Except in 

cases defined by statutes of the State. 



No agreement to pay a higher than the legal rate can be enforced unless such agreement is expressly authorized by statute, the 
established presumption of the law, in the absence of such legislation, being that such a rate is usurious. 






























































































372 


LAWS RELATING TO LIMITATION OF ACTIONS. 


The Law? of the United Stated aqd Caqada Relating to Limitation of potion?. 


Note. — A statute of limitation beginsto run from the time at which a creditor is authorized first to commence suit. Upon mutual, concurrent 
and open accounts, the statute, in general, begins to run with the date of the last item. A debt, otherwise barred, may be revived by a new 
promise made within the period of limitation. The new promise may be either express or implied from a part payment, or any unqualified 
acknowledgment from which a promise may be inferred. 


STATE. 

Q 

Z • 

< J 

C/5 

< 

OPEN 

ACCOUNTS. 

a ~ . 

Hi n C 

< t:£ 

s<- 

h r x 

z 0 

SEALED 

INSTRUMENTS. 

! JUDGMENTS 

OF A COURT OF 
RECORD. 



Tears. 

Tears. 

1 'ears. 

Tears. 

Tears. 


* Alabama. 

I 

3 

6 

10 

20 


Arkansas. 

I 

3 

5 

s 

JO 

Judgments of Justice’s court, 5 years. Judgment liens expire in 3 years. 

* Arizona. 

I 

2 

4 

4 

4 

California. 

I 

2 

4 

4 

S 

An action upon a judgment rendered or contract made out of the State is 

Colorado. 

I 

6 

6 

6 

3 

barred in 2 years. 

When the cause of action accrues without the State, the periods of limita- 

Connecticut. 

3 

6 

6 

17 

17 

tion are 2 years for notes and accounts; 3 years for sealed instruments 
and judgments. 

Promissory notes not negotiable are barred in 17 years. Demand notes. 

Dakota. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

when indorsed, must be protested 4 months from date, without grace, to 
hold the indorser. 

Delaware. 

1 

3 

6 

20 

20 


District of Columbia_ 

I 

3 

T, 

I 2 

12 


Florida. 

2 

4 

5 

20 

20 


Georgia. 

I 

4 

6 

20 


J udgments become dormant in 7 years from date of last return on execution 
issued, but may be revived. Foreign judgments barred in 5 years. 

Sealed instruments, judgments, notes, in 3 years if defendant resided out 
of Territory when the cause of action accrued. 

Idaho. 

2 

2 

4 

4 

s 

* Illinois. 


5 

10 

IO 

20 

* Indiana. 

2 

s 

2 0 

20 

IO 


'* Iowa. 

2 

5 

10 

IO 

20 


* Kansas. 

I 

3 

s 

s 


Judgments become dormant in 4 years. 

* Kentucky. 

I 

s 

IS 

IS 

is 

“Store account” for goods sold and delivered,2 years from 1st of January 

* Louisiana. 

I 

3 

4 

I 0 

IO 

next succeeding date of last Item. Merchandise accounts between mer¬ 
chants, 7 years. 

Maine. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

Witnessed notes, 20 years. 

Maryland. 

* Massachusetts. 

1 

2 

3 

6 

l 

I 2 

20 

12 

20 

Witnessed notes, 20 years. 

Michigan. 

2 

6 

6 

I 0 

IO 

* Minnesota. 

2 

6 

6 

10 

IO 


Mississippi. 

I 

3 

6 

7 

7 

Years from date of last execution. Foreign judgments barred in 3 years. 

Missouri. 

2 

s 

10 

IO 

IO§§ 

Accounts stated, 3 years. 

* Montana. 

2 

s 

10 

10 

10 


* Nebraska. 

I 

4 

s 

q 

4 


* Nevada. 

2 

2 

6 

4 

s 

Liabilities incurred out of State, 3 years. 

New Hampshire. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

New lersev. 

2§ 

6 

6 

16 

20 


New Mexico. 

4 

6 

6 

i q 


New York. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 


North Carolina. 

>t 

3 

3 

10 

10 


* Ohio. 

I 

6 

IS 

is 

IS 

For foreign judgments. Domestic judgments become dormant in 5 years, 

* Oregon. 

2 

6 

6 

IO 

IO 

but may be revived in 21 years after becoming dormant. 

* Pennsylvania. 

I 

6 

6 

20 

20 

Mercantile accounts are not affected bv the statute as long as they remain 

Rhode Island. 

, 

6 

6 

20 

20 

open. 

South Carolina. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 


* Tennessee. 

I 

6 

6 

IO 

IO 

% 

* Texas. 

I 

2 

4 

4 t 

IO 


* Utah. 

I 

2 

4 

4 

s 

Action “ for specific recovery of personal property,” or “ for relief on the 

* Vermont. 

2 

6 

6 

S 

s 

ground of fraud,” 3 years. 

Witnessed notes, 14 years. 

Virginia. 

I 

Si! 

S 

20 

20 

Judgments of ether States, period of limitation under the law of that 
State, not exceeding 10 years. “ Store account,” 2 years. 

* Washington Territory. 

2 


6 

6 

6 

West Virginia. 

I 

5IIII 

IO 

10 

IO 

Judgments of another State, same as in Virginia. “Store account,” 3 years. 

* Wisconsin. 

2 

6 

6 

20 

20 

J udgments of other States and sealed instruments, where the liability ac- 

* Wyoming. 

I 

4 

S 

5 


crued out of the State, 10 years. 

J udgments become dormant in S years. Foreign debts and judgments, 1 

CANADA. 

Province of Ontario. 

2 

6 

6 

10 

10 

year. 

Province of Quebec. 

I, 2 

S 

S 

3° 

30 



* In the States thus marked, it is provided by statute that a cause of action shall be barred which first accrued in another State and is barred by 
the statute of limitations of that State. 1 his is contrary to the general rule, by which a debtor must have resided in the State during the 
statute period before he can take advantage of it. 

t Slander, 6 months. § Assault, 4 years. || Store accounts, 2 years. 

| Seals abolished. §§ In certain courts, 20 years. |||| Store accounts, 3 years. 





























































































































J- 


\ 


BOARDS OF TRADE AND STOCK EXCHANGES. 


373 





RAD E# STOCK 


XCHANGES 


A REALISTIC VIEW OF 


ERCTAL GAM3 


Roards 0 




HEN the fisherman, in olden times, 
had secured his net of fish, to dis¬ 
pose of the product of his labor he 
had to travel inland until he found 
a farmer willing to exchange his wheat for 
the other’s wares. It is a long step from that 
primitive trade to the commerce of the nine¬ 
teenth century, which is housed in magnifi¬ 
cent palaces, and whose domain stretches 
to the uttermost ends of the earth. The 
farmer of to-day grows his crop of grain in 
Dakota and sends it to his commission mer¬ 
chant in Chicago. This broker goes on 
’Change and sells the wheat to the highest 
bidder. Perhaps it goes to Austria, perhaps 
to Florida — the pulse of the whole world 
beats in every exchange. Wherever there is 
scarcity, there food flows out of the Boards of 
Trade — they form a delicate balance, preserv¬ 
ing the supply of food all over the world in 


exact accord with the demand. Of all the 
products of our civilization, the Exchanges 
are among the most complicated, delicate and 
serviceable. They are the places where those 
who want to buy meet those who want to sell. 
Backed up by all the accessories of civiliza¬ 
tion, they form the governors on the steam 
engine of progress, automatically regulating 
the world. Is there a probable failure of the 
crops in Denmark, the news is flashed at once 
to America, and vessels loaded for the Baltic 
are clearing for sea in twenty-four hours. In 
a word, they are the last best device for simpli¬ 
fying trade and reducing buying and selling to 
an exact science. Unfortunately the magni¬ 
tude of the business done and the methods 
of doing it are making of the Exchanges 
gigantic engines for robbery and oppression, 
instead of, as they should be, blessings to the 
land. 



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DEALING IN FUTURES. 

The door by which the abuses crept into this great system 
was one opened for the purpose of facilitating trade. Sup¬ 
pose a miller takes a contract to supply so many thousand bar¬ 
rels of flour during July and August. lie first goes on’Change 
and contracts with a wheat merchant to deliver to him so many 
thousand bushels of wheat during July and August, at a certain 
fixed price. This is legitimate and business-like; but note what 


why be bothered with a commodity that is of no value to him? 
The next step was easy. A., in May, sells B. 5*00° bushels of 
wheat, to be delivered in June, at $1.10 a bushel. June ends, 
and on settling day the market price of wheat is $1.18. A. 
does not deliver to B. the wheat ; he simply hands him $400, 
the difference on 5,000 bushels between the price at which he 
bought and the market. The grain has become a commercial 
fiction, which neither party cares anything about. Simply, the 
two men are betting on the price of the staple on the 3°th of 


THE CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE BUILDING. 

'The Greatest Speculative Market in the World. Its business transactions for one year amount to 
more than Three Thousand Million Dollars. 

follows. Another man, not a miller, or not really desiring to 
grind the wheat into flour, believes that when July or August 
come, the market value of wheat will be higher than the wheat 
can be now bought for delivery then, and he buys on speculation 
for future delivery. For a long time the wheat was delivered 
actually and resold again by the purchaser, but this process at 
last became too slow for progressive America. The purchaser 
does not want the wheat; he has no actual use for it. Then 

11 ^— - --- ■ — 


June. A. bets that it will be $1.10, or less. B. bets that it 
will be more, and the rule of the game is that the loser shall 
pay the difference between his guess and the actual price. In¬ 
stead of legitimate trading, the two men are gambling as truly 
as if they were betting on the turn of a card or the speed of a 
horse. The game, like all popular gambling games, is exceed¬ 
ingly simple. If the market goes up or down, you lose or win 
as you have staked your money. 










































BOARDS OF TRADE AND STOCK EXCHANGES. 


375 


N 


OPTION TRADING. 

It soon came to be a recognized and legitimate trade, this deal¬ 
ing in Futures — a part, and indeed the greater part, of the 
business of the Exchanges. At first, as we have said above, 
the actual grain or pork was transferred and the whole amount 
of money paid over. New features were introduced, giving 
the buyer or the seller, as the case might be, the “ option ” of 
settling at any time between the transaction and a given date. 
A trade made “ seller June,” for instance, means that the seller 
can tender the merchandise at any time during June, and the 
buyer must pay for it when tendered. A trade “ buyer June ” 
just reverses this, and permits the purchaser to demand the 
goods at any time in June that he sees fit. Grain and pro¬ 
visions are sold under both these options for each month and 
for the year. 

A PUT is a peculiar privilege of this sort. A. thinks that 
wheat is going down. It is to-day $1.12; by paying $5 or $10 
to B., B. gives him the right to “ put ” or deliver him 500 
bushels at $1. ioJ< within three days. If the grain does not go 
down below $i.ioj£, A. simply loses what he paid for the 
put; if it goes below $1.10 } 4 , B. gives him the difference 
between $i.ioJ^ and the market price at which he makes up 
his mind to close. 

A Call is a privilege the reverse of a put. The buyer of a 
call buys the right to call or demand a specified amount of 
grain at a price named, and the seller must deliver it or pay 
the difference. 

A Straddle is a combination of the put and the call. 
It gives the purchaser the right to get the difference if the 
grain goes either up or down. In other words, the man selling 
the straddle bets that, within the specified time, wheat will not 
fluctuate; the buyer bets that it will. 

A “call ” is generally sold a couple of cents under the mar¬ 
ket ; a “ put ” a couple of cents over, and a “ straddle ” a couple 
of cents on both sides, the difference being usually enough to 
much more than protect the seller. 


MARGINS. 

The gentlemen who built up this elaborate system of wind 
trading soon saw that, while it was entirely unnecessary that 
any grain or provisions should change hands, some sort of a 
valuable stake should be upon the board. The vultures who 
live upon this business have little confidence in human honesty, 
and, to clinch trades, they invented another improvement—the 
margin. A. sells B. 5,000 bushels of December wheat at $1.10 ; 
each man puts up a “ margin ” of one cent a bushel, $50 in the 
hands of the legal stakeholder, the secretary of the Exchange. 
The market drops to $1.09. A. at once demands more “ mar¬ 
gin ” of B., who must put up another cent a bushel, and keep 
on putting up as long as the market keeps going down, for, 
when he ceases to protect the property by keeping a clear 
margin put up, he is in danger of being closed out, and A. will 


freeze him out the moment his margin is exhausted. As soon 
as the trade is closed, the stakeholding secretary hands over the 
“margin” to the winner. If, instead of going down, the 
grain had gone up, A. would have had to put up the margins 
just in the same way as B. was compelled to do it. From this 
we see that a margin may be defined as a sum of money put up 
as a forfeit to secure the winner in an option trade. When the 
margin is exhausted, so that further loss is not guaranteed to 
the winner by a cash deposit, it is the custom to close the 
trade and “ rake in the pot,” as other gamblers would say. 


CORNERS. 

Supposing that there are six million bales of cotton in the 
country, and A., B. and C., great capitalists, combine their 
money and buy up five million bales. They are said to have 
“ cornered ” the cotton market. The purchase makes them 
masters of the situation, and they can put what price they wish 
on the cotton, which the spinners are waiting to buy. This 
was the old-fashioned way of “ cornering.” It is obsolete now. 
Say there are six million bales in the land, and the syndicate 
buys from those who sell, without having the stuff, ten million 
bales, to be delivered in January. Settling day comes, and the 
syndicate will not take the differences ; they demand the actual 
cotton, all of which they own themselves, and after selling it at 
a low price, the unfortunate brokers who are caught have to 
buy it, from the very men they must deliver to, at as high a rate 
as the holders’ consciences will permit them to charge. 

Beginning with future trading, the phantom of a bushel of 
wheat or corn, or a barrel of provisions, becomes entirely disas¬ 
sociated with the actual merchandise. And in every exchange 
thousands of bushels are bought and sold for every one bushel 
brought into the elevators, and hundreds of tierces of ficti¬ 
tious and ghostly lard for every one tierce run in the pork- 
houses. The Chicago Board of Trade sells every day as much 
wheat as the State of Illinois harvests in a year. Its yearly 
sale is five times the whole amount of wheat raised in the 
Union. Its spectral hogs outnumber the real hogs in the land 
three to one. But, although one may sell phantoms all day 
long, when settling day comes and the purchaser demands the 
real article of which you have sold him the image or ghost, you 
must produce. And if the seller owns all the grain, or all the 
lard in the market, it is from him you must buy in order to 
deliver. The fiction is turned into a reality, and the screws 
put on with terrible effect. Last year, in 1882, to show how 
these things are done, one firm in St. Louis obtained control of 
all the oats in sight, besides owning many thousands of bushels 
of futures. They fixed the settling price at 41 cents. If any 
of those who had sold them the oats could buy the grain any 
cheaper anywhere else, of course they were free to buy it and 
deliver, but this one firm owned all the oats, and the unfortu¬ 
nate shorts had to come up and settle at the price named. A 
little later a wheat corner was attempted, but the shorts were 
alarmed in time before the syndicate got control of the market, 
and by remarkable push were able to secure the grain and 
deliver it, to the utter discomfiture of the longs. In a corner, 











































376 


BOARDS OF TRADF. AND STOCK EXCHANGES. 


1 


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each side proceeds upon the supposition that the seller is selling 
what he has not got, and the buyer is buying what he does not 
want. Any combination of men with an unlimited supply of 
money, unless they are met by another combination with an 
equally long purse, can corner any article in the market. The 
process is beautifully simple. It consists in buying more than 
can be delivered, and then making the sellers deliver or forfeit 
their margins. « 


THE RESULTS OF CORNERS. 

With a wisdom which, under other circumstances, would be 
highly commendable, the gentlemen who make the corners al¬ 
ways select some article which must find a market, and as there 
is but one vital necessity, food is the favorite article which is 
manipulated. The corner always makes food dear. It buys 
grain and provisions at low prices, and forces them up to high 
ones, and the misfortune is, that the cost of the real grain must 
go up with the cost of the fictitious article. The livelihood, 
the sustenance of the whole people, is made the battledore and 
shuttlecock of the gamblers on the Exchange. We quote from 
an exhaustive article on this subject by Henry D. Lloyd, in the 
North American Review (August, 1883): 

“ Dr. Drysdale, of London, at the last session of the Social 
Science Congress, pointed out how the death rate rose with 
scarcity of food. The mean age of the rich in England at the 
time of death is fifty-five ; among the poor it is not thirty. 
The death rate among the children of the comfortable classes is 
eighty in a thousand ; among the working people of Manches¬ 
ter and Liverpool it is three hundred in a thousand. Dr. Fan- 
shows that the death rate of England decreases three per cent 
when wheat declines two shillings a quarter. As food grows 
dear, typhus grows plenty. Scarcer bread means more crime. 
An increase of one larceny to every hundred thousand in¬ 
habitants comes with every rise of two farthings in the price of 
wheat in Bavaria. The enemies of the men who corner wheat 
and pork could wish for no heavier burden on their souls than 
that they should be successful. As wheat rises, flour rises; and 
when flour becomes dear, through manipulation, it is the blood 
of the poor that flows into the treasury of the syndicate. Such 
money costs too much. The following from the records of the 
Chicago market shows how the wheat corners of the last four J 
years have enhanced the price of bread. The coincidence is 
doubly significant, because flour is not one of the speculative 
commodities of the Board. It is bought and sold only for use. 
But its prices are glued to the speculative quotations of wheat: 

The Corner of 1879. 

Wheat lowest, January, 81 '/ 2 ; highest, December, $1.33. 

Flour lowest, January, $4.00 ; highest, December, $6.50. 

The Corner of 1881. 

Wheat lowest, February, 9 6 J 4 ; highest, October, $1.43. 

Flour lowest, February, $4.75 ; highest, September, $7.50. 


The April Corner of 1882. 

Wheat highest, April, $1.42 ; falling to 91^ in November. 

Flour highest, May, $6.25 ; falling to $4.75 in December. 

“ The return of the price after the corner does not fill the 
stomachs that have been pinched for months. Every moment 
the corner lasts there is a mouthful of food the less for the 
laboring man. Every hour of its continuance some child in 
Pittsburg or Manchester grows more faint, and every day hun¬ 
dreds of little hands let go another finger from the slippery 
edge of existence. One of the iron manufacturers of the 
West, President O. W. Potter, of the North Chicago Rolling 
Mills, the employer of many thousands of men, when ques¬ 
tioned in May about the strike of iron-workers, then believed 
to be impending, and promising to be the worst that had yet 
taken place in this country, said: 

“ ‘ The laborers oppose the reduction of wages for the very 
good reason that they cannot live upon any lower wages. And 
that is true. They cannot stand the reduction with the high 
price of living. There are some things that are not to be 
talked about in public that bring this about, and one of them is 
the cornering of food on the Board of Trade. A few men 
manipulate the foods of the workingmen, and create a corner 
in wheat and meats, and the laborer has to pay the increased 
cost. They turn the screws, and up go the prices a notch or 
two. And they may let up so that the market goes down a lit¬ 
tle ; but all the time a few men are making money, and the 
laborer gets no better fare and pays no lower price for the 
necessaries of life. I am apprehensive of the results that all 
this will bring about, and there is more anxiety in certain 
quarters about the future than people dare to imagine.’ ” 


. THE BUCKET-SHOPS. 

The fiction of value which is always preserved on the Ex¬ 
changes is entirely cast aside in the “ bucket-shops,” which are a 
sort of warts or excrescences which have grown out upon the 
commercial body in our large cities. These places secure the 
Chicago and New York quotations and furnish to boys and the 
poorer clerks the same opportunities for gambling offered to 
their betters in the Exchanges. Here the poorest can try his 
luck on grain, just as at the fair he can try it at thimblerig or 
three-card monte. You can make a trade in pork or wheat 
which will involve as small an amount as five dollars; in a 
word, the wholesale methods of the great Boards of Trade are 
diminished to retail robbery in the bucket-shop. Here there 
is no pretence of delivery of the merchandise. The victim goes 
through the form of buying or selling, but it is a form and 
nothing more. The profits and losses depend upon the quota¬ 
tions, which are often doctored and are never wholly reliable. 
False figures are posted again and again, and the lamb is shorn 
of his little fleece in the most barefaced manner. The bucket- 
shop keeper is generally a broken-down broker from the Board 
of Trade who has lost what remnant of self-respect remained 
































1 


BOARDS OF TRADE AND STOCK EXCHANGES. 


377 


to him. The shops are exactly on a par with the pool-rooms 
and other gambling hells to be found in every city, and they 
are more demoralizing because they are more easy of access. 

Fictitious Quotations are, as we said, one of the com¬ 
monest devices of the bucket-shop. These are effected in dif¬ 
ferent ways ; sometimes false telegrams are sent from the main 
source of information ; more frequently the telegraph operator 
is furnished with the figures he is to post up instead of those 
really telegraphed. 


Freezing-out is another cunning device, by which the little 
margin put up by the lamb is jobbed. The moment the com¬ 
modity falls to a certain point, even though the margin is not 
exhausted, the trade is declared closed and the loss charged up 
against the amateur operator. This high-handed proceeding 
is the most fruitful of all in the reach of the bucket-shops. 
Like Dante’s Inferno, one motto should be painted over all of 
them : 

“All hope abandon ye who enter here.” 







TERMS USED ON ’CHANGE. 





Accommodation Paper. —Notes or bills not representing an actual sale 
or trade transaction, but merely drawn to be discounted for the benefit of 
drawer, acceptor or endorsers, or all combined. 

Accord and Satisfaction. —Offer and acceptance of one thing in place 
of another due. 

Account Sales. —The account of a broker or commission agent, showing 
amount and rate of sales, expenses of freight, commission, etc., and net 
amount due the principal. 

Advances. —Money paid before goods are delivered to buyer or sold by 
broker. 

Arbitration. —Settlement of disputes by disinterested parties. 

Balance of Trade. —Difference in value between total imports and ex¬ 
ports of a country. 

Ballooning. —To work up a stock far beyond its intrinsic worth by 
favorable stories or fictitious sales. 

Bear. —One who strives to depress the price of stocks, etc., and for this 
reason “ goes short.” 

Buying Long.—B uying in expectation of a rise. 

Board of Trade. —An association of business men to regulate matters 
of trade and further their interests, and for the settlement of differences be¬ 
tween its members. About equivalent to Merchants' Exchange or Cham¬ 
ber of Commerce. 

Breadstuffs. —Any kind of grain, corn or meal. 

Broker.—A n agent or factor; a middleman paid by commission. 

Brokerage. —A percentage for the purchase or sale of money and stocks. 

Bull. —A broker or dealer who believes that the value of stocks or bread- 
stuffs will rise, and speculates for a rise — “goes long.” 

Call. —Demand for payment of instalments due on stock. 

Call. —A privilege given to another to “ call ” for delivery at a time and 
price fixed. 

Chamber of Commerce. —An association of merchants for the encour¬ 
agement of trade. 

Clique. —A combination of operators controlling large capital in order to 
unduly expand or break down the market. 

Collaterals. —Any kind of values given in pawn when money is bor¬ 
rowed. 

Commission. —A percentage allowed an agent or broker for a sale. 

Corners. —The buying up of a large quantity of stocks or grain to raise 
the price. When the market is oversold, the shorts, if compelled to deliver, 
find themselves in a “ corner.” 

Curbstone Brokers. —Brokers or agents who are not members of any 
regular organization, and do business mainly on the sidewalk. 


Delivery. —When stock or grain is brought to the buyer in exact 
accordance with the rules of the Exchange, it is called a good delivery. 
When there are irregularities the delivery is pronounced bad, and the buyer 
can appeal to the Exchange. 

Differences. —The price at which a stock is bargained for and the rate 
or day of delivery are not usually the same, the variation being termed the 
difference. 

Engrosser. —One who takes the whole of a line of goods ; a forestaller; 
one who “ corners the market” on commodities. 

Exchange. —Place where merchants meet to transact business; differ¬ 
ence in value of currencies ; percentage on sale of bills. 

Exchange Broker. —One who negotiates foreign bills of exchange. 

Factor.— An agent appointed to sell goods on commission. 

Factorage.— Commissions allowed factors. 

Flat.'— Inactive; depressed; dull. The flat value of bonds and stocks 
is the value without interest. 

Flyer.— A small side operation, not employing one’s whole capital. 

Forcing Quotations is where brokers wish to keep up the price of a 
stock and to prevent its falling out of sight. This is generally accomplished 
by a small sale. 

Grain.— Collective name for all cereals. 

Gunning a stock is to use every art to produce a break when it is known 
that a certain house is heavily supplied and would be unable to resist an 
attack. 

Kite-Flying. —Expanding one’s credit beyond wholesome limits. 

Lame Duck.— Stock-brokers’ slang for one unable to meet his liabilities. 

Long.—O ne is long when he carries stock or grain for a rise. 

Pointer.— A theory or fact regarding the market on which one bases a 
speculation. 

p OOL ,—The stock or money contributed by a clique to carry through a 
corner. 

Price Current.— The prevailing price of merchandise, stock or secur¬ 
ities. 

Selling Short.—To " sell short ” is to sell for future delivery what 
one has not got, in hopes that prices will fall. 

Stock.— Shares in the capital of a corporation ; goods on hand. 

Stock Broker. —One who buys and sells stocks on commission. 

Stock Exchange.— A place where shares of stock are bought and sold. 

Stock Jobber. —One who speculates in stocks. 

Time Bargain. —A contract for future sale of stock. 

Watering a stock is the art of doubling the quantity of stock without 
improving its quality. 






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S 3 --°>o<3^ 

BANK is, in the simplest sense of the 
term, a place in which money can be 
stowed away for safe-keeping. But since 
the days when goldsmiths and others 
took care of the funds of such as trusted in 
their honor and the strength of the strong¬ 
boxes which were part of their stock in trade, 
the idea has been by degrees developed, until 
now a banking institution, with its means of 
supplying exchange and discount, its powers 
of circulation, its care of deposits and its atten¬ 
tion to correct accounts, is the embodiment 
of one of the most interesting as well as the 
most useful of modern sciences. One of the 
prime needs of every commercial' community 
is an ample supply of banking capital and 
facilities for discount. 

The profit of the manufacturer, of the mer¬ 
chant and of the retail trader represents in the 
long run only the balance left after paying the 
current rate of interest, and if, in consequence 
of lack of banking capital, interest is higher in 
one city than in competing cities, all business 
will suffer, goods will not be bought, grain will 
not be handled, cotton will be out of reach, 
improvements will be postponed, and the city 
will be condemned to enforced idleness in many 
departments of endeavor where the busy wheels 

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<a — 

1 r 



o -•4"- a " 5 

of industry would be started in motion if money 
could be borrowed on easy terms. 

How the Business is Carried On. 

The business of banking is divided into sev¬ 
eral departments or branches, Deposits, Circu¬ 
lation, Exchange, Collection, Discounts and 
Loans being the most important. On account 
of these different branches banks are frequently 
called Banks of Discount, Banks of Deposit, 
Savings Banks, etc. 











Banks of Deposit. 

A Bank of Deposit is one which receives 
money from depositors for safe-keeping, paying 
it back on their checks to others or to them¬ 
selves. The most important function of a bank 
is the receiving of deposits, the person thus 
entrusting his money to the care of the bank 
being called a depositor. He not only has the 
advantage of the safe-keeping of his cash, but 
the further convenience of making his payments 
from it whenever he chooses, by means of checks. 
As he will receive payments from others in a 
similar manner, and deposit them as money, it 
will at once be seen that an immense volume of 
business can be transacted, and vast sums of 













































s> 




BANKS AND BANKING. 


3 79 


71 


money paid out, without the handling of any 
cash. 

In Europe it is quite different. The holder 
of a check presents it to the bank and re¬ 
ceives the money. The system of payment 
by checks, which are deposited as money, is 
more universally practiced in the United States 
and Canada than in any other part of the world. 

The safe-keeping of his money, and the con¬ 
venience of his check account, together with 
other favors he receives in the way of discounts, 
loans, exchange, etc., are generally regarded as 
sufficient compensation for the use of a deposi¬ 
tor’s funds. 

A person desiring to make a single deposit, 
to be withdrawn in the same amount, receives 
from the bank a Certificate of Deposit. 
This is issued by the bank itself, is payable at 
any stated time, or on demand, and may bear 
interest. 

Banks of Circulation. 

The issue by a bank of its promises to pay, in 
the form of bank notes or bills, is called its cir¬ 
culation. These notes or bills, being guaranteed 
by the Government, answer as a substitute for 
money. The Government holds, as security, 
bonds belonging to the bank, to a still larger 
amount, and also retains a five per cent fund for 
immediate redemption. Only the National 
Banks issue a circulation, as a tax of ten per 
cent would be levied upon any other kind of 
circulating notes. 

Circulating notes called “ Greenbacks ” are 
issued by the National Treasury, which thus 
performs the office of a Bank of Circulation. 
Various opinions exist as to the propriety of 
the Government exercising this function. Some 
hold that it is not right or proper for the Gov¬ 
ernment to be engaged in the banking business, 
while others contend that the Government alone 
should have the power to issue paper currency. 
Others, again, believe the Government should 
hold a dollar of coin in the Treasury for every 
paper dollar in circulation. 


Banks of Exchange. 

A Bank of Exchange is one which receives 
money on deposit, and, instead of paying it back 
to the depositor, makes payments by drafts on 
other banks. It keeps money on deposit at the 
principal trade centres, thus affording the advan¬ 
tage of sending money to different points at a tri¬ 
fling expense and without risk in transportation. 

It charges the person who desires to remit a 
small amount for its services, and sells him its 
draft on the place to which the remittance is 
to be sent. The system is known as Inland 
and Foreign Exchange, Inland Exchange con¬ 
sisting of a draft drawn and payable in the 
State or country, and Foreign Exchange being 
a draft drawn in one country and payable in 
another. Foreign Exchange involves also the 
reduction of the money of one country into that 
of another. 

What is Bank Discount? 

Bank Discount is the payment of a note or 
other paper before it is due, deducting the 
interest that would have accrued at maturity. 
A note or draft is discounted when the interest 
for the given time and at the given rate is taken 
from the face, and the balance paid to the 
holder. The sum deducted is the discount; the 
remainder is the proceeds. 

Bank Officers and Employes. 

The stockholders of an incorporated bank 
elect a Board of Directors, who manage its 
affairs. These elect a President, one or more 
Vice-Presidents, and a Cashier. The Cashier is 
the executive officer of the bank and controls 
its interior management. He is assisted by a 
number of employes. The principal ones are the 
Paying Teller and the Receiving Teller, who are 
at the head of the debit and credit departments ; 
the Note Teller; the Discount Clerks; the 
Collection Clerks; the Book-keepers, each in 
charge of certain ledgers ; Assistant Tellers ; 
Assistant Book-keepers; Check-Clerks and 
Messengers, or “ Runners.” 


c) V 

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380 


HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. 





HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. ^ 


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2»liiF *iji!F Jl|F %" c 'W- ■SFV 'W *IF “liilF FjjF J “!l|ll“ l '“lijF Jll llilF Fljif 


? N doing business with a bank, the first step is to secure a 
proper introduction to the cashier. If one’s references 
are all right, the depositor’s signature is put on record 
in the “signature-book,” giving the name as he intends 
<s ^’ to sign it on his checks. This is done to furnish the 
paying teller with an accurate means of judging the genuine¬ 
ness of the signatures of checks—a very necessary precaution, 
as the bank is responsible for the genuineness of the signa¬ 
tures of all checks. When a partnership account is opened, 
each member of the firm who is allowed to sign checks 
writes the firm’s name and his own in the signature-book. 


Deposits. 

When money is deposited in a bank, some voucher should 
be taken. This is done usually by the teller writing the 
amount of the deposit in the small bank-book of the depositor, 
and sometimes a receipt, called a teller’s check, is given. When 
a deposit is made, the bank usually issues a small “ hand¬ 
book,” to be carried in the pocket, in which an account is 
kept by the teller of the bank of all the transactions which 
follow. After the opening deposit, when it is intended to 
pay in more money, the depositor fills out a blank, showing 
the amount paid in and indicating whether it is in checks or 
current funds. This ticket, with the book and the money, 
is handed to the teller, who enters the date and amount. 
When a note is left for collection, it is usually entered by the 
collection clerk in the back part of the book, giving date, 
maker’s name, maturity, and amount. When collected, the 
amount, less collection charges, is placed in the book as a 
regular deposit. Few merchants keep a separate account 
with a bank in their general books, the “bank-book” and 
the stubs of the check-book being sufficient, and in themselves 
vouchers of the transaction. 

How to Keep the Stub of Check-Book. 


By following the form here given, it will be found much 
preferable to subtracting each check, as many do, which 
makes the tracing of an error very difficult: 


1883. 

Nov. 6, Deposit. 

Coin.$ 100.00 

Bills. 200.00 

Check. 

Williams. 60.00 

Johnson. 17 - 5 ° 

White.1,666.66 

$2,064 

16 


Nov. 8, Deposit. 

Bills. 

1,000 

00 

Nov. 9, Deposit. 

Check, B. Dixon. 

151 

98 

$3,2161.4 

^•o 



2,232.84 




$3,216! 

14 


No. 1. 

Nov. 7, 1883. 

Amount. 

Order of 

T. A. Lamont. 

$200 

00 

No. 2. 

Nov. 8, 1883. 
Amount. 

1 25 

00 

Order of 

L. H. Peterson. 



No. 3. 

Nov. 11, 1883. 

Amount. 

Order of 

J. M. Whitney. 

6SS 

30 


$ 9$3 

30 


The totals are carried forward to the next pages in this 
manner : 


F orward, 

$3,216 

14 

Forward, 

$983 

3 ° 

Etc. 



Etc. 




Balancing a Bank-Book. 

Checks paid are not entered up in the bank-book as they 
are presented for payment, but are filed away, and at the end 
of a month, or, indeed, whenever the depositor desires to have 
his account balanced, the book is presented and the balance 
figured up by the teller, who enters it usually in red ink under 
the paid checks on the right-hand side. The book should 
then be ruled up, and the balance in bank carried over to the 
left-hand side, similar to the first entry. When the depositor 
calls for his book, all the cancelled checks are passed out to 
him along with the account. 


In drawing a check, insert all the particulars in the stub 
before doing so in the body of the check; also the purpose for 
which the check is drawn. 

The left-hand page of the stub is intended for the purpose 
of entering your deposits; the right-hand page for the de¬ 
scription of the checks. When both sides are footed up, the 
excess of the left-hand total over the right shows the balance 
remaining to your credit in bank. 


How to Draw and Endorse a Check. 

A check is a written order on a bank directing that a certain 
amount of money be paid to a person whose name is given, 
or to the order of that person, or to the bearer. A check 
is the simplest form of negotiable paper, although there 
are checks which are not negotiable. There is no set 
form for the wording of a check. Any dated demand upon 















































































9 


HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. 


381 


a bank in which the person signing has money, properly 
signed, is a check, and will draw the money. Some¬ 
times the words “or order” are used; sometimes, “or 
bearer.” Occasionally checks are made payable to “the 
bearer” without giving any name. If the words “or order” 
and “ or bearer ” are both omitted, then the check is not nego¬ 
tiable, and can be paid only to the person named. In theory 
a check is a sight draft, which does not need acceptance, as it 
is paid on presentation. All banks keep printed forms of 
checks, which they issue to depositors. When a check is 
made payable to the payee “or order,” it must be endorsed 
by the payee before payment. Generally, all checks, whether 
“to order” or “to bearer,” should be endorsed, which is 
by writing the name of the payee across the back. 

Certified Checks. 

If all men were perfectly honest, certified checks would 
never have been thought of. But men will occasionally 
draw against deposits which exist only in their imaginations, 
and to meet this growing evil, certification of checks has 
been introduced. No uncertified check from a stranger 
should be received by any business man. The certifying 
means that the person drawing the paper has funds to his 
credit to the amount of the check, and the bank guarantees 
its payment. To get a check certified, it is presented either 
to the paying teller or the cashier of the bank on which it is 
drawn. The bank officer writes across the face, “Certified,” 
with the date, and signs. Another form used very frequently 
are the words, “Good when properly endorsed,” with the 
signature. This makes the bank liable for the check, even 
if it is a forgery or a fraudulent one. The certification of a 
check is the same as the acceptance of a draft. 

Banking Frauds. 

Forged Checks. —Despite the precautions taken by banks 
in keeping a signature-book, it frequently happens that astute 
rogues deceive them with forgeries. This is the most danger¬ 
ous crime in the business world, as it strikes at the root of 
confidence. Some forgers are so expert that they are able to 
imitate a signature so closely that even the one whose name 
is forged can only swear that he did not make out the check, 
and will not be able to pick out the forged signature by itself 
from the genuine. All of the responsibility of detecting 
forgeries is thrown upon the receiving teller of the bank. 
Every check is paid by the bank at its own risk, and it has no 
recourse against the person whose name is forged. A forgery 
cannot be rectified by the person whose name was used, as 
this rectification would be contrary to public policy, and would 
tend to shield a crime which, unpunished, would break the 
whole commercial fabric. 

RAISED CHECKS. 

A device of sharpers which is frequently attended with 
great success is so to alter the wording and the figures of a 
check that it will call for more money than the drawer in¬ 
tended to pay. This is called “raising a check,” and is a 


felony. Check-raising is only possible when the check is 
loosely written, with a number of blank places where words 
may be inserted. Care should be taken always to fill in the 
empty spaces with lines of ink. If a raised check is paid by 
a bank it can only charge the depositor with the amount for 
which he drew. A very common device, and a good one, 
used by many merchants, is to stamp the amount of money 
written on the check with an instrument having a number of 
sharp points, which so roughens the paper that it is impos¬ 
sible to write anything more on it, although it leaves the 
original writing legible. 

ALTERED CHECKS. 

Altered checks differ from raised checks from the fact that 
in an altered check all of the original writing except the signa¬ 
ture, date and number is taken out with chemicals, which 
leaves the check blank. It is then rewritten for any amount 
the swindler desires to put in. 

DRAFTS AND BILLS OF EXCHANGE. 

A draft may be described as an order or request, written by 
one person to another, asking the latter to pay a specified 
sum of money to a third party, or to his order, or to the 
bearer. Bills of exchange are drafts under another name. 
An inland bill is a draft drawn and payable in the same 
State or country, and a foreign bill of exchange is drawn 
in one country and payable in another. Remittances can be 
made much more safely and expeditiously by sending bills of 
exchange than by sending money. If lost, the draft may be 
duplicated. To provide against this contingency, in sending 
drafts over sea, it is customary to draw two or three for the 
same remittance, and when one of these is paid, the others are 
void; but the great and increasing accuracy of the world’s 
postal systems has largely removed the necessity for sending 
more than one bill of exchange. So much for definitions. 
We will now examine drafts and their forms. 

How Drafts are Drawn. 

In a draft, as in a note, any form which includes the neces¬ 
sary requirements will be held good in law, no matter how 
these may be arranged. Still, custom has, in a measure, 
crystallized on certain lines. 

aSSSSESSSESESESESSSHSEHESESESESHSESESESESESHSESHSESHSESESESES'ESE ESEi 


$600. Chicago, April /si, /SSj 

At Ten Days sight pay to the order of Ed so in 
Russell Six Hundred Dollars, value received, 
with current rate of exchastge. 

Donohue <$• Co. 




To Simon Hockaday , 
St. Louis , Mo. 


EESESESSSESESSSESESESi 





<5 
































3 82 


HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. 


The theory upon which a draft is drawn is that the drawer 
has or will have funds in the hands of drawee at the maturity 
of the draft, or that the drawee is indebted to him. Sometimes 
drafts are drawn by agreement when there is no indebtedness. 
It must be borne in mind that there is much difference in the 
liability between a note and a draft. The maker of a note 
must pay it; the drawer of a draft is only liable after the 
drawee has refused to pay. The drawee only becomes liable 
when he has accepted the draft. When the draft is presented, 
if it is a sight draft, no acceptance is necessary, except where 
the State law allows days of grace. The draft is simply to be 
paid at once. But when it is to be paid at a certain time 
after sight, the drawee must formally accept it, which is done 
by writing across the face of the paper the word “ Accepted,” 
with the date and the signature of the person accepting. This 
acceptance is a legal promise to pay. 

When the draft is presented, the drawee can demand a 
reasonable time to make up his mind whether to accept or 
not, whereupon it may be left with him one day. If he re¬ 
fuses to return it at the end of that time, he can be held as 
accepting. The place for presentment is the business office 
or residence of the payee. 

Non-Acceptance. 

When the drawee refuses to accept the draft, it is said to 
be “ dishonored.” It must be at once protested, and notice 
sent to all parties who are consequently liable. The protest 
must be made on the same day that the draft is dishonored, 
and the notice sent at least by the day following. The pro¬ 
test should be made by a notary public ; but, if one is not 
accessible, it can be made by any respectable citizen. 

A Protest. 

A protest is a declaration made by a notary public against 
the loss which may follow the non-acceptance of a draft, its 
non-payment, or the non-payment of a note. To illustrate 
the machinery of the protest we will return for a moment to 
the draft, the form for which has been given above. Mr. 
Hockaday refuses to accept the draft drawn on him by 
Donohue & Co. It is placed in the hands of a notary 
public, who again presents the draft to Hockaday and de¬ 
mands its acceptance. He refuses, whereupon a form is 
filled out testifying to the facts in the case, especially Hocka- 
day’s refusal to accept, all of which is attested by the notary. 
No person can be held responsible for payment unless notice 
of protest is sent to him as early as the day following the 
protest. These notices should be sent to the maker and to 
each endorser of the draft. 


acceptance, and that the holder looks to you for the payment 
thereof, acceptance having been duly demanded by me and 
refused. 


Commissioned June ist, 1880. 
Commission expires June ist, 1SS4. 

To Donohue &■> Co., Chicago, III. 


.1 


A. A. Oldfield, 
Notary Public. 


An acceptance “supra-protest” is the name given to the 
acceptance of the draft by some person other than the drawee, 
“for the honor of the drawee.” The draft is then held till 
maturity, and presented to the drawee as though he had 
accepted it. If he refuses to pay, it is protested, and the 
person making the “acceptance supra-protest” is liable for 
the amount. 


Foreign Bills of Exchange. 


The principles which we have been examining above apply 
with equal force to foreign bills of exchange. These are 
now commonly drawn in sets of two, so that each may be sent 
by a different ship, and they are always to be payable in the 
money current in the country where the payment is to be made. 


Exchange for £200. 

St. Louis, August 8th, 1883. 

At sight of this First of Exchange (.second unpaid ) 
pay to the order of Philip Francis Two Hundred 
Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge same to 
account of 


To Cunningham, Shaw Co., 
Liverpool, England. 


IVilmot Baring. 


Exchange for £200. 

St. Louis, August 8th, 1883. 
At sight of this Second of Exchange {first tin paid) 
pay to the order of Philip Francis Two Hundred 
Pounds Sterling, value received, and charge same to 
account of 

Wilmot Baring. 

To Cunningham, Shaw dr Co., 

Liverpool, England. 


A foreign bill is protested in the same manner as an inland 
bill. The law does not explicitly require this protest in every 
case, but it has been found, even where the State statute has 
simply required “notice of non-acceptance” to be furnished 
the parties liable, to be the safest way to fix liability 


Letters of Credit. 


NOTICE OF PROTEST. 

St. Louis, April yth, 1883. 

Please to take Notice: 

That a Draft drawn by yourself on Simon Hockaday, 
of St. Louis, Mo., for the sum of One Thousand Dollars, 
dated April ist,- 1883, was this day Protested for non¬ 


The letter of credit is one of the most useful of banking 
instruments, proving of great convenience to travellers in 
foreign lands, whom it enables to draw money from banks 
and bankers, thus relieving them from the risks attendant 
upon carrying large amounts of money about the person, and 
the annoyance of making frequent exchanges. The following 
is the form generally employed: 





































F 


6 \ 


HOW TO DO BUSINESS WITH A BANK. 


383 


FOREIGN LETTER OF CREDIT. 


Third National Bank. 

Foreign Letter of Credit, 

No. 2308. 

Kansas City, March 23, 1883. 

Gentlemen : 

iVe request that you will have the goodness to fur¬ 
nish Mr. Hannibal Atkins, of this city, whose signature 
is at foot, with any funds he may require, to the extent 
of Twenty Thousand Francs in Gold, against his 
Duplicate Receipts (one of which you will forward to 
us~), for any payment made under this credit. 

Whatever sum Mr. Atkins may take up, you will 
please endorse on the back of this letter, which is to 
continue in force zmtil fanuary 1, 1884, and charge 
to the account of 

Your obedient servant, 

THE THIRD NATIONAL BANK, 

Richard Rankin, 

President. 



Inland letters of credit are also used, their general character¬ 
istics being the same as the foreign, though they differ some¬ 
what in their wording. Generally a letter of introduction is 
delivered to the party to whom the credit is issued, introduc¬ 
ing him to the correspondent of the bank of issue, and stating 
the nature of the transaction, the amount of credit granted and 
the time it has to run. Letters of advice, conveying the same 
intelligence, together with the signature of the party bearing 
the letter of credit, are sent to the bank’s correspondents. 

Bill of Lading as Security. 

Shippers of merchandise, purchasing cargoes on specula¬ 
tion to be forwarded to an agent for sale, to obtain the money 
to pay for it, draw a draft upon the consignee, made payable 
to the bank from which the money is obtained, by giving as 
security for its payment a bill of lading made out by the 
captain of the craft or the railroad company owning the road 
upon which the goods are shipped, either in the name of the 
shipper, and assigned by him to the bank, or drawn originally 
in the name of the bank, both forms being common. As a 
general rule, the bill of lading is attached to the draft and is 
held by the bank, to which the title at once passes. 

A BILL OF LADING. 

No. 31 3. Chicago, July 30, 18S3. 

Shipped by Asa Lasalle, as Agent, in apparent good order, on 
board the Propeller May Prescott, ot Ogdensburg, New York, 
whereof James Perkins, of Cleveland, Ohio, is Master, the following 
described property, to be transported to the place of destination with¬ 
out unnecessary delay, and to be delivered as addressed on the margin 


in like good order, in the customary manner, free of lighterage, upon 
prompt payment of freight and charges as prescribed in this bill. 

The Freight, Charges and Demurrage payable to Enos Hanscomb, 
Cashier First National Bank of Erie, Pa., or order, at place of destin¬ 
ation, who is the only party authorized to collect the same, and 
whose receipt shall be in full of all demands on this cargo or Bill of 
Lading. 

In iVitness Whereof, the said Master of said boat hath affirmed to 
three Bills of Lading, one marked “ original ” and two “duplicate,” 
of this tenor and date, one of which being accomplished the others to 
stand void. 

Order of Franklin Bank. 10,000 Bushels No. 1 Winter Wheat. 

Freight, 3 cents per bushel. 

Notify Peter Albright & Co., Ogdensburg. 

Amos Bowen. 

J. G. Leitch. 

The grain thus hypothecated to the bank is subject to its 
control and direction, and its proceeds, when sold, must be 
applied to the draft’s payment. 

Asa Lasalle’s transaction in purchasing the wheat and 
shipping it on the propeller May Prescott, of which James 
Perkins is captain, is partially described in the foregoing bill 
of lading. The grain is consigned to Peter Albright & Co., 
Ogdensburg, agents, on account of the Franklin Bank, which 
also requires Asa Lasalle to insure the consignment for its 
protection. The following is the form of draft employed in 
a transaction of this kind : 

THE DRAFT. 

$12,000. 

Chicago, III., July 12, 1883. 

Pay to the order of Franklin Bank Twelve 
Thousand Dollars, value received, and charge 
the same to account of (10,000 bus. winter wheat, 
Prop. May Prescott) 

Asa Lasalle. 

To Peter Albright Sr Co., 

No. 833. 


Ogdensburg. 


The Clearing-House System. 

A Clearing-house is an association of the banks and 
bankers of a city for the exchange of their checks and the 
adjustment of accounts between themselves. A business 
man, receiving a check in the course of trade, seldom thinks 
of sending it to the bank on which it is drawn, but simply 
deposits it in the bank with which he keeps his account, 
only taking the precaution to have it “certified ” if he doubts 
its goodness. Thus, at the close of a day, each bank will 
hold a number of checks drawn on other banks. These are 
assorted, and placed in envelopes, marked with the names of 
banks on which they are drawn and with the total amount, 
and taken by a clerk and messenger to the Clearing-house. 
There the balances against or in favor of each bank are 
ascertained, and are paid in by a certain hour each day, and 
the accounts settled. By the Clearing-house system the 
exchange of millions of dollars is daily effected in large 
cities by the transfer of a few thousands. 


\ 


V 


I 

















































G\ 


3 8 4 


A LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 





CALCULATOR. 


{{or the Use of the Farmer, Mechanic 
and Business Man. 


'W v 


V 

CY©-**-5® 

otVS^" 1 — e> 


IRE^HTST IRIECIKIOIISriEZR- 


For Computing the Price of Cattle, Hogs, Cotton, or Any Commodity Sold by the Hundred or Part of the Hundred. 

If the desired amount or quantity is not in the table, add two numbers together. 



$ Cts. 

$ Cts. 

$ Cts. 

S Cts. 

$ Cts. 

$ Cts. | $ Cts. 

$ Cts. 

$ Cts. 

* Cts. 

$ Cts. 

$ Cts. 

S Cts. 

$ Cts. 

$ Cts. 

* Cts. 

LBS. 

‘2 

2 

Vi 

V 4 

3 

3 >4 

34 

3% 

4 

4 4 

4 4 

4% 

5 

5 4 

5 ‘i 

54 

1 

.02 

.02 

762 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.03 

.04 

04 

.04 

.04 

.05 

.05 

.05 

.05 

.06 

2 

.04 

.04 

05 

.05 

.06 

.06 

.07 

.07 

.08 

.08 

.09 

.09 

.10 

.10 

.11 

.11 

3 

.06 

.07 

07 

.08 

.09 

.10 

10 

.11 

.12 

.13 

.13 

.14 

. 15 

.16 

.16 

.17 

4 

.08 

(9 

10 

.11 

.12 

.13 

.14 

.15 

.16 

.17 

.18 

.19 

.20 

.21 

.22 

.23 

5 

10 

.11 

.12 

.14 

. 15 

.16 

.17 

.19 

.20 

.21 

.22 

.24 

.25 

.26 

.27 

.29 

6 

.12 

.13 

. 15 

.16 

.18 

.19 

.21 

.22 

.24 

.25 

.27 

.28 

.30 

.31 

.33 

.34 

7 

.14 

16 

.17 

.19 

.21 

.23 

.24 

.26 

.28 

.30 

.31 

.33 

.35 

.37 

.38 

.40 

8 

.16 

18 

.20 

.22 

.24 

.26 

.28 

.30 

.32 

.34 

.36 

.38 

.40 

.42 

.44 

.46 

9 

.18 

.20 

.22 

.25 

.27 

.29 

.31 

.34 

36 

.38 

.40 

.43 

.45 

.47 

.49 

.52 

10 

.20 

.22 

.25 

.27 

.30 

.32 

,3£ 

.37 

.40 

.42 

.45 

.47 

.50 

.52 

.55 

.57 

20 

.40 

15 | 50 

.55 

.60 

.65 

.70 

.75 

80 

.85 

.90 

.95 

1 00 

1 05 

1 10 

1 15 

30 

.60 

.67 

.75 

.82 

.90 

.97 

1.05 

112 

1.20 

1.27 

1.35 

1 42 

1 50 

1.57 

1 65 

1 72 

40 

.80 

90 

1 00 

1.10 

1 20 

1 30 

1.40 

1 50 

1 60 

1 70 

1.80 

1 90 

2 00 

2 10 

2 20 

2 30 

50 

1.00 

1 12 

1 25 

1.37 

1.50 

1 62 

1.75 

1.87 

2 00 

2.12 

2.25 

2 37 

2 50 

2 62 

2 75 

2.87 

60 

1 20 

1 35 

1 50 

1.65 

1 80 

1 95 

2.10 

2 25 

2 40 

2.55 . 

2.70 

2.85 

3 00 

3 15 

3 30 

3 45 

70 

1 40 

1 57 

1 75 

1.92 

2.10 

2 27 

2.45 

2.62 

2 80 

2 97 

3.15 

3 32 

3.50 

3.67 

3.85 

4.02 

80 

1 60 

1 80 

2 00 

2.20 

2.40 

2 60 

2 80 

3 00 

3 20 

3 40 

3 60 

3 80 

4 00 

4 20 

4.40 

4 60 

90 

1 80 

2 02 

2 25 

2 47 

2.70 

2 92 

8.15 

3.37 

3 60 

3.82 

4 05 

4 27 

4.50 

4 72 

4 95 

5.17 

100 

2 00 

2 25 

2 50 

2 75 

3.00 

3 25 

3 50 

3 75 

4 00 

4 25 

4.50 

4 75 

5 00 

5 25 

5 50 

5 75 

200 

4 00 

4 50 

5 00 

5 50 

6 00 

6 50 

7 00 

7 50 

8 00 

8 50 

9.00 

9 50 

10 00 

10 50 

11.00 

11 50 

300 

6 00 

6.75 

7.50 

8.25 

9 00 

9 75 

11 50 

11.25 

12 00 

12 75 

13 50 

14.25 

15.00 

15 75 

16 50 

17.25 

400 

8 00 

9 00 

10 00 

11 00 

12 00 

13 00 

14 00 

15 00 

16 00 

17 00 

18 00 

19 00 

20 00 

21 00 

22.00 

23 00 

500 

10 00 

11.25 

12.50 

13.75 

15 00 

16 25 

17 50 

18 75 

20 00 

21 25 

22 50 

23.75 

25 00 

26 25 

27.50 

28.75 

600 

12 00 

13 50 

15 00 

16.50 

18 00 

19 50 

21 00 

22 50 

24 00 

25 50 

27 00 

28.50 

30 00 

31 50 

33.00 

34.50 

700 

14 00 

15 75 

17 50 

19 25 

21 00 

22 75 

24 50 

26 25 

28 00 

29 75 

31 50 

33 25 

35.00 

36 75 

38 50 

40 25 

800 

16 00 

18 00 

20 00 

22 00 

24 00 

26 00 

28 00 

30 00 

32 00 

34 00 

36 00 

38 00 

40 00 

42 00 

44 00 

46.00 

900 

18 00 

20 25 

22.50 

24 75 

27 00 

29 25 

31 50 

33 75 

36 00 

38 25 

40 50 

42 75 

45.00 

47.25 

49.50 

51.75 

1,000 

20 00 

22 50 

25 00 

27.50 

30 00 

32 50 

35 00 

37 50 

40 00 

42.50 

45 00 

47 50 

50 00 

52 50 

55 00 

57 50 

1,100 

22 00 

24 75 

27 50 

30 25 

33 00 

35 75 

38 50 

41.25 

44 00 

46 75 

49 50 

52 25 

55 00 

57 75 

60 50 

63 25 

1,200 

24.00 

27 00 

30 00 

33 00 

36.00 

39.00 

42 00 

45 00 

48.00 

51 00 

54 00 

57 00 

60 00 

63.00 

66 00 

69 00 

1,300 

26.00 

29 25 

32.50 

35 75 

39 00 

42.25 

45 50 

48.75 

52 00 

55 25 

58 50 

61 75 

65 00 

68.25 

71 50 

74 75 

1,400 

28 00 

31 50 

35 00 

38.50 

42.00 

45 50 

49 00 

52.50 

56 00 

59 50 

63 00 

66 50 

70 00 

73.50 

77.00 

80.50 

1,500 

30 00 

33 75 

37 50 

41.25 

45 00 

48.75 

52 50 

56 25 

60 00 

63.75 

67 .50 

71.25 

75 00 

78 75 

82 50 

86.25 

1,600 

32.00 

36 00 

40.00 

44.00 

48.00 

52 00 

56 00 

60 00 

64 00 

68 00 

72 00 

76 00 

80 00 

84 00 

88.00 

92.00 

1,700 

34 00 

38 25 

42 50 

46 75 

51 00 

55.25 

59 50 

63.75 

68 00 

72.25 

76.50 | 80 75 

85 00 

89 25 

93 50 

97.75 

1,800 

36 00 

40.50 

45 00 

49 50 

54 00 

58.50 

63 00 

67.50 

72 00 

76 50 

81 00 

85 50 

90 0C 

94 50 

99.00 

103.50 

1,900 

38 00 

42.75 

47.50 

52.25 

57 00 

61 75 

66.50 

71.25 

76.00 

80 75 

85.50 

90 25 

95 00 

99 75 

104.50 

109.25 

2,000 

40.00 

45.00 

50 00 

55 00 

60 00 

65.00 

70 00 

75 00 

80 00 

85.00 | 90 00 

95.00 

100 00 

105 00 

157.50 

110.00 

115.00 

3,000 

60.00 

67.50 

75.00 

82.50 

90 00 

97 50 

105 00 

112.50 

120 00 

127.50 

135 00 

142.50 

150 00 

165 00 

172.50 

4,000 

80 00 

90.00 

100 00 

110.00 

120 00 

130 00 

140 00 

150.00 

160 00 

170 00 

180 00 

190 00 

200 00 

210.00 

220.00 

230.00 

5,000 

100 00 

112.50 

125.00 

137.50 

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200.00 

212.50 

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LBS. 

6 

6-4 

64 

6 % 

7 

14 

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9 

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2 

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.17 

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.19 

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3 

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4 

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39 

5 

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6 

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\ ■ ✓ 

READY RECKONER. 385 

ISEClZOiTEIS-—Oontin-aed- 


$ Cts . 

$ Cts . 

$ Cts . | $ Cts . 

* Cts . 

S Cts . 

• Cts . 

S Cts ’ 1 $ Cts . 

$ Cts . 

$ Cts . 

$ Cts . | $ Cts . 

$ Cts . 

$ Cts . | $ Cts . 

LBS . 

6 

6 '4 

6 !4 

6% 

7 

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8 

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1 20 

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1.75 J 1.80 

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2.47 

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2 62 1 2 70 

2.77 

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40 

2.40 

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3.10 

3.20 

3.30 

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3.50 I 3.60 

3 70 

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60 

3 60 

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4.05 

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70 

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4.80 

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5.20 

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8.10 

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12.00 

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13.00 

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14.00 

14 50 

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16 00 

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17.50 

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18 O0 

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21.00 

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22 50 

23.25 

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25.50 

26.25 

27.00 

27.75 

28.50 

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400 

24 00 

25.00 

26 00 

27.00 

28.00 

29 00 

30.00 

31.00 

32 00 

33 00 

34.00 

35.00 

36.00 

37.00 

38.00 

39.00 

500 

30 00 

31 25 

32 50 

33 75 

35 00 

36.25 

37.50 

38.75 

40.00 

41 25 

42.50 

43.75 

45.00 

46.25 

47.50 

48.75 

600 

36.00 

37 50 

39 00 

40.50 

42.00 

43 50 

45 00 

46 50 

48.00 

49 50 

51.00 

52.50 

54 00 

55.50 

57.00 

58.50 

700 

800 

42.00 

43 75 

45.50 

47.25 

49.00 

50 75 

52 50 

54.25 

56 00 

57.75 

59.50 

61.25 

63.00 

64.75 

66.50 

68.25 

48 00 

50 00 

52 00 

54.00 

56 00 

58 00 

60.00 

62 00 

64 00 

66.00 

68.00 

70.00 

72.00 

74.00 

76.00 

78.00 

900 

54 00 

56 25 

58.50 

60 75 

63 00 

65 25 

67 50 

67.75 

72 00 

74.25 

76.50 

78.75 

81 00 

83.25 

85.50 

87.75 

1,000 

60 00 

62 50 

65 00 

67.50 

70 00 

72 50 

75 00 

77 50 

80.00 

82 50 

85 00 

87 50 

90 00 

92 50 

95 00 

97.50 

1,100 

66.00 

68 75 

71.50 

74.25 

77.00 

79.75 

82 50 

85.25 

88 00 

90 75 

93 50 

96.25 

99 00 

101.75 

104.50 

107.25 

1.200 

72 00 

75 00 

76.00 

81 00 

84.00 

87.00 

90.00 

93 00 

96 00 

99 00 

102 00 

105 00 

108.00 

111 00 

114.00 

117.00 

1,300 

78 00 

81.25 

84.50 

87.75 

91 00 

94 25 

97.50 

100.75 

104 00 

107 25 

110.50 

113.73 

117.00 

120.25 

123.50 

126.75 

1,100 

84 00 

87.50 

91.00 

94 50 

98 00 

101.50 

105.00 

108.50 

112.00 

115.50 

119.00 

122.50 

126.00 

129.50 

133.00 

136.50 

1,500 

90 00 

93 75 

97.50 

101.25 

105.00 

108.75 

112 50 

116 25 

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123.75 

m so 

131.25 

135.00 

138.75 

142.50 

146.25 

1,600 

96.00 

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104.00 

108 00 

112 00 

116.00 

120.00 

124.00 

128.00 

132.00 

136.00 

140.00 

144.00 

148.00 

152.00 

156 00 

1,700 

102.00 

106 25 

110.50 

114.75 

119.00 

123.25 

127.50 

131.75 

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140 25 

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153.00 

157.25 

161.50 

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112 50 

117 00 

121.50 

126.00 

130.50 

135.00 

139 50 

144.00 

148 50 

153 00 

157.50 

162.00 

166.50 

171.00 

175.50 

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114.00 

118.75 

123.50 

128.25 

133.00 

137.75 

142.50 

1*7.25 

152.00 

156.75 

161.50 

166.25 

171.00 

175.75 

180.50 

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2,000 

120.00 

125 00 

130.00 

135.00 

140.00 

145.00 

150 00 

155.00 

160.00 

165.00 

170.00 

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180.00 

185.00 

190 00 

195.00 

3,000 

180 00 

187.50 

195.00 

202.50 

210 00 

217.50 

225 00 

232 50 

240.00 

247.50 

255.00 

262 50 

270.00 

277 50 

285.00 

292 50 

4,000 

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250 00 

260 00 

270 00 

280.00 

290 00 

300.00 

310.00 

320.00 

330 00 

340 00 

350.00 

360.00 

370 00 

380 00 

390 00 

5,000 

300 00 

312 50 

325 00 

337.50 

350 00 

362 50 

375 00 

387 50 

400.00 

412.50 

425 00 

437 50 

450 00 

462 50 

475 00 

487.50 


LBS . 

10 

10 '4 

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i»‘i 

11 

1 'A 

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12 

12 '4 

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J it 7<2 

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1 

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.10 

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11 

.11 

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.12 

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.12 

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.13 

.13 

.14 

2 

.20 

.20 

.21 

.21 

.22 

.22 

.23 

.23 

.24 

.24 

.25 

.25 j .26 

.26 

.27 

.27 

3 

.30 

.31 

.31 

.32 

.33 

.34 

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.35 

.36 

.37 

.37 

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4 

40 

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5 

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61 

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6 

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. 63 

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.66 

.67 

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.76 

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.79 

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72 

.73 

75 

.77 

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.82 

.84 

.86 

.87 

.89 

.91 

.93 

.94 

.96 

8 

.80 

.82 

.84 

.86 

.88 

.90 

.92 

.94 

.96 

.98 

1.00 

1.02 

1.04 

1 06 

1.08 

1.10 

9 

.90 | .92 

.94 

.97 

.99 

1 01 

1 03 

1 06 

1 08 

1 10 

1 12 

1 15 

1.17 

1 19 

1 21 

1.24 

10 

1 00 

1 02 

1 05 

1 07 

1.10 

1 12 

1 15 

1.17 

1 20 

1.22 

1.25 

1.27 

1.30 

1 32 

1 35 

1.37 

20 

2 00 

2.05 

2 10 

2 15 

2.20 

2.25 

2.30 

2.35 

2 40 

2.45 

2.50 

2.55 

2.60 

2.65 

2 70 

2.75 

30 

3.00 

3 07 

3 15 

3.22 

3 30 

3.37 

3.45 

3.52 

3.60 

3.67 

3 75 

3.82 

3 90 

3 97 

4 05 

4.12 

40 

4 00 

4 10 

4 20 

4.30 

4.40 

4.50 

4.60 

4.70 

4.80 

4 90 

5 00 

5.10 

5.20 

5.30 

5.40 

5.50 

50 

5.00 

5 12 

5.23 

5.37 

5 50 

5.62 

5.75 

5.87 

6 00 

6 12 

6.25 

6.37 

6 50 

6 62 

6 75 

6.87 

60 

6 00 

6 15 

6 30 

6.45 

6 60 

6.75 

6 90 

7 05 

7.20 

7.35 

7.50 

7 65 

7.80 

7.95 

8 10 

8.25 

70 

7.00 

7.17 

7.35 

7 52 

7 70 

7.87 

8 05 

8 22 

8.40 

8 57 

8.75 

8.92 

9 10 

9.27 

9.45 

9.62 

80 

8.00 

8 20 

8.40 

8 60 

8.80 

9.00 

9 20 

9 40 

9.60 

9 80 

10.00 

10 20 

10.40 

10.60 

10 80 

11.00 

90 

9.00 

9.22 

9.45 

9 67 

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10.12 

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10 57 

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11 02 

11.25 

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100 

10.00 

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11.00 

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200 

20 00 

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21.50 

22 00 

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23 00 

23.50 

24.00 

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25.50 

26 00 

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27 00 

27.50 

34)0 

30.00 

30 75 

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33.00 

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35.25 

36 00 

36.75 

37.50 

38 25 

39 00 

39 75 

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41.25 

400 

40.00 

41 00 

42.00 

43.00 

44.00 

45.00 

46.00 

47.0C 

48.00 

49 00 

50 00 

51 00 

52 00 

53 00 

54.00 

55.00 

5l)0 

50.00 

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52.50 

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55.00 

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60 00 

61 25 

62 50 

63.75 

65 00 

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67.50 

68.75 

6>)0 

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63 00 

64.50 

66.00 

67.50 

69 00 

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72.00 

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75 00 

76.50 

78 00 

79.50 

81.00 

82.50 

7 »0 

70 00 

71 75 

73.50 

75.25 

77.00 

78 75 

80 50 

82.25 

84 00 

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87.50 

89.25 

91.00 

92.72 

94 50 

96.25 

800 

80 00 

82 00 

84.00 

86 00 

88.00 

90.00 

92 00 

94.00 

96 00 

98 00 

100.00 

102.00 

104.00 

106 00 

108.00 

110.00 

900 

90 00 

a -j 25 

94 50 

96 75 

99 00 

101.25 

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105.75 

108 00 

110.25 

112.50 

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1,000 

ion 00 

102 50 

105 00 

107 50 

110.00 

102.50 

115.00 

117.50 

1 20 00 

122.50 

125 00 

127.50 

130 00 

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135 00 

137.50 

1,100 

110 00 

112.75 

115 50 

118.25 

121 00 

123.75 

126 50 

129.25 

132 00 

134.75 

137.50 

140.25 

143 00 

145 75 

148.50 

151.25 

1,200 

120 00 

123 IN) 

126 00 

129 00 

132.00 

135 00 

138.00 

141.00 

144.00 

147 00 

150.00 

153 00 

156 00 

159 00 

162 00 

165.00 

1 ,300 

130.00 

133.25 

136 50 

139 75 

143.00 

146.25 

149.50 

152.75 

156 00 

159.25 

162.50 

165.75 

169.00 

172.25 

175.50 

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1,400 

140.00 

143 50 

147.00 

150.50 

154 00 

157 50 

161 00 

164 50 

168 00 

171 50 

175 00 

178.50 

182.00 

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189.00 

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161.25 

165 00 

168.75 

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176 25 

180 00 

183.75 

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191.25 

195.00 

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1.600 

160.00 

164.00 

168 00 

172 00 

176 00 

180.00 

184.00 

188.00 

192.00 

196 00 

200 00 

204 00 

208 00 

212 00 

216.00 

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1.700 

170.00 

174 25 

178.50 

182 75 

187.00 

191.25 

195.50 

199.75 

204 00 

208 25 

212.50 

216.75 

221 00 

225 25 

229.50 

233.75 

1,800 

180 00 

184 50 

189 00 

193 50 

198 00 

202 50 

207 00 

211.50 

216 00 

220 50 

225 00 

229 50 

234 00 

238.50 

243.00 

247.50 

1,94)0 

190 00 

194 75 

19 > 50 

204 25 

209 00 

213 75 

218.50 

223 25 

228.00 

232 75 

237 50 

242 25 

247.00 

251 75 

256.50 

261.25 

2,000 

200 00 

205 00 

210 00 

215 00 

220 00 

225.00 

230 00 

235.00 

240.00 

245 00 

250 00 

255 00 

260 00 

265 00 

270.00 

275.00 

3,000 

J 4,000 

300 00 

307 50 

315 00 

322 50 

330 00 

337.50 

345 00 

352 50 

360 00 

367 50 

375 00 

382 50 

390 00 

397 50 

405.00 

412.50 

400 00 

410 00 

420 00 

430 00 

440 00 

450.00 

460 00 

470.00 

480 00 

490 00 

500 00 

510 00 

520.00 

530 00 

540.00 

550.00 

5,000 

500 00 

512 50 

625 '<0 

537.50 550 00 

562.50 1 575.00 

587.50 

600 00 

612.50 

625 00 

637 50 

650.00 

662 50 

675.00 

687.50 

/ . _ - - -' 




























































































































































































































































































































































































3 86 


AN INSTANTANEOUS METHOD OF COMPUTING INTEREST. 



To compute interest at three per cent, divide the figures in the six per cent table by two. To compute interest at eight per cent, double the figures 
in the four per cent table; at ten per cent, double the figures in the five per cent table: at nine per cent, make the computation at three per cent and 
mul tiply the result by three. 

TABLES OF INTEREST. 


-A.T E'O'CrrR. PEK CEltTT- 

















DAYS. 

















MONTHS. 





Year. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1 

Ain’t. 

INTEREST. 

$1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

4 

$2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

$3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

$4 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

5 

6 

8 

9 

10 

12 

14 

14 

16 

$5 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

n 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

5 

6 

8 

10 

11 

13 

15 

16 

18 

20 

$6 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

$7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

7 

9 

11 

14 

16 

18 

21 

23 

25 

28 

$8 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

8 

10 

13 

16 

18 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

$9 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 | 

$10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

6 

10 

13 

16 

20 

23 

26 

30 

33 

37 

40 

$100 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

15 

15 

16 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

67 1.00 

1.33 

1.67 2.00 

2.33 

2.67 

3.00 

3.33 

3.67 

4.00 | 

$1,000 

11 

22 33 44 56 66 78 89 1.00 

1.11 1 

.22 

.33 

.44 1.56 

1.67 

.78 

1.H9 2.00 2.11 2.22 2.33 2.44 2.56 2.67 2.78 2.89 3.00 3.11 3.22 

3.33 6.67 10.00 13.33 16.67 20.00 23.33 26.67 30.00 33.33 36.67 

40.00 



















P’X-'T-IE 

p=e::e. 

CEUT. 
















DAYS. 

MONTHS. 

Year 


1 

2 

3 

4 5 

6 

7 


8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1 

Ain’t. 






















INTEREST. 


















$1 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 


$2 

0 

0 

It 

0 0 

0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

$3 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

11 

12 

14 

15 

$4 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

5 

6 

8 

10 

11 

13 

15 

16 

18 

20 

$5 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

19 

21 

23 

25 

$6 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 

0 


0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

7 

10 

12 

15 

17 

20 

22 

25 

27 

30 

$7 

0 

o 

0 

0 0 

0 

0 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

6 

9 

11 

14 

17 

20 

23 

26 

29 

32 

35 

$8 

0 

o 

0 

0 0 

0 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

6 

10 

13 

16 

20 

23 

27 

30 

33 

37 

40 

$9 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

7 

11 

15 

19 

22 

26 

30 

34 

37 

41 

45 

$10 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

8 

12 

16 

21 

25 

29 

33 

37 

42 

46 

50 

$100 

1 

3 

4 

5 7 

8 

9 


11 

12 

14 

15 

16 

18 

19 

21 

22 

23 

25 

26 

28 

29 

30 

32 

33 

34 

86 

37 

39 

40 

41 

83 

1.25 

1.67 

2.09 

2.50 

2.91 

3.33 

3.75 

4.17 

4.59 

5.00 

$ 1,000 

14 28 41 

55 70 83 97 

1.11 1 

25 1.39 

.53 

1.66 1.86 1.94 2.08 2.22 2.36 2.50 2.64 2.78 2.91 3.05 3.20 3.33 3.47 3.61 3.75 3.89 4.03 

4.16 6.33 12.50 16.67 20.83 25.00 29.16 83.33 37.50 41.67 45.83 

50.00 


















A.T 

SIE 

PEE. CE1TT. 
















DAYS. 

MONTHS. 

Year. 


1 

2 

3 

4 5 

6 


7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1 

Ain’t. 

INTEREST. 

$1 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

C 

6 

$2 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

$3 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

5 

6 

8 

9 

11 

12 

14 

15 

17 

18 

$4 

0 

<> 

0 

0 0 

0 


0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

$5 

0 

it 

0 

ii ii 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

5 

8 

10 

13 

15 

18 

20 

23 

25 

28 

30 

$6 

0 

0 

0 

0 1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

$7 

0 

0 

0 

0 1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 - 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

7 

11 

14 

18 

» 21 

25 

28 

32 

35 

39 

42 

$8 

0 

0 

0 

1 1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

8 

12 

16 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

$9" 

0 

0 

0 

1 1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

9 

14 

18 

23 

27 

32 

36 

41 

45 

50 

54 

$10 

0 

0 

1 

1 1 

1 


1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

$100 

2 

3 

0 

7 8 

10 


12 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

22 

23 

25 

27 

28 

30 

32 

33 

35 

37 

38 

40 42 

43 

45 

47 

48 

50 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

5.50 

6.00 

$ 1,000 

17 33 50 67 83 1.00 1.17 1.33 1.50 1.67 1.83 2.00 2.17 2.33 2.50 2.67 2.83 3.00 3.17 3.33 3.50 3.67 3.83 4.00 4.17 4.33 4.50 4.67 4.83 

5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00 45.00 50.00 55.00 

60.00 

















-A-T SEVEPT 


CE1TT. 















DAYS. 

MONTHS. 

Year. 


1 

2 

3 

4 5 

6 


7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

i 

Am’t. 

INTEREST. 

$1 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

3 

4 

4 

5 

5 

6 

7 

7 | 

$2 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

-1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

11 

12 

13 

14 

$3 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 


" 

0 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

5 

7 

9 

11 

12 

14 

16 

18 

19 

21 

$4 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

0 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

7 

9 

12 

14 

16 

19 

21 

23 

26 

28 

$5 

0 

0 

0 

0 0 

1 


l 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

20 

23 

26 

29 

32 

35 

$6 

0 

0 

0 

0 1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

7 

11 

14 

18 

21 

25 

28 

32 

35 

39 

42 

$7 

0 

0 

0 

1 1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

8 

12 

16 

20 

25 

29 

33 

37 

41 

45 

49 

$8 

0 

0 

0 

1 1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

" 5 

9 

14 

19 

23 

28 

33 

37 

42 

47 

51 

56 

$9 

0 

0 

1 

1 1 

1 


1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

11 

16 

21 

26 

32 

37 

42 

47 

53 

58 

63 

$10 

0 

0 

1 

1 1 

1 


1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

G 

6 

12 

18 

23 

29 

35 

41 

47 

53 

58 

64 

70 

$100 

2 

4 

6 

8 10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

19 

21 

23 

25 

27 

29 

31 

33 

35 

37 

39 

41 

43 

45 

47 

19 

51 

53 

54 

56 

58 

1.17 

1.75 

2.33 

2.92 

3.50 

4.08 

4.67 

5.25 

5.83 

6.42 

7.00 

$1,000 | 

19 39 58 78 97 1.17 1.36 1.56 1.75 1.94 2.14 2.33 2.53 2.72 2.92 3.11 3.31 3.50 3.69 3.89 4.08 4.28 4.47 4.67 4.86 5.06 5.25 5.44 5.64 

5.83 11.67 17.50 23.33 29.17 35.00 40.83 46.67 52.50 58.83 64.17 

70.00 










































\ 





































































































































































































































































































































































COMPOUND INTEREST, ETC. 


387 


SHORT INSURANCE RATES. 

Explanation.— \Vhen the rate is one per cent, or $1 on $100 
for a year, the rate for one month is 4-20 of the annual rate, or 20 
cents. For six months it would be 14 - 20 , or 70 cents. The follow¬ 
ing table, by a little study, will be readily understood. 

For Periods of Several Years. 


1 YEAR. 

1 

2 YEARS. 3 YEARS. 

4 YEARS. 

5 YEARS. 

Charge this Proportion 
of whole Premium. 

1 

mo. 

2 

mo. 

3 mo. 

4 mo. 

5 

mo. 

4 

20 

or 

20 per cent. 

2 

ii 

4 

“ 

6 

i i 

8 

( i 

10 

ii 

6 

20 

ii 

30 

ii 

3 

ii 

0 

ii 

9 

ii 

12 

i i 

15 

ii 

8 

20 

a 

40 

a 

4 

ii 

8 

ii 

12 

a 

16 

ii 

20 

a 

1 0 

2 0 

a 

50 

a 

5 

a 

10 

a 

15 

a 

20 

a 

25 

a 

1 2 
20 

u 

60 

a 

6 

ii 

12 

a 

18 

a 

24 

i i 

30 

i t 

1 4 
20 

a 

70 

u 

7 

a 

14 

u 

21 

a 

28 

a 

35 

a 

1 5 

2 0 

a 

75 

a 

8 

a 

16 

i < 

24 

i i 

32 

a 

40 

a 

1 6 
20 

i i 

80 

a 

9 

a 

18 

a 

27 

a 

36 

a 

45 

a 

1 7 
20 

a 

85 

a 

10 

a 

20 

a 

30 

a 

40 

u 

50 

a 

1 8 
20 

a 

90 

i i 

11 

a 

22 

a 

33 

a 

44 

a 

55 

a 

1 9 
20 

a 

95 

a 


For Periods Less than One Year. 


1 month, 

of annual 

rate. 

7 

months, if 

of annual rate 

2 “ 

6 U 

HU 

U 

8 

ii 16 

20 

i i 

ii 

3 “ 

8 11 

2 <T 

ii 

9 

ii 17 

20 

ii 

ii 

4 “ 

10 u 

21) 

i i 

10 

ii 18 

20 

ii 

i i 

5 “ 

1 2 a 

2 0 

ii 

11 

a 19 

20 

i t 

ii 

6 “ 

1 4 U 

20 

ii 






For Periods Less than One Month. 


5 days, of monthly rate 

10“ j> 0 “ “ 

iu T50 


15 days, T fi s 5 ff of monthly rate 

on “ so << <1 

TUtr 


HOW INTEREST ACCUMULATES. 

If one dollar be invested and the interest added to the princi¬ 
pal, annually, at the rates named, we shall have the following 


result as the accumulation of one hund 


ed years 


t 1 per cent . 

. $2.75 

2 

(< 

. 7.25 

21 

( ( 

. 11.75 

3 

(< 

. 19.25 

3J 

i i 

. 31.25 

4 

«< 

. 50.50 

H 

<( 

. 81.50 

5 

(< 

. 131.50 

6 

(« 

. 340.00 

7 

«< 

. 868.00 

8 

ft 

. 2,203.00 

9 

<< 

. 5,543.00 

10 

<( 

. 13,809.00 

12 

1 i 

. 34.675.00 

15 

ii 

. 1,174,405.00 

18 

ii 

. 15,145,007.00 

24 

i ( 

. 2,551,799,404.00 


COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 


YEARS . 

3 per cent. 

4 per cent. 

5 per cent. 

6 per cent. 

7 per cent. 

1 

1.03000 

1.01000 

1.05000 

1.06000 

1.070000 

2 

1.06090 

1.08160 

1.10250 

1.12360 

1.144900 

3 

1.09273 

1.12486 

1.15762 

1.19102 

1.225043 

4 

1.12551 

1.16986 

121551 

1.26248 

1.310796 

5 

1.15927 

1.21665 

1.27628 

1.33823 

1.402552 

6 

1.19405 

1.26532 

1.34010 

1.41852 

1.500730 

7 

1.22987 

1 31593 

1.40710 

1.60363 

1.605781 

8 

1.26677 

1.36857 

1.47745 

1.59385 

1.718186 

9 

1.30477 

1.42331 

1.55133 

1.69848 

1.838459 

10 

1.34392 

1.48024 

,1.62889 

1.79085 

1.967151 

11 

138423 

1.53945 

1.71034 

1.89830 

2.104852 

12 

1.42576 

1.00103 

1.79586 

2.01220 

2.262192 

13 

1.46853 

1.66507 

1.88565 

2.13293 

2.409845 

14 

1.51259 

173168 

1.97993 

2.26090 

2.578534 

15 

1.55797 

1.80094 

2.07893 

2.39656 

2.759031 

16 

1.60471 

187298 

2.18287 

2.54035 

2.952164 

17 

1.65285 

1.94790 

2.29262 

2.69277 

3.158815 

18 

1.70343 

2.02582 

2.40602 

2.85134 

3.379931 

19 

1.75351 

2.10685 

2.52695 

2.02560 

3.616526 

20 

1.80611 

2.19112 

2.65330 

3.20713 

3.869684 


Example.— At 5 per cent compound interest what will $ 1,000 
amount to in seven years? The table shows that $1 in seven years 
at 5 per cent compound interest amounts to $ 1 . 40710 , which 
amount multiplied by 1,000 equals $ 1 , 407 . 10 . 


Time in which Money Doubles. 


si 

Simple Int. 

Comp. Int. 

Per 

Cent. 

Simple Int. 

Comp. Int. 

2 

50 years. 

35 years. 

5 

20 years. 

14 yrs. 75 da. 

21 

40 years. 

28 yrs. 26 da. 

6 

16 yrs. 8 mos. 

11 yrs. 327 da. 

3 

33 yrs. 4 mos. 

23 yrs. 164 da. 

7 

14 yrs. 104 da. 

10 yrs. 89 da. 

31 

28 yrs. 208 da. 

20 yrs. 54 da. 

8 

124 years. 

9 yrs. 2 days. 

4 

25 years. 

17 yrs. 246 da. 

9 

11 yrs. 40 da. 

8 yrs. 16 days. 


22 yrs. 81 da. 

15 yrs. 273 da. 

10 

10 years. 

7 yrs. 100 da. 


Daily Savings at Compound Interest. 


DAILY SAVINGS. 

YEARLY. 

TEN YEARS. 

FIFTY YEARS 

2 % cents. 

$ 10 

$ 130 

$ 2,900 

5>a “ . 

20 

260 

5,800 

8 % “ . 

30 

390 

8,700 

11 “ . 

40 

520 

11,600 

13% “ . 

50 

650 

14,500 

27% “ . 

100 

1,300 

29,000 

55 “ . 

200 

2,600 

58,000 

$1.10. 

400 

5,200 

116,000 


500 

6,500 

145,000 

2.74. 

1,000 

13,000 

290,000 


SHORT INTEREST RULE. 

To find the interest on a given sum for any number of days, at 
any rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of days 
and divide as follows: 


At 5 per cent, by. 72 

At 6 per cent, by. 00 

At 7 per cent, by. 52 

At 8 per cent, by .... 45 

At 9 per cent, by. 40 


At 10 per cent, by . . 

. . 36 

At 12 per cent, by . . 

. . 30 

At 15 per cent, by . . 

. . 24 

At 20 per cent, by . . 

. . 18 





















































































































































3 88 


WAGES-BOARD-LUMBER MEASURE 


VI 


A QUICK METHOD OF COMPUTING WAGES, 

On a Basis of Ten Hours’ Labor per Day. 


HOURS. 

$1.00 

$1.50 

.01* 

| $2.00 | $2.50 | $3.00 

$3.50 

$4.00 

$4.50 

$5.00 

.04* 

$5.50 
.04*1 

$6.00 | $6.50 

$7.00 

$7.50 

$8.00 | $9.00 

$10 

$11 

$12 

i 

.01 1 

-Olf 

.02 

.02* 

.03 

• 03* 

.03* 

.05 

.05* 

.06 

.06* 

.06*| 

.07* 

• 08* 

.09 

.10 

i 

.01* 1 

.02* 

•03* 

•04* 

.05 

.06 

•06* 

• 07* 

.08* 

.09* | 

.10 

.11 

• 11* 

.12* 

.13*1 

.15 

■16* 

.18* 

.20 

2 

•05* | 

.05 

•06* 

.08* 

.10 

•11* 

•13* 

.15 

•16* 

.18* | 

.20 

• 21* 

•23* 

.25 

.26* | 

.30 

.33* 

•3b* 

.40 

:* 

.05 | 

.07* 

.10 

• 12* 

.15 

• 17* 

.20 

•22* 

.25 

.27*| 

.30 

.32* 

.35 

.37* 

.40 | 

.45 

.50 

.55 

.60 

4 

.06* | 

.10 

.13* 

• 16* 

.20 

•23* 

•26* 

.30 

•33* 

■36*1 

.40 

• 43* 

•46* 

.50 

.53*| 

.60 

•66* 

•73* 

.80 

5 

.08* | 

.12* 

.16* 

.21 

.25 

.29* 

.33* 

.37* 

•41* 

.46 | 

.50 

.54* 

.58* 

62* 

• 66|| 

.75 

.83* 

• 91* 

1.00 

6 

.10 | 

.15 

.20 

.25 

.30 

.35 

.40 

.45 

.50 

.55 | 

60 

.65 

.70 

.75 

.80 | 

.90 

1.00 

1.10 

1.20 

7 

.11*1 

.17* 

.23* 

.29* 

.35 

.41 

•46* 

.52* 

.58* 

•64*1 

.70 

.76 

.81* 

.87* 

.93* | 1.05 

1.16* 

1.28* 

1.40 

H 

•13* 1 

.20 

.26* 

.33* 

.40 

•46* 

.53* 

.60 

•66* 

.73J| 

.80 

.86* 

•93* 

1.00 

1.06* | 1.20 

1.33* 

1.46* 

1.60 

9 

.15 | 

.22* 

.30 

.37* 

.45 

.52* 

.60 

• 67* 

.75 

•82* | 

.90 

.97* 

1.05 

1 .12* 

1.20 | 

1.35 

1.50 

1.65 

1.80 

days. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | 1 1 

1 

.16*1 

.25 

.33* 

• 41* 

.50 

.58* 

•66* 

.75 

.83* 

.91* | 1.00 

1.08* 

1.16* 

1.25 

1.33* | 1.50 

1 .66* 

1 83* 

2.00 

o 

■33* I 

.50 

•66* 

•83* 

1.00 

1.16* 

1.33* 

1.50 

1 .66* 

1.83* | 2.00 

2.16* 

2.33* 

2.50 

2.66* | 3.00 

3.33* 

3.66* 

4.00 

;* 

.50 | 

.75 

1.00 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

2.00 

2.25 

2.50 

2.75 1 3.00 

3.25 

3.50 

3.75 

4.00 | 

4.50 

5.00 

5.50 

6.00 

4 

•665 | 

1.00 

1.33* 

1 .66* 

2.00 

2.33* 

2 .1,6* 

3.00 

3.33* 

3.66* | 4.00 

4.33* 

4.66* 

5.00 

5.33* | 6.00 

6 .66J 

7.33* 

8.00 

5 

.83* | 

1.25 

1 -66* 

2.08* 

2.50 

2.91* 

3.33* 

3.75 

4-16* 

4.58* | 5.00 

5.41* 

5.83* 

6.25 

6 .66* | 

7.50 

8.33* 

9.16* 

10.00 

6 

1.00 | 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3 00 

3.50 

4 00 

4.50 

5.00 

5.50 | 

6.00 

6.50 

7.00 

7 50 

8.00 | 

9.00 

10.00 

11.90 

12.00 

To find wages at $ 13 , $ 14 , $ 15 , 

$ 16 , 

or more, per week, find the amount at $ 6.50 

$ 7 , $ 7 . 50 , 

$8, etc. and multiply by 2 

• 





EXPENSE 

OF 

BOARD PER 

DAY. 






DAYS. 

| 50c. | 

75c. 

$1.00 1 $1.25 1 $1.50 I $1.75 I $2.00 

| $2.25 

$2.50 

$3.00 | $3.50 | $4.00 | $4.50 | $5.00 

$6.00 | $7.00 

$8.00 

$9.00 

$10 

1 

| .07 

.11 

1 -14 

| .18 

.21 

| .25 

| .29 

| .32 

.36 

.43 | 

.50 

1 -57 

.64 

.71 

.86 | 

1.00 

1.14 

1.29 

1.43 

o 

1 -U 

.21 

| .29 

| .36 

| .43 

| .50 

I .57 

| .64 

.71 

.86 | 

1.00 

1 1-14 

1.29 

1.43 

1.71 | 

2.00 

2.29 

2.57 

2.86 

3 

1 -21 

.32 

| .43 

| .54 

.64 

| .75 

.86 

I .96 

1.07 

1.29 | 

1.50 

1 171 | 

1.93 

2.14 

2.57 | 

3.00 

3.43 

3.86 

4.29 

4 

| .29 

.43 

1 .57 

1 -71 

.86 

| 1.00 

| 1.14 

| 1.29 

1 43 

1.71 | 

2.00 

| 2.29 

2.57 

2.86 

3.43 | 

4.00 

4.57 

5.14 

5.71 

5 

| .36 

.54 

1 -71 

| .89 

1 1.07 

| 1.25 

| 1.43 

| 1.61 

1.79 

2.14 | 

2.50 

| 2.86 

3.21 

3.57 

4.29 | 

5.00 

5.71 

6.43 

7.14 

6 

[ .43 

.04 

I .82 

| 1.07 

| 1.29 

| 1.50 

I 1.71 

| 1.93 

2.14 

2.57 | 

3.00 

| 3.43 

3.86 

4.29 

5.14 | 

6.00 

6.86 

7.71 

8.57 

7 

| .50 

.75 

| 1.00 

| 1.25 

| 1.50 

| 1.75 

| 2.00 

| 2.25 

2.50 

3.00 | 

3.50 

| 4.00 

4.50 

5.00 

6.00 | 

7.00 

8.00 

9.00 

10.00 


For rates not given in this table the result may be obtained by addition or multiplication. 


LUMBER MEASURE. 

LENGTH IN FEET. 



4 ft. 

5 ft. 

6 ft. 

7 ft. 

8 ft. 

9 ft. 

10 ft. 

11 ft. 

12 ft. 

13 ft. 

14 ft. ' 15 ft. 

16 ft. 

17 ft. 

18 ft. 

19 ft. 

20 ft. 

21 ft 

22 ft. 



ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

ft. in. 

3 

inches wide... 

1..00 

1. .03 

1 . .06 

1. .09 

2 .. 00 

2.. 03 

2..06 

2.. 09 

3..00 

3..03 

3..06 

3.. 09 

4..00 

4..03 

4..06 

4. .09 

5.. 00 

5..03 

5..06 

4 

inches wide... 

1. .04 

1..08 

2 .. 00 

2..01 

2..08 

3..00 

3..01 

3..08 

4..00 

4..04 

4..08 

5..00 

5..04 

5..07 

6..00 

6..04 

6..08 

7..00 

7..05 

5 

inches wide... 

1 ..0S 

2..01 

2 .. 06 

2 .. 11 

3..04 

3..09 

4..02 

4..07 

5.. 00 

5..05 

5..10 

6 .. 03 

6..08 

7..01 

7..03 

7..11 

8..04 

8 .. 09 

9..02 

6 

inches wide... 

2..00 

2 .. 06 

3.. 00 

3..06 

4..00 

4..06 

5.. 00 

5.. 06 

6..00 

6..06 

7..00 

7..06 

8..00 

8..06 

9..00 

9..06 

10..00 

10..06 

11..00 

7 

niches wide... 

2..04 

2..11 

3..06 

4..01 

4..08 

5.. 03 

5..10 

6..05 

7..00 

7..07 

8..02 

8..09 

9..04 

9..11 

10..06 

11..01 

11..08 

12..03 12..10 

8 

inches wide... 

2..08 

3..04 

4.. 06 

4..08 

5..04 

6..00 

6..08 

7..04 

8..00 

8..08 

9..04 

10..00 

10..08 

11..04 

12..00 

12..08 

13..04 

14..00 14..08 

9 

inches wide... 

3..00 

3..09 

4..00 

5.. 03 

6..00 

6..09 

7..06 

8..03 

9.. 00 

9..09 

10..06 

11..03 

12..00 

12.. 09 

13..06 

14..03 

15.. 00 

15..09 16..06 

10 

inches wide... 

3..04 

4..02 

5.. 06 

5..10 

6..03 

7. .06 

8..04 

9..02 

10..00 

10..10 

11..08112..06 

13..04 

14. .02 

15..00 

15.. 10 

16..08 

17..06 18..04 

11 

inches wide... 

3..08 

4..07 

5..00 

6 .. 05 

7..04 

8..03 

9..02 

10..01 

11..00 

11..11 

12.. 10113..09 

14..08 

15..07 

16..06 

17.. 05 

18..04 

19..03 20..00 

12 

inches wide... 

4..00 

5..00 

6..06 

7..00 

8..00 

9..00 10..00 

11..00 

12..00 

13..00 

14..00 15..00 

16..00 

17..00 

18..00 

19..00 

20..00 

21..00 22..00 

13 

inches wide... 

4..04 

5..05 

6..00 

7..07 

8..08 

9..09 10..10 

11..11 

13..00 

14..01 

15..02 16..03 

17..04 

18..05 

19..06 

20..07 

21 .. 08 

22..09 23.. 10 

14 

inches wide... 

4..03 

5.. 10 

7..06 

8 .. 02 

9..04 

10..06 11..OS 

12..10 

14..00 

15. .02 

16. .04 17. .06 

18..08 19..10 

21..00 

22. 09, 

23..04 

24..06 25..08 

15 

inches wide... 

5..00 

6..03 

7.-00 

8 . .0.) 

10..00,11..03 

12..06 

13..09 

15..00 

16..03 

17..06 18..09 

20..00 21..03 

22..06 

23.. 09 

25..00 

26..03 27..06 

16 

inches wide... 

5..04 

6..03 

8..00 

9..01 

10..08 12..00 

13.. 04 

14..08 

16..00 

17..04 

18.. 08,20.. 00 

21..04 

22..08 

24..00 

25.. 04 

26..08 

28..00 29..04 

17 

inches wide... 

5..08 

7..01 

8..06 

9..11 

11..04 12..09 

14.. 02 

15..07 

17..00 

18..05 

19..10 21..03 

22..08 24..01 

25..06 

26..11 

28..04 

29..09 31..02 

13 

inches wide... 

6..00 

7. .03 

9.. 00 

10..06 

12..00,13..06 

15..00 

16..06 

18..00 

19..06 

21..00 22..06 

24..00 25..06 

27..00 

28..06 

30..00 

31..06 33..00 

19 

inches wide... 

6..04 

7..11 

9..06 

11..01 

12..08;14..03 

15..10 

17..05 

19. 00 

20..07 

22. .02 23. .09 

25..04 26..11 

28..06 

30.. 01 

31..08 

33..03 34..10 

20 

inches wide... 

6..08 

8..01 

10..00 

11..08 

13..04S15..00 

16..08 

18..01 

20..00 

21..08 

23..04 25..00 

26..08 28..04 

30..00 

31.. 08 

33..04 

35..00 36..08 

21 

inches wide... 

7..00 

8 .. 09 

10..06 

12..03 

14..00; 15..09 

17..06 

19..03 

21..00 

22..09 

24..06 26..03 

28. .00 29. .09 

31..06 

33.. 03 

35..00 

36..09 38..06 

22 

inches wide... 

7..01 

9..02 11..00 12..10 14..08 16..06 18..04 

20..02 

22..00 

23..10 

25..08 27..06 

29..04 

31. .02 33. .00 

34..10 

36..08 

38..06 40..04 

23 

inches wide... 

7..08 

9..07 

11..06 13..05 15. .04 17..03 19..02 

21..01 

23..00 

24..11 

26.. 10 28..09 

30..08 

32..07 

34..06 

36..05138. .04140. .03 43. .02 

24 

inches wide... 

8..00 

0. .00112. .00,14. .00 16. .00 

18. .00 20. .00 

22..00 

24..00 

26..00 

28..00 30..00 

32..00 

34. .00 

36..00 

38. -00l40. .00 42..00 44..00 

25 

inches wide... 

8..01 

0..05!12..06 14..07 

16..08 18..09 20..10 

22..11 

25. .00 27. .01 

29 . 02 31..03:33. .04 

35..05 

37..06 39..07 

41..08 

43..09 45..10 

26 

inches wide... 

8..08 

0..10 13..00 15..02 17..01 

19..06 21..08 

23..10 

26..00 28..02 

30..04 

32..06 34..08 

36.. 10 

39. .00 41. .02 43. .04 

45..06 47..08 

27 

inches wide... 

9.. 00 

1. .03113. .06,15. .09:18. .00 20. .03 

22..06 

24..09 

27.. 00 j 29.. 03 

31. .06 33. .09 36. .00 

38..03 

40. .06 42. .09 45..00 

47..03 49..06 

28 

inches wide... 

9..01 

1..08 14..00 16..01 18..08 21..00 23..04 

25..08 

28..00 30..04 

32..08 35.. 00| 37 - - 04 30. .08 

42. .00 44. .04;46. .08 49. .00 51. .04 

29 

inches wide... 

9..08 

2..01 

14..06 16..11 

19..01 21..09 24..02 

26..07 

29..00 31..05 

33. .10 36. .03|38. .08 41. .01 

43.. 06 45.. 11 48.. 04 50.. 09 5.3.. 02 

30 

inches wide... 

10..00 

2..06 15..00 17..06 20..00 22..06 25..00 

1 1 [ l 1 

27..06 

30..00 32..06 

35. .00 37. .06 40. .00 42. .06 

45..00 47..06 50..00|52..06 55..00 

1 1 1 1 


Explanation. — To ascertain the number of feet multiply the number of feet in length by the number of inches in width, and divide 
the product by 12 ; the result will be the number in feet and inches. Thus, multiply 9 inches wide by 26 feet long, and the result will > 
be 234 . Divide this by 12 and we have the product 19 feet and 6 inches. 

Z - -T Jt 































































































































































































PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS. 


389 



W8 

-c• svh; a-* T. r '-r .i?.o *—~~ s> 


PRACTICAL + GALGULATIONS & 







To Measure Wells or Cisterns. 

Square the diameter in inches, multiply by the decimal .7854, and the 
product by the depth of the well or cistern in inches. The result will be 
the full capacity of the well in cubic inches. If the actual quantity of 
water be sought, multiply by the depth of water in inches, and in either 
case divide by 231 for the number of gallons. 


Circular Cisterns, One Foot in Depth, Computed. 


DIAMETER CONTENTS 

IN INCHES. IN GALLONS. 


12 . 5-875 

15 . 9-18 

16 .i °-44 


DIAMETER 
IN INCHES. 
18 .... 
20 .. . . 
21 ... . 


CONTENTS 
IN GALLONS, 

-13.218 

-16.32 

....18. 


For any greater depth than one foot, multiply by the number of feet and 
fractions of a foot. As the areas of circles, and consequently the capaci¬ 
ties of circular cisterns of equal depth, vary as the squares of their diame¬ 
ters, it is unnecessary to multiply calculations. For instance, should it 
be required to find the contents of a circular cistern of two feet in diame¬ 
ter, say as the square of x: to the square of 2: 5.875, that is, as 1:4:: 
5.875, and 5.875 X 4 = 23.5= the contents of such cistern. This formula 
will apply to any diameter; for three feet, multiply by 9; for four feet, 
multiply by 16, etc.; for 5, by 25. 


The Amount of Rainfall on a Building. 

In this calculation the amount of annual rainfall is assumed to be thirty- 
six inches, which is about the average for the Northern States. Find the 
area covered by the building, in square inches. Multiply it by 36, the 
depth of rainfall; divide the product by 231, the cubic inches in a gallon, 
and the quotient will be the number of gallons of water shed by the roof 
in one year. 


The Diameter of a Circular Cistern that will Contain the 
Rainfall on a Building. 

The side of a square is to the diameter of a circle of equal area as 
1:1.128. The square root of the area of the building, multiplied by 1.128, 
will be the required diameter, assuming depth of cistern and rainfall to be 
equal. Allowance must of course be made for greater or less depth of 
cistern than three feet, as well as for daily or occasional use of rainwater. 


The Per Cent of Profit or Loss. 

Add two ciphers to the difference between the cost and selling price, 
divide by the cost, and the quotient will be the gain or loss per cent. 

Weights of Hay by Measurement. 

Four hundred cubic feet of dry meadow hay are estimated at one ton 
weight. The actual measurement to make a ton will be modified by the 
density of the volume of hay, the pressure it has been subjected to as in 
a large or long-standing stack, and the like. In barns the volume 
is variously estimated from 400 to 55o, according to coarseness and 
the length of time it has been piled up. Find the cubic contents by 
measuring the three dimensions of the pile in feet, and divide by 400, 450, 
500 or 550 (according to circumstances, as explained), and the quotient 
will be the number of tons, approximately. 


Weights of Cattle by Measurement. 

To find the approximate weight, measure as follows: 1. The girth be¬ 
hind the shoulders. 2. The length from the fore part of the shoulder- 
blade along the back to the bone at the tail, in a vertical line with the 
buttocks. Then multiply the square of the girth, in feet, by five times 
the length, in feet. Divide the product by 1.5 for average cattle (if 
cattle be very fat, by 1.425; if very lean, by 1.575); and the quotient will 
be the dressed weight of the quarters. Thus; The girth of a steer is 
6.5 feet, and the length from the shoulder-blade to the tail-bone is 5.25. 
The square of 6.5 is 42.25, and 5 times 5.25 is 26.25. Multiplying these 
together gives 1109.0625, which, when divided by 1.5, produces 739.375 
lbs., the approximate net weight of the steer after being dressed. 


The Number of Shingles Required for a Roof. 

Multiply the length of the ridge-pole by twice the length of the rafter, 
and the product by eight if the shingle is to be exposed 4j4 inches to the 
weather, and by 7 1-5 if exposed five inches. 

The Number of Square Yards in a Floor or Wall. 

Multiply the length and width of the floor, or height and width of the 
wall, in feet and fractions of a foot, divide by nine, and the quotient is 
the number of square yards. 

The Number of Bricks Required for a Building. 

The average brick is eight inches long, four inches wide, and two inches 
thick, or 64 (8 X 4 X 2) cubic inches. 1728 cubic inches make one cubic foot, 
and 27 bricks make 1728 (64 X 27) cubic inches. In laying bricks, 1-6 
is allowed for mortar, or 4J4 out of every 27, leaving 22^ actual 
bricks for each cubic foot. Therefore, multiply the dimensions—length, 
height and thickness—in feet and fraction of a foot, of the several brick 
walls, and the product by 22^, and the result will be the number of bricks 
required. Multiply by 20,'instead of 22%, if the bricks are larger than 
the average above given. Allowance should be made for chimneys, pro¬ 
jections for mantels, and the like, on the same basis. 

The Number of Perches of Stone Required for a Wall or 

Cellar, 

The perch of stone is now computed at a perch, or 16.5 feet in length, 
by 1.5 feet in width and 1 foot in height, or 24.75 (16.5 X 1.5 X 1) cubic feet. 
Of this amount one-ninth, 2.75 cubic feet, is allowed for mortar and fill¬ 
ing. Multiply the three dimensions of the wall or walls in feet—width, 
height and thickness—and divide by 22 (24.75—2.75) if the needed qual¬ 
ity of stone is the subject of enquiry, or by 24.75 if it he sought to ascer¬ 
tain the amount of masonry in the wall or cellar. 

The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Lot of Boards, 
Planks, Flooring, Scantling, Joists, Sills or Beams. 

The foot of board measure is a superficial or square foot, one inch 
thick. Multiply the product of the width and thickness of each board, 
plank or other article, in inches, by the length in feet and fractions of a 
foot, divide by 12, and the quotient will be the number of feet of board 
measure. In flooring, allowance must be made for rabbeting, the pro¬ 
portion varying with the depth of the groove and the width of the boards. 

The Cubic Feet in Squared Timber or Beams. 

Multiply as in board measure, but divide by 144 instead of 12, or multi¬ 
ply the three dimensions in feet and fractions of a foot. 




















































G 

1 


390 

■- 

PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS. 

/ 




The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uniform 

Diameter. 

Square the diameter, in inches, multiply by .7854, and multiply this 
product by the length in feet, divide by 144, and the quotient is the 
number of cubic feet. 


and width—of the pile in feet, divide by 128, and the quotient will be the 
number of cords. The odd inches in any or all of the three dimensions 
must be reduced to decimals or common fractions of a foot, before begin¬ 
ning to multiply. 

Contents of Fields and Lots. 


Estimate of the Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a 
Standing Tree. 

Find the circumference in inches, divide by 3.1416, square the quotient, 
multiply by the length in feet, divide by 144, deduct about one-tenth for 
thickness of bark, and the result will be, approximately, the number of 
cubic feet. 

The Number of Feet, Board Measure, in a Log of 
Unequal Diameters. 

Square the smallest diameter in inches, multiply by .7854, and the 
product by the length of the log in feet, divide by 12, and the quotient 
will be the number of feet of board measure, approximately. 

The Area of a Circle. 

Of all plane figures, the circle is the most capacious, or has the greatest 
area within the same limits. It is geometrically demonstrable that it has 
the same area as a right-angled triangle with a base equal to its circum¬ 
ference, and a perpendicular equal to its radius, that is, half the product 
of the radius and circumference. It is obviously larger than any figure, 
of however many sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller than 
any circumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculations on this 
basis (pushed in one instance to 600 places of decimals without reaching 
the end), it has been ascertained that the ratio of the diameter to the cir¬ 
cumference of any circle (sufficiently exact for all practical purposes), is 
as 1:3.1416 (3.141592653X) or in whole numbers, approximately, as 7:22, 
or more nearly as 113:355. Hence, to find the circumference or diameter, 
the other quantity being known, multiply or divide by 3.1416 ; and to find 
the area, multiply half the diameter by half the circumference, or the 
square of the diameter by .7854 (3.1416 -74). 


Capacity or Contents of a Granary, Bin, Crib or Wagon. 

Multiply the three dimensions—the length, width and depth—in feet 
(the inches, if any, being reduced to fractions of a foot), multiply the 
product by the decimal .803564—or deduct one-fifth, which is sufficiently 
exact for ordinary purposes—and the result is the number of bushels. 
Where the wagon or crib flares considerably in length or width, it will be 
necessary to obtain a mean dimension. This is done by taking the longest 
and shortest measures, with one or more intermediate ones, and dividing 
the sum of all by the number taken. The quotient will be the mean dimen¬ 
sion sought. The greater the flare the larger the number of intermediate 
dimensions that should be taken to insure accuracy. Corn in the ear, 
when first cribbed, is estimated at twice the bulk of shelled corn. 


To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor. 

Pile up the commodity in the form of a cone; find the diameter in feet; 
multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the product by one-third 
the height of the cone in feet; from this last product deduct one-fifth of 
itself, or multiply it by .803564, and the result will be the number of 
bushels. 

To Measure Casks or Barrels. 

Find mean diameter by adding to head diameter two-thirds (if staves 
are but slightly curved, three-fifths) of difference between head and bung 
diameters, and dividing by two. Multiply square of mean diameter in 
inches by .7854, and the product by the height of the cask in inches. The 
result will be the number of cubic inches Divide by 231 for standard or 
wine gallons, and by 282 for beer gallons. 


The Number of Cords in a Pile of Wood. 

A cord of wood is four feet wide, four feet high and eight feet long, or 
128 (4X4X8) cubic feet. Multiply the three dimensions—length, height 


£ 




The following table will assist farmers in making an accurate estimate 
of the amount of land in different fields under cultivation: 

= 1 A. 


10 

rods 

X 

16 rods = 

I 

8 

(« 

X 

20 “ = 

I 

5 

U 

X 

32 “ = 

I 

4 

u 

X 

40 “ = 

I 

5 yards 

X 

968 “ = 

I 

IO 

u 

X 

484 yards — 

I 

20 

“ 

X 

242 “ — 

I 

40 

« 

X 

121 “ —- 

I 

80 

M 

X 

6 °'A “ - 

I 

70 

U 

X 

69% “ = 

I 

220 

feet 

X 

198 feet — 

I 

44O 


X 

99 “ = 

I 

no 

“ 

X 

3^9 “ = 

I 

60 

« 

X 

726 “ — 

I 

120 

H 

X 

363 “ = 

I 

24O 

« 

X 

181 1 4 feet = 

I 

200 

it 

X 

108 ,v = 

V2 

IOO 

U 

X 

1 45 nj “ = 

js 


IOO 

feet 

X 

108 |-q feet 

= 

X A. 

25 

U 

X 

IOO “ 


•0574 “ 

25 

U 

X 

no 


.0631 “ 

25 

(( 

X 

120 “ 

zr 

.0688 “ 

25 

li 

X 

125 “ 

= 

.0717 “ 

25 

it 

X 

150 “ 


. 109 “ 


2178 square feet 
4356 
6534 
8712 
10890 
13068 
15246 
17424 
19603 
21780 
32670 
34848 


.05 

. 10 

• 15 

.20 

■25 

•30 

•35 

.40 

• 45 

• 5° 
•75 
.80 


Boxes of Different Measure. 

A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 28 inches deep, will con¬ 
tain a barrel (3 bushels). 

A box 24 inches long by 16 inches wide, and 14 inches deep, will con¬ 
tain half a barrel. 

A box 16 inches square and 8 2-5 inches deep will contain one bushel. 

A box 16 inches by 8 2-5 inches wide, and 8 inches deep, will contain 
half a bushel. 

A box 8 inches by 8 2-5 inches square, and 8 inches deep, will contain 
one peck. 

A box 8 inches by 8 inches square, and 4 1-5 inches deep, will contain 
one gallon. 

A box 7 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 4-5 inches deep, will contain 
half a gallon. 

A box 4 inches by 4 inches square, and 4 1-5 inches deep, will contain 
one quart. 

In purchasing anthracite coal, 20 bushels are generally allowed for a 
ton. 

A Key to the Metric System. 

It may not be generally known that We have in the nickel five-cent piece 
of our coinage a key to the tables of linear measures and weights. 
The diameter of this coin is two centimeters, and its weight is five 
grammes. Five of them placed in a row will, of course, give the length 
of the decimeter; and two of them will weigh a decagramme. As the 
kiloliter is a cubic meter, the key to the measure of length is also the key 
to the measures of capacity. Any person, therefore, who is fortunate 
enough to own a five-cent nickel, may carry in his pocket the entire metric 
system of weights and measures. 

Comparison of Thermometric Scales. 

To convert the degrees of Centigrade into those of Fahrenheit, multiply 
by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. 

To convert degrees of Centigrade into those of Reaumur, multiply by 
4 and divide by 5. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade, deduct 32, 
multiply by 5, and divide by 9. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Reaumur, deduct 32, 
divide by 9, and multiply by 4. 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Centigrade, multiply by 5, 
and divide by 4. 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, 
divide by 4, and add 32. 

In De Lisle’s thermometer, used in Russia, the gradation begins at 
boiling point, which is marked zero, and the freezing point is 150. 



<9 












































FACTS FOR FARMERS, STOCK-RAISERS, ETC. 


39 1 


VALUABLE FACTS FOR FARMERS, STOCK-RAISERS AND OTHERS* 


Quantity of Various Seeds to an Acre. 


Quantity. 


Asparagus in 12-inch drills. . 16 qts. 

Asparagus plants, 4 by i}4 feet. 8,000 

Barley.2^4 bu. 

Beans, bush, in drills 2^4 feet. i}4 b**. 

Beans, pole, Lima, 4 by 4 feet. 20 qts. 

Beans, Carolina, prolific, etc., 4 by 3_ 10 qts. 

Beets and mangold, drills, 2J4 feet. 9 lbs. 

Broom corn in drills. 12 lbs. 

Cabbage, outside, for transplanting.12 oz. 

Cabbage, sown in frames. 4 oz. 

Carrot in drills, 2J4 feet.. 4 lbs. 

Celery, seed . 8 oz. 

Celery, plant, 4 by }4 feet.25,000 

Clover, white Dutch. 13 lbs. 

Clover, Lucerne. 10 lbs. 

Clover, Alsike. 6 lbs. 

Clover, large red with timothy.12 lbs. 

Clover, large red without timothy. 16 lbs. 

Corn, sugar. 10 qts. 

Corn, field. 8 qts. 

Corn, salad, drill 10 inches. 25 lbs. 

Cucumber, in hills. 3 qts. 

Cucumber, in drills. 4 qts. 

Egg plant, plants 3 by 2 feet . 4 oz. 

Endive, in drills 2*4 feet. 3 lbs. 

Flax, broadcast. 20 qts. 

Grass, timothy, with clover . 6 qts. 

G^ass, timothy, without clover . 10 qts. 

Grass, orchard. 25 qts. 

Grass, red top or herds.20 qts. 

Grass, blue. 28 qts. 

Grass, rye.20 qts. 

Grass, millet.;. 32 qts. 

Hemp, broadcast. J4 bu. 

Kale, German greens. 3 lbs. 

Lettuce, in rows 2^4 feet. 3 lbs. 

Leek. 4 lbs. 

Lawn grass. 35 lbs. 

Melons, water, in hills 8 by 8 feet. 3 lbs. 

Melons, citron, in hills 4 by 4 feet. 2 lbs. 

Oats. 2 bu. 

Okra, in drills 2I4 by A feet. 20 lbs. 

Onion, in beds for sets. 50 lbs. 

Onion, in rows for large bulbs. 7 lbs. 

Parsnip, in drills 2I4 feet. 5 lbs. 

Pepper, plants, 2J4 by 1 feet. *7,5°° 

Pumpkin, in hills 8 by 8 feet. 2 qts. 

Parsley, in drills 2 feet. 4 lbs. 

Peas, in drills, short varieties. 2 bu. 

Peas, in drilLs, tall varieties.1 to i}4 bu. 

Peas, broadcast. 3 bu. 

Potatoes . 8 bu. 

Radishes, in drills 2 feet. 10 lbs. 

Rye, broadcast. bu. 

Rye, drilled. ij4 bu. 

Salsify, in drills 2^4 feet. 10 lbs. 

Spinach, broadcast. 30 lbs. 

Squash, bush, in hills 4 by 4 feet. 3 lbs. 

Squash, running, 8 by 8 feet. 2 lbs. 

Sorghum. 4 qts. 

Turnips, in drills 2 feet. 3 lbs. 

Turnips, broadcast. 3 lbs. 

Tomatoes, in frames. 3 oz. 

Tomatoes, seed in hills 3 by 3 feet. 8 oz. 

Tomatoes, plants. 3,800 

Wheat, in drills.. i^t bu. 

Wheat, broadcast. 2 bu. 


Values of Various Kinds of Feed. 

One Hundred Pounds 0/ Good Hay are equal to : 

Pounds. 

Oil cake. 20 

Beans . 30 

Peas. 3° 

Rice. 32 

Wheat flour. 4° 

Wheat . 46 

Barley. 53 


Value of Various Kinds of Feed—Continued. Number of Plants or Trees to an Acre—Confin'd. 


Rye. 

Oats. 

Corn, Indian.... 
Sunflower seeds.. 

Clover hay. 

Wheat bran. ... 

Rye bran. 

Pea straw. . .. 

Oat straw. 

Barley straw.... 
Buckwheat straw 

Potatoes. 

Carrots.. . 

Cabbage. 

Wheat straw... . 

Rye straw. 

Green clover .... 
Dried cornstalks. 
Turnips. 


Pouudj. 

.. 54 

•• 57 

•• 59 

. • 62 

.. 80 

.. 105 

.. IIO 

. 150 

.. 170 
.. 180 
.. 190 
.. 200 
.. 250 
. 300 

.. 360 
. 380 

.. 400 
400 
45o 


The following table shows the amount of hay or 
its equivalent per day required by each ioo lbs. of 
live weight of various animals : 

Pounds. 


Working horses. 

Working oxen. . 

Fatting oxen . 

Fatting oxen, when fat 

Milch cows. 

Dry cows. 

Young growing cattle. 

Steers. 

Pigs. 

Sheep. . 


.3-°8 

.2.40 

.5.00 

.4.00 

from 2.25 to 2.40 

.2.42 

.3.08 

.2.84 

.3-°° 

. 3.00 


Number of Plants or Trees to an Acre, 


DISTANCES APART. 


No. Of 
Plants. 


3 inches by 3 inches.. 
6 inches by 4 inches. 

6 inches by 6 inches.. 
9 inches by 9 inches. . 

1 foot by 1 foot. 

i*4 feet by 1J4 feet. • • 

2 feet by 1 foot. 

2 feet by 2 feet. 

2J4 feet by 254 feet... 

3 feet by 1 foot....... 

3 feet by 2 feet. 

3 feet by 3 feet. 

3*4 feet by 3>4 feet... 

4 feet by 1 foot. 

4 feet by 2 feet. 

4 leet by 3 feet. 

4 feet by 4 feet. 

4^4 feet by 4*4 feet. .. 

5 feet by 1 foot. 

5 feet by 2 feet. 

5 feet by 3 feet. 

5 feet by 4 feet. 

5 feet by 5 feet. 

5*4 feet by 5J4 feet... 

6 feet by 6 feet. 

6J4 feet by 6J4 feet... 

7 feet by 7 feet. 

8 feet by 8 feet. 

9 feet by 9 feet. 

10 feet by 10 feet. 

11 feet by 11 feet. 

12 feet by 12 feet.... . 

13 feet by 13 feet. 

14 feet by 14 feet.... 

15 feet by 15 feet. 

16 feet by 16 feet. 

16A feet by *654 feet. 

17 feet by 17 feet.... 


...696,960 
... 392,040 
...174,240 

... 77,440 

• • 43,s6o 
... 19,360 

_ 21 780 

... 10,890 
... 6,960 

... 14,520 

... 7,260 

.. 4,840 

• •• 3,555 

... 10,890 

• •• 5,445 

... 3,630 

... 2,722 

... 2,151 

... 8,712 

• •• 4,356 

... 2,904 

... 2,178 

.... 1,742 

... 1,417 
... 1,210 

,... 1,031 

881 

... 680 


537 

435 


360 

302 

257 


222 


*93 
*70 
16 > 
150 


18 feet by 18 feet. 134 

19 feet by 19 feet. 120 

20 feet by 20 feet. 108 

25 feet by 25 feet. 69 

30 feet by 30 feet. 48 

33 feet by 33 feet. 40 

40 feet by 40 feet. 27 

50 feet by 50 feet. 17 

60 feet by 60 feet. 12 

66 feet by 66 feet. 10 


Cost of Producing Pork. 


Corn per 
bushel. 

Cost of pork 
per hundred. 

12J4 Cts. . 








25 il . 






35 “ . 


p ". 


40 “ . 


i* ". 

45 “ . 

50 “ . 

.S 35 

55 ". 

60 ". 


65 ". 


7 ° “ . 

.8 57 


Value of Foods for Sheep. 

Experiments by De Raumer, a French scientist, 
disclosed that 1,000 pounds of different kinds of 
foods produced the following results : 


SUBSTANCES. 

Increase of 
weight in liv¬ 
ing animals. 

Wool pro¬ 
duced. 

Tallow 

produced. 

Potatoes with salt 

.4614 lbs. 

.6 'A 

lbs. 

12J4 

lbs. 

“ without salt 

44 

lbs. 

.(>A 

lbs. 

n i / 2 

Ibs. 

Mangel- W urzels. 

.3814 lbs. 

.5*/ 

lbs. 

6 J 4 

lbs. 

Wheat. 

*55 

lbs. 

H 

Ibs. 

59 A 

lbs. 

Oats. 

146 

lbs. 

10 

lbs. 

42 A 

lbs. 

Barley. 

136 

lbs. 

nj 4 

lbs. 

60 

lbs. 

Peas. 

*34 

lbs. 

* 4/4 

lbs. 

4* 

lbs. 

Rye, with salt... 

*33 

lbs. 

14 

lbs. 

35 

lbs. 

Rye, without salt 

9 ° 

lbs. 

12 

lbs. 

44 

lbs. 

Corn-meal, wet.. 

129 

lbs. 

13M 

lbs. 

*7/4 

Ibs. 

Buckwheat. 

120 

lbs. 

IO 

Ibs. 

33 

lbs. 


Facts About Sheep. 

Supposing sheep to be well fed and sheltered, 
the following presents an average yield of flesh 
and wool at a certain age : 


BREEDS. 

Bucks 

weigh. 

Ewes 

weigh. 

Age at 
maturity. 
Years. 

Annual 
.yield of 
wool,lbs. 

Cotswold. 

3 °° 

200 

2 

*4 

Lincoln. 

300 

200 

2 

11 

Leicester. 

250 

150 

2M 

8 

Merino, American. 

150 

13 ° 

2 

9 

Merino, Spanish. .. 

125 

IIO 

3 

IO 

Southdown. 

200 

I40 

2 

6 

Shropshire. 

200 

I40 

2 

6 

Common “ Scrub,” 

120 

90 

3 

4 




























































































































































































































































39 2 


MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 


VALUABLE MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 


Distances from New York City, Hours by Rail, Passenger Fares and 
Difference in Time of the Principal Places in the United States. 


CITIES. 

Distance by 
Kail 

from N.Y. 

Mail Time 
from N.Y. 

R R. Fares 
from N. Y. 

Time when it is 
12 noon at N.Y’. 

Albany, N.Y. 

Miles. 

i 45 

Hours. 

4 -i 5 

$3.10 

12.01 p.m. 

Atlanta, Ga. 

881 

52.15 

25.50 

11.18 a.m. 

Auburn, N.Y. 

3 r 9 

9.30 

6.58 

11.50 a.m. 

Baltimore, Md. 

188 

6.00 

6.20 

11.50 a.m. 

Bangor, Me. 

478 

19.40 

12.00 

12.21 p.m. 

Boston, Mass. 

233 

8.00 

6.00 

12.12 p.m. 

Bridgeport, Conn. 

59 

2.00 

I.30 

12.03 P* m * 

Brooklyn, N.Y. 

2 

o.yi 

0.02 

12.00 m. 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

424 

14.00 

925 

11.40 a.m. 

Burlington, Iowa. 

1120 

47.00 

27.25 

10.51 a.m. 

Charleston, S. C. 

804 

11.00 

33 -°° 

8.00 

24.00 

12.03 P* m . 
11.36 a.m. 

Chicago, 111 . 

9*3 

35.00 

20.00 

11.05 a.m. 

Cincinnati, O. 

758 

28.00 

18.00 

11.18 a.m. 

Cleveland, O. 

585 

20.00 

13.00 

11.29 a.m. 

Columbus, O. 

639 

22.00 

16.25 

11.24 a* m * 

Concoid, N. H. 

274 

10.30 

7-15 

12.10 p.m. 

Council Bluffs, Iowa. 

^89 

56.00 

35-50 

10.34 a.m. 

Davenport, Iowa. 

1096 

41.40 

26.00 

10.53 a.m. 

Dayton, O. 

7°9 

25.00 

17.50 

11.19 a.m. 

Denver, Colo. 

1982 

92.00 

59-75 

q .57 a.m. 

Des Moines, Iowa . 

Detroit, Mich. 

1270 

51-20 

31.20 

10.42 a.m. 

776 

24.00 

15.00 

11.24 a.m. 

Dubuque, Iowa. 

1103 

43.00 

26.60 

10.54 a.m. 

Easton, Pa. 

76 

2.30 

2.25 

11.55 a.m. 

Elmira, N. Y. 

275 

22.30 

7-25 

11.49 a.m. 

Evansville, Ind . 

995 

36.25 

25.00 

11.07 a.m. 

FortWayr.e, Ind. 

765 

29.00 

i 6-75 

11.15 a.m. 

Galveston, Tex. 

1789 

97.30 

49-25 

10.37 a.m. 

Harrisburg, Pa. 

183 

5.10 

5-50 

11.49 a.m. 

Hartford, Conn. 

"3 

3-45 

2.65 

12.05 p.m. 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

826 

30.00 

19.00 

11.12 p.m. 

Kansas City, Mo. 

1343 

60.00 

32.75 

10.37 a.m. 

Keokuk,Iowa. 

1128 

48.00 

26.25 

10.50 a.m. 

Leavenworth, Kan. 

1369 

62.00 

32.75 

10.37 a.m. 

Little Rock. Ark. 

I 41 I 

54.20 

42.85 

10.47 a.m. 

Louisville, Ky . . 

868 

35.00 

22 .OO 

11.14 a.m. 

Lowell, Mass. 

245 

9.00 

7.OO 

12.10 p.m. 

Memphis, Tenn. 

1245 

50.00 

32.00 

10.55 a.m. 

Milwaukee, Wis. 

998 

40.00 

23.00 

11.05 a.m. 

Mobile, Ala. 

1236 

52.00 

40.75 

11.04 a.m. 

Montgomery, Ala. 

1056 

45 - 0 ° 

32.00 

ii . 10 a.m. 

Nashville, Tenn. 

i °53 

43.00 

29-45 

11.09 a.m. 

Newark, N. J. 

IO 

0.30 

0.20 

11.59 a.m. 

Newburg, N. Y. 

63 

2-35 

i -45 

12.00 m. 

Newburyport, Mass. 

New Haven, Conn. 

270 

9.20 

7.00 

12.12 p.m. 

77 

2.45 

i -75 

12.04 p«m. 

New Orleans, La. 

1377 

58.00 

42-75 

10.56 a.m. 

Newport, R. I. 

185 

10.00 

2.00 

12.ii p.m. 

Norfolk, \ a. 

372 

18.00 

8.50 

11 51 a.m. 

Northampton, Mass. 

156 

6.00 

3-65 

12.05 p.m. 

Norwich, Conn. 

140 

5-15 

2.00 

12.07 p.m. 

Ogdensburg, N.Y. 

374 

14.30 

9.60 

11.54 a.m. 

Omaha, Neb. 

1406 

56.20 

36.00 

10.32 a.m. 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

89 

2.00 

2.50 

11.55 a.m. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

445 

15.00 

12.50 

11.36 a.m. 

Pittsfield, Mass. 

161 

6.00 

3.50 

12.02 p.m. 

Portland, Me. 

341 

14.00 

9.00 

12.15 P-m. 

Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 

76 

3.00 

1.46 

12.00 m. 

Providence, R. I. 

189 

6.30 

5.00 

12.10 p.m. 

Richmond, Va. 

343 

13.00 

12.85 

11.46 a.m. 

Rochester, N. Y. 

374 

10.00 

7.70 

11.43 a.m. 

Sacramento, Cal. 

3 i8 3 

146.15 

136.00 

8.50 a.m. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

1066 

38.00 

24-25 

10.55 a.111. 

St. Paul, Minn. 

I32 2 

54.00 

31-35 

10.44 a.m. 

Salt Lake City, Utah. 

2476 

120.00 

115- 5 ° 

9.28 a.m. 

San Antonio, Tex. 

1952 

104.00 

67.05 

10.23 a.m. 

San Francisco, Cal. 

3273 

151.00 

136.00 

8.46 a.m. 

Savannah, Ga. 

919 

39.00 

25.00 

11.32 a.m. 

Springfield, III. 

1032 

42.30 

24.00 

10.58 a.m. 

Springfield, Mass. 

'39 

4.30 

3 - 3 ° 

12.05 p.m. 

Syracuse, N. Y. 

293 

8.30 

6.06 

11.51 a.m. 

Terre Haute, Ind. 

899 

32.00 

21.25 

11.07 a.m. 

Toledo, O. 

706 

24.00 

16.25 

11.22 a.m. 

Trenton, N. J. 

58 

1.30 

i -75 

11.54 a.m. 

1 roy, N. Y. 

151 

4.20 

3 -J 5 

11.58 a.m. 

Utica, N. Y. 

240 

7.30 

5.00 

11.56 a.m. 

Vicksburg, Miss. 

1287 

63.30 

39.25 

10.53 a.m. 

Washington, 1 ). C. 

228 

8.00 

7 - 5 ° 

11.48 a.m. 

Wheeling, W. Va. 

5 11 

21.00 

14.25 

11.33 a.m. 

Wilmington, Del. 

Il8 

3.00 

3. 10 

11.54 a.m. 

Worcester, Mass. 

IQ 3 

7-15 

4.65 

12.10 p.m. 


The Climates of the United States. 


PLACE OF OBSERVATION. 

Mean 

Annual 

Temper¬ 

ature. 

PLACE OF OBSERVATION. 

Mean 

Annual 

Temper¬ 

ature. 

Mobile, Ala. 

66° 

Jackson, Miss. 

6 4 ° 

Sitka, Alaska. 

46° 

St. Louis, Mo. 

55 ° 

Tucson, Arizona. 

69° 

Helena, Montana. 

43 u 

Little Rock, Ark. 

63° 

Omaha, Neb. 

49 ° 

San Francisco, Cal. 

55 ° 

Camp Scott, Nev. .... 

50 ° 

Denver, Colo. 

48° 

Concord, N. H.. 

46° 

Hartford, Conn. 

5 °° 

Trenton, N.J. 

53 ° 

Fort Randall, Dak. 

47 ° 

Santa he, N. M. 

5 i° 

Wilmington, Del. 

53 ° 

Albany, N. Y. 

48° 

Washington, D. C. 

55 ° 

Raleigh, N. C. 

59 ° 

Jacksonville, Fla. 

69° 

Columbus, O. 

53 ° 

Atlanta, Ga. 

58° 

Portland, Oregon. 

53 ° 

Fort Boise, Idaho. 

52 ° 

Harrisburg, Pa. 

54 ° 

Springfield, Ill. 

50 ° 

Providence, R. 1 . 

48° 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

5 i° 

Columbia, S. C. 

62° 

Fort Gibson, I T. 

6o° 

Nashville, Tenn.. 

58° 

Des Moines, la. 

49 ° 

Austin, Tex. 

67 o 

Leavenworth, Kan. 

5 *° 

Salt Lake City, Utah. 

52 ° 

Louisville, Ky. 

56 ° 

Montpelier, Vt. 

43 ° 

New Orleans, La. 

69° 

Richmond, Va. 

57 ° 

Augusta, Me. 

45 ° 

Steilacoom, Wash. T. 

5 i° 

Baltimore, Md. 

44 ° 

Romney, W. Va. 

52 ° 

Boston, Mass. 

48° 

Madison, Wis. 

45 ° 

Detroit, Mich. 

47 ° 

Fort Bridg r, Wyo. T. 

41° 

St. Paul, Minn. 

42° 





Average Annual Rainfall. 


PLACE. 

INCHES. 

PLACE. 

INCHES. 


Neah Bay, Wash. Ter. 

Sitka, Alaska. 

Ft. Haskins, Ore. 

Mt. Vernon, Ala. 

Baton Rouge, La. 

Meadow Valley, Cal... 
Ft. Tonson, Ind. Ter. . 

Ft. Myers, Fla. 

Washington, Ark. 

Huntsville, Ala. 

Natchez, Miss. 

New Orleans, La. 

Savannah, Ga. 

Springdale, Ky. 

Fortress Monroe, Va. . 

Memphis, Tenn. 

Newark, N. J. 

Boston, Mass. 

Brunswick, Me. 

Cincinnati, O. 

New Haven, Conn. .. . 

Philadelphia, Pa. 

Charleston, S. C. 

New York City. 

Gaston, N. C. 

Richmond, Ind. 

Marietta, O. 

St. Louis, Mo. 

Muscatine, la. 

Baltimore, Md. 

New Bedford, Mass. .. 

Providence, R. I. 

Fort Smith, Ark. 

Hanover, N. H. 


123 


66 
60 
■57 
'57 
,56 
54 
■54 
53 
>51 
.48 
48 
•47 
•45 
•44 
•44 
• 44 
44 
•44 
44 
•43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
43 
42 
41 

4 i 

4 i 

40 

40 


Ft. Vancouver.38 

Cleveland, O.37 

Pittsburgh, Pa.37 

Washington, D. C.37 

White Sulphur Springs, Va.37 

Ft. Gibson, Ind. Ter.36 

Key West, Fla.36 

Peoria, Ill.35 

Burlington, Vt.34 

Buffalo, N. Y.33 

Ft. Brown, Tex.33 

Ft. Leavenworth, Kan.31 

Detroit, Mich.30 

Milwaukee, Wis.30 

Penn Yan, N. Y.28 

Ft. Kearney.25 

Ft. Snelling, Minn.25 

Salt Lake City, U. T.23 

Mackinac, Mich.23 

San Francisco, Cal.21 

Dallas, Ore. 21 

Sacramento, Cal.21 

Ft. Massachusetts, Colo.17 

Ft. Marcy, N. M.16 

Ft. Randall, D. T.16 

Ft. Laramie, Wyo. T.15 

Ft. Defiance, Ariz.14 

Ft. Craig, N. M.11 

San Diego, Cal.9 

Ft. Colville, Wash. Ter.9 

Ft. Bliss, Tex.9 

Ft. Bridger, Utah.6 

Ft. Garland, Colo.6 


Healthiest Regions for Consumptives. 

Showing, in a scale 0/100 , the proportion 0/ Deaths front Consumption. 


STATE. 

Propor¬ 
tion to 
every 100 
Deaths. 

STATE. 

Propor¬ 
tion to 
every 100 
Deaths 

STATE. 

« 

Propor¬ 
tion to 
every 1U0 
Deaths. 

Vermont. 


West Virginia .. 


Colorado. 

.8 

Maine. 


California. 


Kansas. 

.8 

Massachusetts ... 


Indiana. 


Louisiana. 

.8 

New Hampshire . 

....25 

Kentucky. 

....14 

North Carolina 

.8 

Rhode Island.... 

... .25 

Minnesota. 


Alabama. 

.6 






.6 






.6 




Utah...'.'. 

.. .6 

New Jersey. 


Oregon. 


Arkansas. 

.5 



















Ohio. 


Nebraska. 


New Mexico .. 



_16 



























































































































































































































































































































MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 


393 


MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND FIGURES. 




i 


Weight of a Cubic Foot of Various 
Substances. 


Platina... . 

Pure Gold*. 

Mercury. 

Lead. 

Pure Silverf. 

Steel. 

Tin. 

Cast Iron. 

Lbs. Oz. 
1.218 12 

1.203 IO 

..709 8 

..487 12 

••455 ” 

•- 45 ° 7 

Brass. 

•••543 

12 

Zinc. 


13 

EARTH, STONE, ETC. 



Lbs. 

Oz. 

Italian Marble. 

.l60 

4 

Vermont Marble. 

165 

9 

Window Glass. 

165 

2 

Common Stone. 

•151 


Moist Sand. 

.128 

2 

Clay. 

120 

10 

Brick. 

118 

12 

Mortar. 

IO9 

6 

Mud. 

.IOI 

14 

Loose Earth . 

93 

12 

Anthracite Coal. 

89 

12 

Coke. 

62 

8 

LIQUIDS. 

Honey. 

90 

IO 

Vinegar. 

67 

8 

Blood. 

65 

14 

Beer. 

64 

IO 

Milk. 

64 

8 

Cider. 

63 

IO 

Tar. 

63 

7 

Rainwater. 

62 

5 

Linseed O 1 . 

58 

12 

Brandy. 

57 

12 

Ice. 

57 

8 

Alcohol. 

49 

IO 

GROCERIES. 

Sugar. 

.IOO 

5 

Beeswax. 

60 

5 

Lard. 

59 

3 

Butter. 

58 

M 

Tallow. 

58 

13 

Castile Soap. 

56 

•5 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

India Rubber. 

56 

7 

Pressed Hay. 

25 


Pressed Cotton. 

25 


WOODS. 

Lignum Vitae.... .. 

• 83 

5 

Ebony. 

. 83 

5 

Boxwood. 

• 75 

2 

Mahogany. 

. 66 

7 

White Oak. 

• 53 

12 

Ash. 


13 

Red Hickory. 

• 52 

6 

Apple. 


9 

Maple. 


J 4 

Cherry. 


II 

Shellbark Hickory. 

• 43 

2 

Pitch Pine. 

• 4 i 

4 

Chestnut. 

38 

2 

Birch. 


7 

Cedar . 


1 

White Poplar. 


1 

Spruce. 


4 

Yellow Pine. 


13 

Butternut. 

• 23 

8 

Cork. 


. . 


*The value of a ton of pure gold is 
J602.79q.21. 

fine value of a ton of silver is $37,- 
704.84. 

*$1,000,000 gold coin weigh 3,685.5 
lbs. avoirdupois. 

+$1,000,000 silver coin weigh 58,929.9 
lbs. avoirdupois. 


Difference in Weight of Wood, 


Green and Dry. 

GREEN. 



Substance. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

English Oak. 

■ 7 > 

IO 

Beech. 



Ash. 

• 58 

3 

American Pine. 

■ 44 

12 

DRY. 



English Oak. 

■ 43 

8 

Beech . 

• 53 

4 

Ash. 


6 

American Pine. 

• 3 ° 

II 

Specific Gravities of Liquids. 

Distilled water being 1. 


Acid, acetic. 


1.062 




Acid, fluoric. 



Acid, muriatic. 


1.2 

Acid, nitric. 


1.48 




Acid, silici. 



Acid, sulphuric. 


1.81 

Alcohol, anhydrous. 


.792 

Alcohol, 90 per cent. 


•834 

Beer. 


1 034 

Blood, human. 


.1.054 

Camphene. 


.863 

Cider. 


I.Ol8 

Ether, muriatic. 


.874 

Ether, nitric. 


.908 

Ether, sulphuric. 


.715 

Milk, cow’s. 


I.O32 

Molasses, 75 per cent. 


1-4 

Naphtha. 


.847 

Oil, linseed. 


•934 

0.1, olive. 



< )il, rapeseed. 


.927 

Oil, sassafras. 


I.09 

Oil, turpentine. 


.875 

Oil, sperm. 


•874 

Oil, whale. 


.923 

Proof spirit. 



Vinegar . 


I.O25 

Water, distilled. 


I. 

Water, sea. 


1,026 

Wine, Burgundy. 


.991 

Wine, Champagne. 


■997 

Wine, claret. 


•994 

Wine, Madeira. 


I.O48 

Wine, port. 



Wine, sherry. 


1.991 

Duration of Animal 

Life. 



Gestation Length of 
Name. or Incubation Life in 

in Months. Years. 


Elephant. ... 


Whale. 


Giraffe. 


Camel. 


Dromedary.. 


Horse. 


Ass. 


Tapir. 


Bison. 


Rhinoceros .. 


Cow. 


Reindeer .... 

. ... 8 

Bear. 

.... 6 

Sheep . 


Goat. 

• ... 5 

Llama. 


Chamois. 

Days. 

Swine. 

...115 

Lion. 


Puma. 


Wolf. 



200 

.100 ( ?) 


50 

45 

20 

25 


20 

20 

20 

16 

20 

10 

12 

15 

25 

25 

65 


16 


Duration of Animal Life—Continued. 



Gestation 

Length of 

Name. 

or Incubation 

Life in 


in Days. 

Years. 

Dog. 






Cat. 


• • 15 

Hare . 


. . 8 




Kangaroo . 

— 29 



.... 28 _ 


Opossum .. 



Tortoise... 






Swan. 


. .IOO 

Eagle. 



Raven .... 



Goose. 

-30 - 


Turkey .... 

— 30 



.... 28 


Hen. 



Pigeon. 

....18 

• ■ 15 


Temperature at which Substances 
Melt and Freeze. 


Above Zero. 


Wrought Iron. 

Cast Iron. 

Platinum. 

Gold. 

Copper. 

Stetl. 

Glass.. 

it 

it 

it 

It 

11 

11 

3.980 

3,479 

3,080 

2,590 

2,548 

2,500 

2,377 

1,900 

1,250 

Silver. 

It 

Antimony. 

11 

951 

Zinc . 

i t 

74 ° 

Lead. 


594 

I III. 


421 

Arsenic. 

( i 

3^5 

Sulphur. 

11 

226 

Beewax. 

ft 

I 5 1 

Otitta Percha. 

1 * 

M 5 

Tallow. 

tf 

97 

Lard. 

** 

95 

Pitch. 

“ 

9 1 

Ice... 

It 

Below 

33 

Zero. 

Brandy . 

11 

7 

Proof Spirit. 

11 

7 

Mercury. 

. “ 

4? 

(Hive Oil. 

. Freezes at 

Wa ter. 

< t 

32 

Milk. 

“ 

3 ° 

Sea Water. 

u 

28 

Vinegar. 

■ t 

28 

Wines. 


20 

Spirits of Turpentine.. . 

Cold experienced by Arctic 

14 

Navigators. 


• 7° 

Greatest Artific’l Cold 


. 220 


Distances Around the World. 


The following includes the principal 
stopping places, and distances between 
them, in a direct line around the world: 


New York to San Francisco 
S.,n Francisco to Yokohama 
Yokohama to Hong Kong., 
Hong Kong to Singapore .. 

Singapore to Calcutta . 

Calcutta to Bombay. 

Bombay to Aden. 

Aden to Suez. 

Suez to Alexandria. 

Alexandria to Marseilles... 

Marseilles to Paris. 

Paris to London. 

London to Liverpool. 

Liverpool to New York._ 


Miles. 

3,450 

• 4,7f4 
1,620 
■ 1,150 
1,200 
i, 4 r 9 
. 1,664 
. 1,308 

. 250 

1,300 
536 
316 
. 205 

3,000 


Woods for Fuel. 


Taking shellbark hickory as the 
highest standard of our forest trees, 
and calling that one hundred, other 
trees will compare with it in real 
value, for fuel, as follows : 


Shellbark Hickory.100 

Pignut Hickory.95 

White Oak. 84 

White Ash. 77 

Dogwood. 75 

Scrub-Oak . 73 

White Hazel. 72 

Apple Tree. 70 

White Beech. 69 

Black Birch . 65 

Hard Maple. 65 

Black Walnut. 62 

Yellow Oak. 60 

White Elm. 58 

Red Oak. 56 

Red Cedar. 56 

Wild Cherry. 55 

Yellow Pine. 54 

Chestnut. 52 

Yellow Poplar. 51 

Butternut. 43 

White Birch. 43 

White Pine. 30 


Value of Metals. 


Few people have any idea of the value 
of precious metals other than gold, sil¬ 
ver and copper, which are commonly 
supposed to be the most precious of all. 
There are many metals more valuable 
and infinitely rarer. The following table 
gives the names and prices of all the 
known metals of pecuniary worth : 



Price per Av. 


pound. 

Vanadium. 


Rubidium. 


Zirconium.. 


Lithium. 


Glucium. 


Calcium. 


Strontium. 


Terb um. 


Vitrium. 


Erbium. 


Cerium. 


Didymium. 


Indium. 


Ruthenium. 


Rhodium. 


Niobium. 


Barium. 


Palladium. 


Osmium. 


Iridium. 


Uranium. 


Titanium. 


Chromium. 


Gold. 


Molybdenum. 


Thallium. 


Platinum. 


Manganese. 


I ungstein. 


Magnesium. 


Potassium. 


Aluminum. 


Silver. 


Cobalt. 


Sodium. 


Nickel. 


Cadmium. 


Bismuth. 


Mercury. 

. 95 

Arsenic. 


Tin. 


Copper. 


Antimony. 




Lead... 

. 08 


























































































































































































































































































































































9 




<5 


394 


A CALENDAR FOR THE CENTURY. 


' 


- 


A CALENDAR FOR THE CENTURY. 

To find the days of the week corresponding to the days of the month for any year of the century, find the year in the left-hand upper 
division. Follow the Index (or hand) to the right, to the month sought; then downward to the day of the week, and to the left for the 
corresponding days of the month. In leap-years, if seeking the day of the month, after the 29th of February, subtract one day; but if 
the day of the week is sought, go forward one day. The heavy figures are leap years. The civil year is 365.2422414 days ; but on the 
basis of an added day (for leap-year) every fourth year, it is reckoned as 365.25 days, an excess of .0077586 of a day, or one day in 129 
years, and three days in 387 (or roundly, 400) years. To correct this excess, instead of 100 leap-years in 400 years only 97 are reckoned, 
the three century-years that are not exact multiples of 400 being treated as common years. 


1800 

>51 

-06 

’12 

’96 

-17 

-62 

-23 

’68 

-45 

’73 

’34 

’79 

’40 

-90 


June. 

Sept. 

Dec. 

April. 

July. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

May. 

. Aug. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Nov. 

-05 

-50 

’ll 

’56 

'95 

-61 

•22 

*67 

’28 

-89 

’33 

’78 

_ 

>39 

’84 

jB w 

Sept. 

Dec. 

April. 

July. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

-49 

1900 

-10 

-55 

’16 

-94 

*21 

-66 

-27 

’72 

’44 

’77 

-38 

-83 


April. 

July. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 

Dec. 

’04 

-93 

-99 

-09 

*54 

-15 

’60 

-43 

-65 

*26 

’71 

’32 

’88 

’37 

-82 


Jan. 

Oot. 

May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 

Dec. 

April. 

July. 

-03 

’48 

-42 

-53 

-14 

-59 

’20 

’87 

’25 

’70 

’31 

’76 

-98 

*81 


May. 

Aug. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 

Dec. 

April. 

July. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

-02 

’47 

>97 

’08 

-86 

-13 

-58 

-19 

’64 

-41 

’69 

-30 

’75 

’36 

’92 

a&~ 

Aug. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 

Dec. 

April. 

July. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

May. 

-01 

-85 

-07 

’52 

-46 

’57 

’18 

-63 

’24 

-91 

-29 

’74 

-35 

’80 

45” 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Nov. 

June. 

Sept. 

Dec. 

April. 

July. 

Jan. 

Oct. 

May. 

Aug. 


© 

? ; $ 

? 

? 

? 

to 

s 

? 

29 

22 

15 

8 

1 


Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

30 

23 

16 

9 

2 


Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

31 

24 

17 

10 

3 


Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 


25 

18 

11 

4 


Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

•• 

26 

10 

12 

5 


Thurs. 

Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

•• 

27 

20 

13 

6 


Fri. 

Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

•• 

28 

21 

14 

7 


Sat. 

Sun. 

Mon. 

Tues. 

Wed. 

Thurs. 

Fri. 



































































































































































































































a. 




THE LEGAL BUSHEL. 


395 


LEGAL WEIGHT OF A BUSHEL IN ALL THE STATES,* 


PRODUCT. 

Alabama. 

Arkansas. 

| California. 

| Colorado. 

| Connecticut. 

| Delaware. 

| Florida. 

| Georgia. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

| Massachusetts. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. • 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Nebraska. 

| Nevada. 

| New Hampshire. | 

New Jersey. 

New York. 

North Carolina. 

Ohio. 

Oregon. 

Pennsylvania. 

Rhode Island. 

South Carolina. 

Tennessee. 

Texas. 

| Vermont. 

Virginia. 

| West Virginia. 

Wisconsin. 

R. R. Weights, f I 












48 

24 

48 

46 

60 

60 

32 

20 

3° 

52 

















45 
28. 

46 









57 

28 

48 

46 

60 

5° 

56 

24 

48 

46 

60 


24 24 
48 48 
46 46 
60 60 

1 






25 

40 

46 

24 

48 

46 

60 

60 

25 

48 

46 

60 

60 

24 

5" 

4'-' 

60 

-'4 

47 

45 

60 

32 

48 

64 

28 

48 

46 

62 

48 

22 

48 

46 
60 
6 > 

28 

48 

46 

60 

60 

•• 

24 

48 

46 

60 

60 

24 

48 

46 

60 

50 


25 

48 

.... 

22 .. 
48 48 

22 

48 

46 

60 

60 

24 

47 

46 

60 

48 

26 

48 

46 

60 

26 

48 

60 

28 

48 

60 

48 

64 

28 

48 

60 

25 

48 

60 


5° 

48 

48 

•• 

•• 



•• 

60 

60 

60 




60 

60 

62 

60 

• • 

































24 








20 

46 

52 

20 

46 

5° 

20 

20 





20 

46 

48 

20 

46 

42 

•• 

20 

46 

52 

20 




20 

46 

? 8 

5° 

20 

46 

52 

•• 

20 


20 

20 

20 




20 

46 

5° 

5° 

22 

20 

52 

22 





















52 

40 

52 

48 

55 

•• 

• 

•• 

50 

56 


48 

48 

48 

52 

40 

•• 

5° 

42 

48 


56 

5° 

42 

48 

48 

52 










22 

22 

22 

40 

80 







22 

20 

•• 

22 





22 


22 






22 































Coal. 

80 

80 


80 



80 

80 

80 

70 

80 

76 





80 


•• 

80 

80 






80 

70 




80 

80 

•• 


80 


• • 
























80 

40 

68 





























Coke . 









40 

70 

40 

70 







40 

70 

40 

68 


40 

70 





40 

70 

• • 

40 

70 

68 

5° 













76 

73 

48 

46 

s6 

70 


70 





70 

7° 

•• 


70 


70 





70 


70 

70 

70 


70 

•• 

70 

70 










50 


5° 

50 

48 

44 

56 


48 

48 

50 

48 

5° 

5° 


5° 

48 

5° 

5° 

48 


5° 

5° 


5° 

•• 

5° 

46 


50 

5° 

5° 

5° 



5° 

48 

48 

48 




52 

56 

56 

56 

56 

46 

33 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 


56 

56 

52 

56 

56 

58 

54 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 


. . 1 









33 

33 







40 

33 


33 

33 

•• 


•• 


33 

• • 

33 










33 

• • 


33 


















• 

32 














40 

56 

40 

40 

14 

60 

45 

45 

14 

>4 

45 

8 

44 



























56 

56 






56 

56 

56 

56 

56 



56 


56 

56 


56 

56 

•• 

•• 

55 

55 

55 

56 

•• 

56 


56 

56 

56 

•• 

56 

56 

56 

56 














































Grass Seeds :— 

Blue. 




14 

60 





14 

60 

48 

50 

14 

M 

45 

8 

44 

14 

60 

48 

5° 

14 

14 

45 

8 

44 

14 

60 

55 

55 

14 

60 

5° 

5° 

•• 

64 

14 

64 

48 

5° 


M 

60 

5° 

5° 

14 

14 

45 

8 

44 

14 

60 

48 

5° 

14 

14 

45 

44 

•• 

14 

60 

48 

3° 

M 

14 

45 

9 

44 

14 

60 

60 

40 




m 

60 

48 

5° 

14 

14 

44 

64 

:: 

14 

60 

5° 

5° 

14 

14 

45 




M 

60 

60 

50 

14 

48 

5° 

60 

48 

5° 

60 

M 

64 

Jm 

60 

45 

45 

45 

44 






60 



64 

60 

62 




48 

5° 





48 

50 

14 

14 

45 

8 

44 

Millet. 

















Orchard. 

















Red Top . 























45 

7 

44 

50 

45 

8 

44 

•• 

45 




45 

45 

8 

44 

45 

8 

44 


42 

11 

45 

7 

44 

45 

8 

44 




•• 

45 


• • 

45 

45 

42 

45 

45 










44 








44 


44 

60 

70 

34 


44 


44 


44 


44 













80 





80 

38 

35 

80 

38 

80 

80 

32 




80 

34 


70 

28 

80 


80 

38 

80 

3° 




80 

34 

• • 


80 

38 

•• 

80 

38 




80 

34 

.. 

80 

38 

38 


34 

34 






32 



























60 

32 

5° 



































32 

57 

32 

57 

32 

32 

57 



35 

57 

32 

57 

33 

48 

33 

57 

32 

57 

32 

57 

32 

3° 

52 

32 

57 

32 

52 

32 

54 

32 

56 


32 

57 

34 

57 

25 

32 

32 

3° 

57 

32 

57 

3° 

32 

56 

36 

30 

57 

32 

5° 

33 

57 

32 

56 

32 

57 

32 

54 

32 

56 

32 

32 

5° 

32 

57 












28 

33 

55 

28 

28 

32 







28 

33 

28 


28 

33 

33 




28 


25 










28 

• • 



36 











37 


32 








33 









45 






















44 











48 

33 

33 



























33 

33 







33 

40 

33 

33 

33 

39 





28 

28 

28 


33 

33 

33 


•• 

33 

32 

28 


33 

36 

28 

38 

•• 

33 

•• 

28 

•• 

33 

33 

28 

33 










40 


28 


















45 










60 

46 

•• 


60 




60 

60 

60 

•• 

60 

24 


60 

60 


60 

60 


60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

5° 

60 



60 

60 


60 

60 


60 


























28 

60 

56 























60 

60 

60 

50 


60 

60 


•• 

56 

60 

60 

55 

7 ° 

60 

55 

60 

46 

60 

55 

60 

55 

•• 

60 

60 

56 

60 

60 

•• 

60 

60 

50 

60 

60 

60 

54 

60 

55 

- 

60 

50 

60 

56 

55 

60 

60 

50 

60 

50 

60 

55 

60 

55 

60 

56 

60 

60 

60 

55 


••54 




















48 


























| 











56 




























5 ° 

• • 











32 
































60 

56 
































56 

56 

56 

56 

Rye. 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

56 

5 ° 

54 

56 

80 


56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

5 ° 

55 

46 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

46 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

30 

32 

55 

60 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

56 

5 ° 

55 

32 

56 

80 

56 

70 

55 

37 

56 

56 

56 

56 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

•• 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

3 ° 

56 

56 

56 

85 

56 

5 ° 

5 ° 

56 

56 

5 ° 

59 

56 

56 

85 

62 

56 

56 

5 ° 

56 

70 

56 

50 

5 ° 

56 

70 

56 

55 

5 ° 

56 


50 

66 






42 











42 

.. .. 







. 



























35 

60 

60 

60 

60 

50 
O' > 

60 

* * 

60 

55 

60 

55 

60 

55 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

56 

60 

60 

58 

60 

55 

60 

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55 

60 

55 

60 

60 

60 

60 

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60 

60 

56 

60 

60 

55 

60 

5 ° 

60 

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55 

60 

60 

56 
6 ’ 

60 42 
60 60 

56 

60 

Wheat... 



1 

1 


* Local usage sometimes varies from legal enactment. All the States recognize the use of the standard U. S. bushel, without reference to weights 
of articles measured, and some of the States no longer legalize any other. f Used by railroad companies when it is not convenient to ascertain 
actual weights. 



Asl 


c) 

































































































































































































































































































39 6 


STANDARD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 





STANDARD WEIGHTS ^ MEASURES. 











AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 


i6 drachms.i ounce (oz.), = 2S.35 gr’m’s. 

16 ounces.1 pound (lb.), =453.6 “ 

25 pounds.1 quarter 

4 quarters.1 hundrcdw’t. “ 


20 hundred-w’t. 1 ton, 2,000 pounds. 

The standard avoirdupois pound of the 
United States, copied from the British stand¬ 
ard, is 0.00734 grain too heavy. The gramme 
is legal at 15.432 grains, and the kilogramme 
at 2.2046 pounds. In some States the ton rates 
at 2,240 pounds. In that case, the quarter, 
of course, consists of 2S lbs., or 2 stone. 

TROY "WEIGHT. 

24 grains.1 pennyweight (dwt). 

20 pennyweights.1 ounce, = 4S0 grains. 

12 ounces.1 pound, = 5,760 grains. 

Gold, silver, platinum, and some gems, are 
weighed by this scale. Pearls and diamonds 
are weighed by the carat of 4 grains, 5 dia¬ 
mond grains being equal to 4 grains troy. 


APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT. 

20 grains..1 scruple. 

3 scruple.1 drachm. 

S drachms*.1 ounce. 

12 ounces*.1 pound. 

* Same as in troy weight, as is also the grain 


LINEAR MEASURE. 

3 barleycorns.1 inch. 

7.92 inches.1 link. 

12 inches.1 foot, = 0.3047 metre. 

3 feet.1 yard, =0.91438 metre. 

5! yards.1 rod, perch, or pole. 

4 poles, or 100 links 1 chain, 

lochains .. 1 furlong. 

5 furlongs.1 mile= 1.6093kilom’rs. 


3 miles.1 league 


1 line . 

..Vl2 inch. 

1 nail (cloth measure). 

. .24 inches. 

1 palm. 

••3 “ 

1 hand (used tor h’ht of horses).4 “ 

ispan . 


1 cubit. 


1 pace (military). 

. .2 ft. 6 inches. 

1 pace (geometrical). 

..5 feet. 

1 Scotch ell. 

.37.06 inches. 

1 English ell. 

•45 

1 fathom . 

.6 feet. 

1 cable’s length. 

120 fathoms. 

1 league. 

.3 miles. 

1 degree of the equator. 

.69.1613 miles, 

or 60 nautical knots or geographical 
miles. 

1 degree of meridian. 

.69.046 miles. 


SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE. 

144 square inches . .1 sq. foot, = 9.29 square 
decimetres. 


9 “ 

feet. 

1 sq. yard, =0.836 square 
metre. 

304 “ 

yards .. 

1 square rod. 

16 “ 

rods ... 

i chain. 

40 “ 

(( 

1 rood. 

4 roods 


. 1 acre, or 43,560 sq. ft. 

640 acres 


1 sq. mile, = 259 hectares. 


The acre 

= 0.405 hectare. 


CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 

1728 cubic inches.1 cubic foot. 

27 “ feet.1 “ yard. 

40 “ “ of rough, or I 

50 “ ft. of hewn timber ( 1 * on or '° 3 “‘ 

42 “ feetof timber.1 British ship¬ 

ping ton. 

40 cubic feet. 1 American 

shipping ton. 

10S cubic feet.1 stack wood. 

128 “ “ .1 cord wood. 


APOTHECARIES’ MEASURE. 


60 minims.1 fluid drachm. 

8 drachms .1 *• ounce. 

20 ounces .1 pint. 

8 pints.1 imperial gallon. 

LIQUID MEASURE. 

4 g‘"s.1 pint (pt.) 

2 pints.1 quart (qt.) 

4 quarts. 1 gallon (gal.) 

42 gallons.1 tierce. 

63 “ 1 hogshead (hhd.) 

84 “ 1 puncheon. 

126 “ 1 pipe. 

252 “ 1 ton. 

10 “ 1 anker. 

18 “ .1 runlet. 

32* “ 1 barrel (bbl.orbrl.) 


*In some of the States 3U2 gallons make a 
barrel. 

DRY MEASURE. 

The bushel is 2150.42 cubic inches, that of 
England being 221S.192 cubic inches. The 
imperial bushel is, therefore, 1.0315 United 
States bushels. In dry measure the litre is 
legal at 0.908 quart. The following table is 
generally used: 

2 pints.1 quart. 

4 quarts ... 1 gallon of 268.8 cubic inches. 

2 gallons .. 1 peck (pk.) 

4 pecks.... 1 bushel (bush, orbu.) 

36 bushels ..1 chaldron (for coke and coal). 

CIRCULAR MEASURE. 

60 seconds.1 minute. 

60 minutes.1 degree. 


360 degrees.1 circle. 

30 degrees.1 sign of zodiac 

12 signs.1 zodiac circle. 

360 degrees, the circumference of the earth. 
24,899 statute miles, circumference of the earth 
at the equator. 

69,124 statute miles, 1 degree of the equator. 

1.1527 statute miles, 1 geographic mile. 

60 geographic miles, 1 degree. 


3 IEASURES OF TIME. 


60 seconds. 

60 minutes. 

24 hours. 

7 days. 

28 days. 

28, 29, 30 or 31 days 
12 calendar months 

365.25 days. 

366 days. 


1 minute. 

,i hour. 

1 day. 

1 week. 

1 lunar month. 

1 calendar month. 
1 year. 

1 common year. 

1 leap year. 


LONGITUDE AND TIME COMPARED. 


LONGITUDE. 

i second. 

I minute. 

15 minutes. 

1 degree. 

360 degrees. 


TIME. 

.0666 second. 
4 seconds, 

l minute. 

4 minutes. 

1 day. 


Add difference of time for places east, and 
subtract for places west, of the given place. 


ODD WEIGHTS. 


14 pounds.1 stone of iron or lead. 

56 pounds.1 firkin of butter. 

100 pounds.1 quintal of fish. 

196 pounds.1 barrel of flour. 

200 pounds.1 barrel of beef or pork. 

250 pounds.1 pig of iron or lead. 


FOR HOUSEKEEPERS. 

Wheat flour.1 pound = 1 quart. 

Indian meal.1 pound 2 oz. = 1 “ 

Butter, when soft.1 pound = 1 “ 

Loaf sugar, broken.ipound = l “ 

White sugar, pwd . 1 pound 1 oz. = 1 “ 

Brown sugar.1 pound 2 oz. = 1 “ 

Eggs.10 eggs = 1 pound. 

Flour.S quarts = 1 peck. 

<< .4 pecks = 1 bushel. 


LIQUIDS. 

16 large tablespoonfuls. A pint. 

S “ “ .1 gill. 

4 “ “ . A gill. 

2 gills. A pint. 

2 pints. 1 quart. 

4 quarts. 1 gallon. 

1 common-sized tumbler holds ...A pint. 

1 “ “ wine-glass holds A gill. 

25 drops are equal to.1 teaspoonful. 














































































































































FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 


397 


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France. 

/. Measure of Length. 
i Mvriametre.. = 10,000 metres, 
i Kilometre ... = i,ooo metres, 
i Decametre... = 10 metres. 

i Metre.= The io,ooo,oooth part of the 

quarter of the meridian of the earth. 

I Decimetre ... = i - 10th of a metre, 
i Centimetre... = i - iooth of a metre, 
t M illimetre ... = i - i ,oooth of a metre. 

II. Measure of Surface. 

i Hectare.= joo ares. 

i Are.= loo square metres. 

i Centiare.= i square metre. 

III. Measure of Solidity. 

i Stere.= i cubic metre. 

i Decistere .... = i - loth of a stere. 

IV. Measure of Capacity. 

l Kilolitre.= i cubic metre. 

i Hectolitre . ..=10 decalitres, 
i Decalitre ....= io litres. 

l Litre.= i cubic decimetre. 

i Decilitre.= i -10th of a litre. 

V. Measure of Weight. 

i Millia.= i,ooo kilogrammes, and is 

the weight of a ton of sea-water. 

i Quintal.= ioo kilogrammes. 

i Kilogramme = Weight of a cubic decimetre 
of water, at the temperature of 4 0 above 
melting ice, or about 40 0 Fahrenheit. 

1 Hectogramme= 100 grammes. 


1 Decagramme = 10 grammes. 

1 Gramme.= 1-1,000th of a kilogramme. 

1 Decigramme. = i-ioth of a gramme. 


These measures may be compared with the; 
English measures by means of the following 
table: 


1 Metre.=39.38 English inches, nearly. 

t Are.= 3.9 English perches, nearly. 

: Stere.=35.32 English cubic feet. 

1 Litre. — 1.76 English pints. 

1 Gramme.... = 15.44 English grains. 


The French Metric System has been 
either introduced or legalized in the Argen¬ 
tine Confederation, Austria, Belgium, Boli¬ 
via, Brazil, Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, 
the German Empire, Greece, Italy, Mexico, 
Portugal and Spain. The present system of 
Switzerland is upon a semi-metric basis. In 
the United States the metric system was le¬ 
galized by an act of Congress passed in 1S66. 

Belgium.— The metrical system is used 
here; but the kilogramme is termed a livre; 
the litre, a litron; and the metre, an aune. 

Netherlands. —Here, also, the metric sys¬ 
tem has been adopted; but Flemish names 
are employed instead of those used in France. 

Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. — The 
metric system, with Italian names substituted 
for the most of the original terms, is used of¬ 
ficially; but the old measures are also used. 
See Venice. 

Austria. —The ell = 30.6 inches. The joch 
= 1 acre 1.75 rood. The metzen = 1 -7th bushel. 
The eimer = i2.4 gallons. The pfund = >£ 
pound. Gold and silver are weighed by the 
mark of Vienna, which =4333 grains. 

Basle. —100 pounds = 10S.6 pounds avoirdu¬ 
pois. The ohm = 10.7 gallons. Thesack = 3.6 
bushels. The large and small ells =46.4 and 
21.4 inches respectively. 

Bavaria. —The long and short ells = 24 and 
23.3 inches respectively. The schaff of 8 met¬ 
zen =5.6 bushels. The muid of 4S mass= 15 


gallons. 100 pounds heavy and lightweight 
= ioS-3 and 104.2 pounds avoirdupois respect¬ 
ively. The mark of Augsburg = 3,643 grains. 

Bremen. —The foot or half ell = 11.4 in. 
The ohm = 31.5 gallons. The last= 10.2 quar¬ 
ters. 100 pounds = 109.9 pounds avoirdupois. 

Cape of Good Hope. —The centner or 
100 pounds Dutch weight =108.9 pounds 
avoirdupois. The leager of 15 ankers = 126.5 
gallons. The muid = 3 bushels. The ell of 
27 Rhynland inches = 27.8 inches. 

China.—The chang of 10 chih = 4 yards, 
nearly. The shing= 1 pint. ioho=ishing; 
10 slung = 1 tow; 10 tow= 1 hwuh or 120 cat- 
ties. The catty = 1.33 pound avoirdupois. 16 
taels = 1 catty ; too catties = 1 pecul. Liquids 
are sold by weight; but the English gallon is 
used in trading with foreigners. 

Denmark. —The foot=i2.3 inches, too 
ells =68.6 yards. The viertel = 1.7 gallon. 100 
tonnen = 47.8 quarters. The pound = 1.1 pound 
avoirdupois. The pound for gold and silver 
weighs 7,266 grains. 

East Indies. — Bengal. — The factory 
maund = 74.66 pounds avoirdupois. 10 bazar 
maunds = 11 factory maunds. 16 chittacks = 
1 seer; 40 seers=i maund. The guz of two 
cubits = 1 yard. Bombay. —The maund =28 
pounds avoirdupois. 40 seers = 1 maund; 20 
maunds=i candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels. 
Madras. —The maund = 25 pounds avoirdu¬ 
pois. 40 pollams = 1 vi; 8 vis = 1 maund ; 20 
maunds = 1 candy. The covid = 1S.6 inches. 
The gars of 80 parahs = 16.S75 quarters, and 
weighs 8,400 pounds avoirdupois. 

Egypt. —The Turkish pike = 27 in. The 
ardeb of 24 Cairo rubbie = 6 quarters. The 
cantar= 100 pounds avoirdupois. 216 drams 
or 144 meticals = 1 rottole • 100 rottoli or 36 
okes = 1 cantar. 

Frankfort on the Main. —The ell = 2i.2 
inches. The foot= 11.2 inches. The matter 
= 3 bushels, nearly. The viertel= 1.6 gallon, 
nearly. The pound, light and heavy weight, 
= 1.03 and 1.1 pound avoirdupois. The Zoll- 
centner = 110.2 pounds avoirdupois. The 
Cologne mark, used for gold and silver, 
weighs 3,609 grains. 

Geneva. —The ell =45 inches. The acre = 
1 acre 1.1 rood. The coupe, or sack, = 2.1 
bushels. The setier= 10 gallons. The heavy 
pound=i.2 pound avoirdupois; the light 
pound 1-6th less. The mark weighs 3,785 
grains. 

Genoa. —The braccio of 2.5 palmi = 22.9 
inches. The mina = 3.3 bushels. The barile 
= 16.3 gallons. The pound = 0.7 pound avoir¬ 
dupois. 1.5 pound = 1 rottole. The pound 
sottile, for gold and silver, weighs 4891.5 
grains. 

Greece. —The Venetian measures of length 
are used, the braccio being called a piche. 
100 kila=n.4 quarters. The cantaro of 40 
okes = 112 pounds avoirdupois. 

Hambnrg.—The foot = 11.3 in. nearly; 
100 ells =62.6 yards. The scheffel=i acre 6 
perches. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The pound 
= 1.06 pound avoirdupois. For the Cologne 
mark, see Frankfort. 2 marks = 1 pound troy. 

Lubeck.—The ell = 22.9 inches. The last 
= 11 quarters. The viertel = 1.6 gallon. The 
pound = 1.07 pounds avoirdupois, nearly. 

Malta.—The palme= 10.25 inches; 3.5 pal¬ 
mi = 1 vard ; 8 palmi = 1 canna. The salma = 
7.8 bushels. The caffiso = 4.5 gallons. The 
barile =9.33 gallons. 64 rottoli = 1 hundred¬ 
weight. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoirdu¬ 
pois. 


Mauritius.—Besides the English weights 
and measures, those of France before the late 
alteration are used. The aune = 1.3 yard. The 
velte = i-7 gallon. The poid de marc = 1.08 
pound avoirdupois. 

Naples.—The canna = 83.2 inches. The 
moggia = 3 roods 12 perches. The tomolo = 

1.4 bushel. The barile = 9.1 gallons. The 
cantaro grosso and piccolo = 196.5 and 106 
pounds avoirdupois, respectively. The pound 
used in weighing gold and silver contains 
4,95° grains. 

Portugal.—The covado = 25.8 inches. The 
almude = 3.6 gallons. The pound = 1.01 
pound avoirdupois. 

Prussia.—The ell = 26.5 inches. The mor¬ 
gen = 2 roods 21 perches. The scheffel = 1.5 
bushel. The eimer= 15.1 gallons. The pound 
= 1.03 pound avoirdupois. The mark of 
Cologne is used for gold and silver. 

Rome.—The canna of S palmi = 2.2 yards. 
The canna of 10 palma = 88 inches, nearly. 
The rubbio = 8.1 bushels. The boccale =0.4 
gallon. The pound = 0.7 pound avoirdupois. 

Russia.—The arshine = 28 inches. The 
foot = 1 3.75 inches. The dessetnia = 2 acres 
2.8 roods. The tschetwert = 5-7 bushels. The 
wedro = 2.7 gallons. The pound = 0.9 pound 
avoirdupois. The pood = 36 pounds avoirdu¬ 
pois. 

St. Gallen.—The ells for silks and wool- 
ens = 3i-S and 24.25 inches, respectively. The 
mutt of 4 viertels = 2.09 bushels. The eimer 
= 11.25 gallons. The pound, light and heavy 
weight, = 1.03 and 1.3 pound avoirdupois, re¬ 
spectively. 

Saxony.—The foot = 111 inches. The acre 
= 1 acre 1.5 rood, nearly. The eimer, at Dres¬ 
den, = 14.9 gallons ; at Leipsic= 16.8 gallons. 
The wispel, at Dresden, = 69.9 bushels ; at 
Leipsic = 9i.7 bushels. The pound=i.03 
pound avoirdupois. 

Sicily. — The canna =76.5 inches. The 
salma = 7.6 bushels. The barrel = 8 gallons, 
nearly. The pound of 12 ounces = o 7 pound 
avoirdupois. The cantaro = 175 pounds avoir¬ 
dupois. 

Smyrna.—The pike = 27 inches. The kil- 
low =11.3 gallons. The rottolo = 1.2 pound 
avoirdupois. 

South America.—The Spanish and Por¬ 
tuguese measures are most generally employ¬ 
ed. The use of the English prevails in some 
parts. 

Spain.—The vara or ell =33.3 inches. The 
fanegada=i acre 21 perches. The arroba = 

3.5 gallons. The fanega = 1.5 bushel. The 
pound = 1.01 pound avoirdupois. 

Sweden and Norway.— The ell = 23.3 
inches. The tunneland = 1 acre 1 rood,nearly. 
The tunnu = 0.6 quarter. The kann =0.6 gal¬ 
lon. The pound = 0.9 pound avoirdupois. 

Turkey.—The pike = 26.25 inches. The 
killow =0.9 bushel. The almud=i.i gallon. 
The oke = 2.S pounds avoirdupois. The rot¬ 
tolo = 1.3 pound avoirdupois. 

Tuscany.—The braccio = 23 inches, nearly. 
Thesaccata=i acreo.qrood. Thesacche = 
2 bushels. The fiasche = 4 pints. The pound 
= 12 ounces avoirdupois. 

Venice.—Besides the metrical system, the 
following measures are used: The braccio, 
for woolens = 26.6 inches; for silks = 24.8 
inches. The stajo = 2.2 bushels. The sec- 
chia = 2.4 gallons. The pound sottile = 0.7 
pound avoirdupois, nearly; grosso = 1.05 
pound avoirdupois. 






























































The Metric System originated in France about 1790. In 1799, on the invitation of the Government, an international convention, at which 
were present representatives from France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Savoy and the Roman Republics, assembled at 
Paris to settle, from the results of the great Meridian Survey, the exact length of the “ definitive metre.” As a result of the investigations of 
this learned body, the Metric System was based upon the length of the fourth part of a terrestrial meridian. The ten-millionth part of this arc 
was chosen as the unit of measures of length, and called Metre. The cube of the tenth part of the metre was adopted as the unit of capacity, 
and denominated Litre. The weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density was called Kilogramme , of which the thousandth part, 
or Gramme , was adopted as the unit of weight. The multiples of these, proceeding in decimal progression, are distinguished by the employ¬ 
ment of the prefixes deca, hecto , kilo and myria (ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand), from the Greek, and the subdivisions by deci, centi 
and tnilli (tenth, hundredth, thousandth), from the Latin. 


Measures of Length (Unit, Metre). 


Millimetre. 

EQUAL 

TO 

Inches. 

, Feet. 

Yards. 

Fathoms. 

Miles. 


0-03937 

.. 0.003281 

0.0010936 

0.0005468 

. 0.0000006 

Centimetre. 



0 - 3937 1 

.. 0.032809 

0.0109363 

0.0054682 

. 0.0000062 

Decimetre. 



3-93708 

.. 0.328098 

0.1093633 

0.0546816 

. 0 0000621 

Metre. 



39 - 37°79 

.. 3.2809SS 

>•0936331 

0.546S165 

. 0.0006214 

Decametre. 



393 - 7079 ° 

.. 32.809892 

>0-9363306 

5.4681653 

. 0 0062138 

Hectometre. 



3,937.07900 

.. 32S.0S9917 

109-3633056 

54.681652S 

. 0.0621381 

Kilometre. 



39,370.79000 

.. 3,280.899167 

1.093-6330556 

546.8165278 

. 0.6213824 

Myriametre. 

Cubic 

393.707-90 000 •• 32,808.991667 .. 10,936.3305556 

Measures, or Measures of Capacity (Unit, Litre). 

5,468.1652778 

. 6.213S242 

Millilitre, or cubic centimetre. 

EQUAL 

TO 

Cubic Inches. 

Cubic Feet. 

Pints. 

Gallons. 

Bushfls. 



0.06103 

. . 0.000035 

0.00176 

0.0002201 

. 0.0000275 

Centilitre, 10 cubic centimetres.... 



0,61027 

0.000353 

0.01761 

0.0022010 

. 0.0002751 

Decilitre, ioo cubic centimetres... 



6.10271 

0.003532 

0.1760S 

0.0220097 

. 0.0027512 

Litre, cr cubic Decimetre. 



61.02705 

0.035317 

1.76077 

0.2200967 

. 0.0275121 

Decalitre, or Centistere. 



610.27052 

.. 0.353166 

17.60773 

2.2009668 

. 0.275120S 

Hectolitre, or Decistere. 



6,102.70515 

3.531658 

176.07734 

22.0096677 

. 2.7512085 

Kilolitre, or Stere, or cubic metre. 
Myrialitre, or Decastere. 



61,027.05152 

35 - 3 > 6 SSi 

i. 76 o. 7734 i 

220.0966767 

. 27.5120846 



610,270.51519 

Measures 

353 -i 6 s 8 o 7 .. 17,607.73414 

of Weight (Unit, Gramme). 

2,200.9667675 

. 275.1208459 

Milligramme. 

EQUAL 

TO 

Grains. 

Troy Oz. 

Avoirdupois Lbs. 

Cwt. of 112 Lbs.* 

Tons.* 



0.01543 

. . 0.000032 

0.0000022 

0.0000000 

. 0.0000000 

Centigramme. 



0.15432 

.. 0.000322 

0.0000220 

0.0000002 

. 0.0000000 

Decigramme. 



I -54323 

0.003215 

0.0002205 

0.0000020 

. 0.0000001 

Gramme . 



I 5-43235 

0.032151 

0.0022046 

0.0000197 

. 0.0000010 

I >ecagramme. 



IS 4-32349 

.. 0.321507 

0.0220462 

0.0001968 

. 0.000009S 

Hectogramme. 



D 543 - 2348 S 

3-215073 

0.2204621 

0.0019684 

. 0.0000984 

Kilogramme. 



*5 > 432 -34880 

32.150727 

2.2046213 

0.0196841 

. 0.0009S42 

Myriagramme. 



>S 4 . 323 - 4 S 8 oo 

321.507267 

22.0462129 

0.196S412 

. 0.0098421 


Square Measures, or Measures of Surface (Unit, Are). 












J 


EQUAL TO Sq. Feet. 

Centiare, or square metre. 10.794299 

Are, or 100 square metres. 1,076.429934 

Hectare, or 10,000 square metres. 107,642.993419 


Sq. Yards. 

1.196033 

119.603326 

11,960.332602 


Sq. Perches. 
0-039S333 
3 -953829° 
395.3S2S9S9 


Sq. Roods. 
0.0009SS5 
0.0988457 
9-8845724 


Sq. Acres. 
0.0002471 
0.0247111 
2.4711434 


CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO ENGLISH. 


METRES INTO 
YARDS. 

KILOMETRES INTO 
MILES AND YARDS. 

LITRES INTO GALLONS 
AND QUARTS. 

HECTOLITRES INTO 
QUARTS AND BUSHELS. 

KILOGRAMMES INTO 
CWTS.j QRS., LBS., OZ, 

HECTARES INTO 
ACRES, ROODS, P’CH’S. 

I 

1.094 

I 

0 

1,094 

I 

0 

o.SSo 

I 

0 

2-751 

I 

0 

0 

2 

3 X 

I 

2 

I 

35 

2 

2 . 1 S 7 

2 

I 

-D 7 

2 

0 

1.761 

2 

0 

5 -Soz 

2 

0 

0 

4 

6)4 

2 

4 

3 

31 

3 

3 - 2 Si 

3 

I 

1,521 

3 

0 

2.641 

3 

I 

0.254 

3 

0 

0 

6 

9 % 

3 

7 

I 

26 

4 

4-374 

4 

2 

S 55 

4 

0 

3 -S 2 I 

4 

I 

3.005 

4 

0 

0 

S 

13 

4 

9 

3 

22 

5 

5.468 

5 

3 

iSS 

5 


0.402 

5 

I 

5-756 

5 

0 

0 

I I 

0 M 

5 

12 

I 

'7 

6 

6.562 

6 

3 

1,282 

6 

I 

1.282 

6 

2 

0.507 

6 

0 

0 

13 

ZY 

6 

14 

3 

12 

7 

7 - 6 SS 

7 

4 

615 

7 

I 

2.163 

7 

2 

3 - 25 S 

7 

0 

0 

15 

7 

7 

17 


8 

S 

8.749 

S 

4 

1,709 

8 

I 

3-043 

S 

2 

6.010 

S 

0 

0 

17 

10 'i 

S 

>9 

3 

3 

9 

9-843 

9 

5 

1,043 

9 

I 

3-923 

9 

3 

0.761 

9 

0 

0 

'9 

13 ^ 

9 

22 

0 

38 

10 

10.936 

10 

6 

376 

10 

2 

0 .S 04 

10 

3 

3 - 5‘2 

10 

0 

0 

22 

0 % 

10 

24 

2 

34 

20 

21.873 

20 

12 

753 

20 

4 

1 . 60 S 

20 

6 

7.024 

20 

0 

I 

l6 

134 

20 

49 

I 

2 S 

30 

32 .S 09 

30 

is 

1,129 

30 

6 

2.412 

30 

IO 

2-536 

30 

0 

2 

10 

2 X 

30 

74 

0 

21 

4 ° 

43-745 

40 

2 4 

i, 5 oS 

40 

8 

3-215 

40 

13 

6 . 04 S 

40 

0 

3 

4 

3 

40 

9 s 

3 

is 

50 

54 . 6 S 2 

So 

3 i 

122 

50 

II 

O.OI 9 

50 

17 

1.560 

5 ° 

I 

3 

26 

1% 

5 ° 

123 

2 

9 

60 

65 . 61 S 

60 

37 

49 S 

60 

>3 

0.823 

60 

20 

5.072 

60 

I 

0 

20 

4'2 

60 

14 S 

I 

3 

70 

76-554 

7 ° 

43 

874 

70 

>5 

1.627 

70 

24 

o-SSS 

7 ° 

I 

I 

14 

5 H 

70 

172 

3 

37 

80 

87.491 

So 

49 

1,251 

So 

>7 

2-431 

80 

27 

4.097 

So 

I 

2 

8 

6 

So 

197 

2 

38 

9 ° 

9 S .427 

90 

55 

1,627 

90 

19 

3-235 

90 

30 

7.609 

90 

I 

3 

2 

644 

90 

222 

I 


100 

109.363 

100 

62 

243 

100 

22 

0.039 

IOO 

34 

3.121 

IOO 

I 

3 

24 

7 

100 

247 

0 

18 

200 

218.727 

200 

12 J 

487 

200 

44 

0.077 

200 

68 

6.242 

200 

3 

3 

20 

15 

200 

494 

0 

37 

3 °o 

328.090 

300 

l86 

73 ° 

300 

66 

0. 116 

300 

103 

1.362 

300 

5 

3 

17 

6 

300 

741 

I 

15 

400 

437-453 

400 

24 S 

973 

4 OO 

88 

0-155 

400 

>37 

4-4S3 

400 

7 

3 

13 

14 

400 

9 S 8 

I 

33 

500 

546.816 

500 

310 

1,217 

500 

no 

0.193 

500 

181 

7.604 

500 

9 

3 

IO 

5 

500 

1 , 23 s 

2 

II 


* In the majority of States the hundredweight rates at 100 lbs. and the ton accordingly at 2,000 lbs., but in this table the computation has been made at 112 and 2,240 lbs. 


respectively, as the computation on the other basis is very simple. 



/ 


- 


C) \ 


(5 


























































































LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. 


399 




NTIL the millennium begins, men will not be 
able to exist without courts, law and lawyers. 
When man was in a state of nature, before 
what the philosophers call the social com¬ 
pact was entered into, the law that prevailed was the 
strong hand. Property belonged not necessarily to 
him who manufactured it or found it, but to him who 
had the physical ability to prevent other people from 
depriving him of it. As the verse runs, humanity be¬ 
gan with 


—The good old plan. 

That they shall take who have the power. 
And they shall keep who can. 


And much as we may talk about the reasonableness and 
light of our civilization, that theory lies underneath every legal 
process we use to-day. First the man righted his own wrongs 
according to his natural reason — a sort of wild justice that 
was made up of all injustice, and in which capital punishment 
was the only penalty recognized. Next the family took up the 
administration of the law—a step in the right direction, but only 
a step — and so, as men grew older in wisdom and experience, 
a man’s wrongs were redressed first by himself, next by his 
family, next by his tribe, and lastly by his nation. Each of these 
changes was a change for the better, an approach toward impar¬ 
tiality and justice. Even in the night of time wise judges were 
at work making precedents which grew gradually into law, and 


that great system which we have to-day is as much a natural out¬ 
growth of humanity as our civilization. It was seen early in our 
history as a race that the wisdom of the umpires to whom men 
addressed their disputes was not alone enough to insure peace and 
tranquillity to the land, and hence great law-givers appeared from 
time to time in every nation, who have left codes out of which 
we have built our common law and statute law of the nineteenth 
century. Each family of nations had its own statutes, differing 
widely in practice, but all founded upon justice and common 
sense. The English law, which we in America have brought 
with us from the old home, is, like the English language, an 
olla podrida of many elements. The Saxon code lies under all 
with' its strong tendency to personal liberty, and exact and equal 
justice to high and low, just as the Saxon tongue is the basis and 
foundation of our language. 

The Norman Conquest brought in changes in the tenure of land, 
together with the martial law, the game laws and the criminal 
and the feudal laws of France. Mixing in this hotch-potch, the 
Roman Church added the ecclesiastical and part of the criminal 
law, drawn directly, as the French laws came indirectly, from the 
great Codex Justiniani, of the Roman Empire, and this strange 
mixture has grown in the centuries that have passed into the 
great guarantee of liberty and justice which our law to-day 
represents. 

Always seeking after right and common sense, our law is not 
perfect, nor is it perfectly administered, but the whole world 
admits that the English-speaking people have the best laws 
known to man. Perfection erring humanity will never attain. 































































400 


LEGAL BUSINESS DEPARTMENT. 


Our criminal law has been built upon the theory that the 
criminal must be protected; and it is for his protection that the 
statutes run. At first the only punishment that men knew was 
death or maiming. In the middle ages thieves were boiled in 
oil, and robbers were impaled alive. Witnesses were questioned 
on the rack, and evidence extorted with thumbscrew and the 
iron boot, crushing the flesh 
in the search for truth. As 
the years rolled by all of this 
was ameliorated, and to-day 
mercy is tempered with jus¬ 
tice, and the shameful bar¬ 
barisms of the courts of the 
middle ages are becoming 
rarer and rarer. 

It is not the purpose of 
this work to make any man 
a lawyer learned in the law. 

It were idle, and worthy only 
of a catchpenny mountebank, 
to pretend that in a volume 
like this could be compressed 
the whole of a great science which demands of its professors 
years of toil and years of study and experience. Once involved 
in litigation, go to a lawyer, and to the best lawyer you can 
afford. Any one who gives the reader different advice is dis¬ 
honest and knavish, and common sense must recognize this 
indictment. 

An ounce of prevention, 
however, is worth a pound 
of cure, and we verily believe 
that in the pages that follow 
many ounces of prevention 
will be found. Law is a 
co-tly luxury that should only 
be indulged in as a last re¬ 
sort, when justice cannot be 
gained by less expensive 
means. The wise man avoids 
it as he would avoid bank¬ 
ruptcy or fire, and he takes 
all the prudent precautions 
that he can to escape litiga¬ 
tion. We claim that the 
student of these pages will be fully equipped for that purpose. 

Law is a costly luxury, we have said; and the wisdom of an¬ 
tiquity, which built the law, has built also on this truism. One 
of the earliest fables the child is told, is the story of the two cats 
who referred a cheese case to a monkey learned in the law, and 
whose chose-in-action gradually went into the digestive system 


of the court. The story we illustrate below conveys a moral 
that all should heed. 

Observe the obstinate litigants pulling at the head and tail of 
the disputed cow; how determined each is, not to win the ani¬ 
mal, but to prevent the other from getting her, and see the attor¬ 
ney, learned and gentlemanly, industriously milking fees and 

retainers into his bucket and 
advising the plaintiff to hold 
hard and steady. And when 
the cow is milked, see how 
the litigation ends: one man 
has the horns and a severe 
fall, the other has the tail 
and an equally unpleasant 
tumble, while the lawyer 
walks off with the cow and 
the milk and an exceedingly 
good opinion of the law. 
The satire may be rather 
broad, but it teaches what 
every sensible man will tell 
you, that there is no dearer 
commodity in this world than justice. 

No matter what transaction you are about to engage in, study 
the forms we give, read the hints we publish. Do nothing 
blindly. In no case is knowledge power so much as in busi¬ 
ness law. Who are the men that succeed ? They are those who 
understand it. Which of your friends is tangled up in costly, 

perhaps ruinous, litigation ? 
Ask him how it began, and 
he will point out to you 
some trifling error, made in 
a culpable ignorance, which, 
had he the lesson we teach 
before him, he would have 
avoided. Then study these 
pages if you would gain the 
benefit that lies before you. 
A half hour’s attention be¬ 
fore a transaction is con¬ 
summated may save you 
thousands afterwards. The 
diligent student may be sure 
of one thing, that, with this 
manual at command, its hints obeyed, its instructions followed, 
its forms used, it will take a very much better lawyer than the 
average business man to force him into a lawsuit, and yet his 
rights will be as thoroughly secure as though they had been 
vindicated and asserted by all the supreme courts of the Re¬ 
public. 



I. THE SUIT BEGINS : The Lawyer gets the Milk for his Fees. 



II. END OF THE SUIT : The Lawyer gets both Cow and Milk. 



$ 

e 


§ 

e 


























































al •> Poi®me. v)Kv 




gKoco tfteij ore properfij ©racop anc| G^eeufecj.-e^*- 



AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS. 

CONTRACT is legally defined to be 
an agreement between persons com¬ 
petent to contract to do or not to 
do, for a consideration, some speci¬ 
fied thing. Following upon this definition, 
it is evident that those things to be specially 
examined about a contract are the parties, 
their legal ability and their consent. There 
must be two or more persons concerned, and 
it is vital that they must be able to contract. 
“Persons ” is here taken in the legal meaning, 
which includes artificial persons, such as cor¬ 
porations and States. Corporations can only 
contract as they are empowered by their char¬ 
ters; States, as they are permitted by their 
constitutions. Persons not of legal age can 
not usually contract, but when of age they 
may, in certain cases, ratify contracts made 
in infancy. The contract of marriage may be 
entered into under age. Idiots and insane 
persons cannot contract. 

Consent is vital to a contract. It may be 
given by a word or a nod, by the shaking of 
hands or by a sign. Often, in law, the old 
saying that “ silence gives consent ” is upheld. 
In a written contract assent is proven by the 
signature or mark of the persons. 


The first step toward a contract is the propo¬ 
sition or offer, which may be withdrawn at 
any time before it is agreed to. When the 
proposition is verbal, and no time is specified, 
it is not binding unless accepted at once. To 
give one the option or refusal of property at 
a specified price, is simply to give him a cer¬ 
tain time to make up his mind whether he will 
buy the property or not. To make the option 
binding he must accept within the time named. 
The party giving the option has the right to 
withdraw it, and sell the property to another, 
at any time previous to its acceptance, even 
within the time for which the refusal was 
given, because the offer is gratuitous, and 
there is no consideration to support it. 

A written proposition may be accepted at 
any time before notice of withdrawal. But 
the proposer can retract at any time before it 
is accepted. If a letter of acceptance is mailed, 
however, and immediately after a letter with¬ 
drawing the offer is received, the contract is 
binding. An acceptance takes effect from the 
time it is mailed, not from the time it is re¬ 
ceived ; it must be in accordance with the 
original proposition, for any new matter intro¬ 
duced would constitute a new offer. When 
the offer is accepted, either verbally or in 


/ 


—x 

















































402 


LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS. 


writing, it is an express assent, and is bind¬ 
ing. Express assent is not affected by custom 
or usage of trade. Implied assent is accepted 
by the law when common sense seems to de¬ 
mand it. For instance, if John Jones draws a 
draft on Abraham Swift, which Swift refuses 
to accept, and James Smith accepts the draft 
to save John Jones’ credit, there is an im¬ 
plied assent on the part of Jones to indemnify 
Smith. 

A contract made under a mistake of law is 
not void. Everybody is presumed to know the 
law, and ignorance is no excuse. This, how¬ 
ever, applies only to contracts permitted by 
law and clear of fraud. A refusal of an offer 
cannot be retracted without the consent of the 
second party. Once a proposition is refused, 
the matter is ended. And no one has the right 
to accept an offer except the person to whom 
it was made. 

The consideration is the reason or thing for 
which the parties bind themselves in the con¬ 
tract, and it is either a benefit to the promisor 
or an injury to the other party. Considera¬ 
tions are technically divided into valuable and 
good , and it sometimes happens that the con¬ 
sideration need not be expressed, but is im¬ 
plied. A valuable consideration is either 
money or property or service to be given, or 
some injury to be endured. A promise to 
marry, for instance, is a valuable considera¬ 
tion. A good consideration means that the 
contract is entered into because of consan¬ 
guinity or affection, which will support the 
contract when executed, but will not support 
an action to enforce an executory contract. 
Whether a consideration is sufficient or not is 
tested by its being a benefit to the promisor or ! 
an injury to the other party. If it has a legal 
value, it makes no difference how small that 
value may be. The promisor need not always 
be benefited, as, for instance, the endorser of a 
note, who is liable although he gets no benefit. 
But if a person promise to do something him¬ 


self for which no consideration is to be received, 
there is no cause of action for breach of 
the contract. Among sufficient considerations 
we may include “forbearance,” the waiting 
for payment or for the execution of another 
contract, and “ mutual promises,” if made si¬ 
multaneously, not otherwise, and finally a pre¬ 
existing “ moral obligation,” as, for instance, 
when a debt has become outlawed through the 
statute of limitations, a promise to pay it will 
renew the liability of the debtor. 

THE STATUTE OF FRAUDS. 

The English Statute of Frauds, which has 
been re-enacted in most of the American 
States, provides that “ no action shall be 
brought whereby to charge the defendant upon 
any special promise to answer for the debt, 
default or miscarriage of another person, un¬ 
less the agreement upon which such action 
shall be brought, or some memorandum or 
note thereof, shall be in writing, and signed 
by the party to be charged therewith, or some 
other person thereunto by him lawfully author¬ 
ized.” This is held not to apply to original 
promises, but only to collateral engagements 
or cases where a debt already exists on the 
part of a third person. As in the case of a 
note already given to Brown by Jones, a 
promise from Smith to pay must be in writing 
to be binding. If Brown tells Jones to deliver 
goods to Smith, saying: “ I will pay if he 
doesn’t,” or “ I will see you paid,” it is a mere 
offer of guaranty, and is a collateral undertak¬ 
ing, which comes within the statute ; but it is 
different if he says: “ Charge them to me,” 
or “ I will pay. ” The latter is an original 
promise, and need not be in writing. No 
consideration is necessary, so far as the person 
who guarantees is concerned, if it is a benefit 
to the person in whose favor the promise is 
made. This statute does not apply in cases 
where an original promise is made at the time 
the debt is created. The statute of frauds 
























■V 


LEGAL BUSINESS FORMS. 


403 


also provides that no sale shall be binding un¬ 
less the buyer shall first accept part of the 
goods so sold, and actually receive them; or, 
2d, give something in earnest, to bind the bar¬ 
gain, or in part payment; or, 3d, that some 
note or memorandum, in writing, of the said 
bargain be made and signed by the parties 
or their agents. The writing must state the 
promise, and also the consideration. Where 
goods exist in the condition in which they are 
to be delivered, and the delivery is to take 
place in the future, a sale of such goods comes 
within the statute. 

CAUSES WHICH VITIATE CONTRACTS. 

There are several causes which void con¬ 
tracts, first among which is fraud. Fraud is 
defined to be “ every kind of artifice employed 
by one person for the purpose of wilfully 
deceiving another to his injury.” No fraudu¬ 
lent contract will stand in law or in equity. 
The party upon whom the fraud has been 
practiced must void the contract as soon as he 
discovers the fraud, for if he goes on after 
having knowledge of the fraud he cannot after¬ 
wards avoid it. But the one who perpetrates 
the fraud cannot plead that ground for voiding 
it. Contracts in restraint of trade are void, 
as also are contracts in opposition to public 
policy, impeding the course of justice, in 
restraint of marriage, contrary to the insolvent 
acts, or for immoral purposes. Any violation 
of the essential requisites of a contract, or the 
omission of an essential requisite, will void it. 

THE DEFENCES 

which may be set up against an action on con¬ 
tract are eleven in number, and may be sum¬ 
marized thus: Performance, Payment, Re¬ 
ceipts, Accord and Satisfaction, Arbitrament 
and Award, Pendency of Another Action, Re¬ 
lease, Tender, Statute of Limitations, Set-Off, 
Recoupment. 


A Building Contract. 

Memorandum of Agreement, made this 10th day of May, one thou¬ 
sand eight hundred and eighty-three, between Henry Davis, of St. Louis, 
of the first part, and Joseph Stephenson, of the same place, builder, of the 
second part. The said party of the second part covenants and agrees 
with the said party of the first part to make, erect, build and finish in 
good, substantial and workmanlike manner, on the lot belonging to the 
party of the first part, and known as No. 243 North Nineteenth street, one 
brick house, agreeable to the draft, plan and explanation hereto annexed, 
of good and substantial materials (or of such materials as the party of the 
first part may find and provide therefor), by the 1st day of September 
next. And the said party of the first part covenants and agrees to pay 
unto the said party of the second part, for the same, the sum of one 
thousand dollars lawful money of the United States, as follows : the sum 
of $200 on the 1st of June, $200 on the 1st of July, $200 on the 1st of 
August, $400 on the completion of the house. 

(If the owner is to furnish materials, add: and, also, that he will 
furnish and procure the necessary materials for the said work, in such 
reasonable quantities, and at such reasonable time, or times, as the said 
party of the second part shall or may require.) 

And for the true and faithful performance of all and every of the 
covenants and agreements above mentioned, the parties to these presents 
bind themselves, each unto the other, in the penal sum of $200, as liqui¬ 
dated damages to be paid by the failing party. 

In witness wherof The parties to these presents have hereunto set 
their hands (and seals) the day and year first above written. 

Henry Davis. 

Signed, sealed and delivered in presence of 1 Joseph Stephenson. 

James Wilson. > 

H. C. Boyd. > 

Contract with Employe. 

This Agreement, made this 22d day of December, 1883, between J. 
F. Townley, of Chicago, of the first part, and Campen, Strauss & Co., of 
St. Louis, Mo., of the second part, witnesseth: That the said J. F. 
Townley agrees faithfully and diligently to serve the said Campen, Strauss 
& Co., as clerk, in the store of said Campen, Strauss & Co. (or other¬ 
wise), at St. Louis, for the period of one year, from and after the 1st day 
of January next, for the sum of $1,500 per year. In consideration of 
which service, so to be performed, the said Campen, Strauss & Co. 
agree to pay the said J. F. Townley the sum of $125 per month, payable 
on the first day of each month, during said term. 

And it is understood and agreed that the death of either of them, 
occurring prior to the expiration of said term of one year, shall terminate 
this agreement. 

In witness whereof, etc. Campen, Strauss & Co. 

J. F. Townley. 

Contract for the Sale of Property. 

This Agreement, made this 5th day of March, 1883, between Alan 
McDowell, of St. Louis, and C. S. Wheeler & Co., of New York, wit¬ 
nesseth: That the said Alan McDowell agrees to sell and deliver to 
the said C. S. Wheeler & Co., at their store in New York, five thousand 
bushels of potatoes on or before the 2d day of May, 1883, and the said 
C. S. Wheeler & Co., in consideration thereof, agree to pay to the said 
Alan McDowell fifty cents per bushel for said potatoes, immediately upon 
the completion of the delivery thereof. 

In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands, this 5th day of 
March, 1883, at New York City. C. S. Wheeler & Co. 

Alan McDowell. 

Short Form of Contract. 

John D. Simons hereby agrees to sell one thousand head of two-year- 
old cattle, to be delivered in Chicago before February 1, 1883, to Knox, 
Stout & Co., at $20 a head, and the said Knox, Stout & Co. agree to pay 
$20 per head for all two-year-old cattle, up to one thousand head, deliv¬ 
ered by said John D. Simons, prior to February 1, 1883. 

Signed at Chicago, Ill., this 20th day of September, 1881. 

Knox, Stout & Co. 

John D. Simons. 


LA 


\ 


"v 




<D 





























404 


AGENCY AND ATTORNEY. 




HEN one person is authorized to act 
in a business capacity for another, 
under a contract either express or 
implied, he becomes the agent of 
the latter, and the act of the agent, when 
legally authorized, is the same as if done 
by the principal. For ordinary contracts 
constituting an agency, a written or verbal 
agreement or appointment is required, but 
contracts required to be under seal can only 
be made by an agent whose appointment is 
established by a sealed instrument. An agent 
may be so constituted by his acts without a 
formal appointment. Where a principal will¬ 


ingly and knowingly allows a person to do 
acts in his name, he will be presumed to have 
given him authority. Where several persons 
are appointed by law as agents, the thing to 
be done may generally be executed by a 
majority of them. 

The extent to which the agent’s authority 
binds the principal is to be gathered from the 
appointment, and depends upon the power 
which has been delegated to him by express 
or implied contract. The principal is not 
bound if the agent go beyond his authority, 
unless, with knowledge of the fact, he has 
taken the benefit of it. 










| J)iffer®ent-^insly oP-^ eQe V 

i — * •— —-• > . V . - —■---As 


V S> 

• o® 




f 

gjjcbs— 



p / 11E various kinds of agency are called 
special and general; limited and un¬ 
limited ; factor and broker. A special 
agency is an agency to do a single act, 
and every person doing business with a special 
agfent must ascertain what the extent of his 
authority is, and at his own risk. A general 
agency consists of delegated authority to do 


anything about a particular business, the prin¬ 
cipal being bound for all acts of the agent that 
come within the scope of the business. Lim¬ 
ited agency is that in which particular instruc¬ 
tions restrict and limit the agent’s authority. 
Unlimited agency is one in which a special 
agent is given authority to use any means he 
may find necessary to accomplish the desired 


/ 


<0 































































DIFFERENT KINDS OF AGENCY. 


405 


end. The factor, commonly called commis¬ 
sion merchant, is one who has the property of 
his principal in his own possession, for sale, 
such property being called a consignment. 
Such agent, accompanying a cargo on a voy¬ 
age, is called a supercargo. A broker is one 
who is employed to negotiate sales between 
the buyer and seller. He does not have 
possession of the property which he nego¬ 
tiates, nor authority to sell in his own name. 

With few exceptions to the rule, an agent is 
not obliged to account for the price of goods 
he has sold until he has recovered the money 
from the purchaser. 

When an agent makes the contract in the 
name of the principal, and under his authority, 
he generally avoids personal liability. 

The agent is given the right of lien on the 
property in his possession, and also the right 
to insure it, to secure the payment of his com¬ 
mission. He is also entitled to reimbursement 
for costs and damages which, through no fault 
of his, he has been obliged to pay in relation 
to the agency. 

The principal has reciprocal rights against 
third persons, corresponding with his own lia¬ 
bilities, and may sue them, when they are 
responsible, or their contracts made with the 
agency. He is liable to third persons for the 
negligence or unskilfulness of the agent, when 
he is acting in the fulfilment of the agency 
business, even if he is not under his immedi¬ 
ate direction. The general principle is, that for 
all torts, frauds, misfeasances and defaults of 
the agent, done in the regular course of the 
agency business, the principal is liable, whether 
he participated in it or not, provided it were 
not the agent’s wilful act. The agent is liable 
equally with the principal for all wrongs done 
by him under order of his principal. 

Unless expressly authorized, the agent has 
no right to delegate his own powers to a sub¬ 
agent. 


A notice to an agent is generally considered 
notice to the principal. 

Money paid by an agent can be recovered 
by the principal, if it has been paid by mis¬ 
take ; if the consideration has failed ; if the 
money was illegally extorted from him as agent; 
or if it was fraudulently applied to some illegal 
purpose by the agent. 

An agency may be dissolved : by a revoca¬ 
tion by the principal of the power of the agent; 
by operation of law. 

Power of Attorney—Short and Simple Form. 

Know all men by these presents : That I, the undersigned, of Minne¬ 
apolis, Minn., do hereby make, constitute and appoint R. J. Belford, of 
St. Paul, Minn., my true and lawful attorney, for me, and in my name 

and stead- (here insert the subject-matter 0/ the power); to do and 

perform all the necessary acts in the execution and prosecution of the 
aforesaid business, and in as full and ample a manner as I might do if 1 
were personally present. 

Howard Belden. 

Executed in presence of I 

Henry Lemson. J 

Letter of Substitution. 

(To be endorsed on the power 0/ attorney.) 

I hereby appoint Geo. W. Jones as my substitute and in my stead to 
do and perform every act and thing which I might or could do by virtue 
of the within power of attorney. (Signed) R. J. Belford. 

Power of Attorney to Collect Debts, Rents, Etc. 

Know all men by these presents ; That I, Samuel Adams, of Boston, 
Mass., do by these presents make, constitute and appoint Chas. E. Foster 
my true and lawful attorney, for me, and in my name, place and stead, 
to demand, ask, sue for,’collect and receive all sums of money, accounts, 
debts, dues, rents and demands of every description, kind and nature 
whatsoever, which are due, owing or payable from any person or persons 
whomsoever, and to give good and sufficient receipts, acquittances and 
discharges therefor; giving and granting unto my said attorney full 
authority and power to do and perform every act and thing whatsoever 
necessary and requisite to be done in the premises, as I might or could do 
if personally present. 

In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this- 

day of-,188—. Samuel Adams. fL.s.] 

Signed and sealed 1 

in presence of > 

Jerome Beasey. ) 

Letter of Revocation. 

Know all men by these presents : That I, R. S. Miller, of Covington, 

Tenn., in and by my letter of attorney, bearing date the -day of-, 

did make, constitute and appoint J. H. Pitt my attorney, as by said 
letter more fully appears. 

That I, the said R. S. Miller, do by these presents annul, countermand, 
revoke and make void said letter of attorney and all authority and power 
thereby given said attorney, J. H. Pitt. 

In witness , etc. R. S. Miller, [l.s.] 

Power of Attorney to Sell Stock. 

Know all men by these presents: That I, J. E. Hartman, of Cen- 
tralia, 111 ., do by these presents make, constitute and appoint J. A. L. 
Romig my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my stead to sell and 
transfer unto any persons whomsoever, and for such price as my said 
attorney shall think fit, all and any of the following stocks (describing 
them.) 






















•s. 


* 


V - 



/ 

406 

AFFIDAVITS. 




(0 


& 


And also for me, and in my name, to make and pass all necessary acts of 
assignment, and to give and receive receipts and releases for the consider¬ 
ation money arising from the sale thereof. 

And also for me, and in my name, to give receipts for all interest and 
dividends now due or that shall hereafter become due on said capital 
stock, until the sale and transfer thereof. 

In witness, etc. 

Power to Vote as Proxy at an Election. 

Know all men by these presents : That I, Homer Huston, of Paxton, 
Ill., do hereby appoint T. M. Elliott to vote as my proxy at any election 
of directors or other officers of the (name the company or corporation) 
according to the number of votes I should be entitled to if I were then 
personally present. 

Homer Huston, [l.s.] 


Power to Take Charge of and Carry on Business. 

Know all men by these presents : That I, Julius Schonfeld, of Jeffer¬ 
son, Texas, do by these presents appoint, constitute and make R. V. 
Jennings my true and lawful attorney, for me and in my place and stead, 
to take charge of my business of general merchandising, at Marshall, 
Texas; to purchase and sell, for cash or on credit, all such articles, goods, 
merchandise and wares as he shall deem proper, necessary and useful to 
said business; to sign, accept and endorse all notes, drafts and bills; to 
state accounts; to sue and prosecute, compromise, collect and settle all 
claims or demands due or to become due, now existing or hereafter to 
exist in my favor; to adjust and pay all claims or demands which now 
exist or may hereafter arise against me, either connected with said busi¬ 
ness or otherwise. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this-day 

of-, 188—. Juuus Schonfeld. [l.s.] 





C)j/ 


FfidaVi 




JjH^N affidavit is a sworn declaration, taken 
before a competent official, which dif¬ 
fers from a deposition in the fact 
that no cross-examination is possible. 
When an affidavit is amended by order of court, 
it must be re-sworn. It should be positive in 
the description of amounts, places, persons, 
etc.; even if an amount is uncertain, some sum 
must be named. It must also specify the day 
and place whereon it was sworn. The date is 
given in what is called the jurat , and the place 
in the venue of the affidavit. Where a person 
is unable to read or write, or is blind, the jurat 
must show that the affidavit was read over to 
the affiant, and his mark or signature must be 
properly witnessed, and the jurat must be also 
signed in all cases by the officer before whom 
the affidavit is made. The jurat is that part 
of an affidavit which tells how, when, by whom 
and before whom the oath was taken. The 
venue simply states the place where, thus : 

State of-, ) 

County of-, ) ss ' 

An omission of the venue is fatal, as it is 
the only evidence that the person administer¬ 
ing the oath had power to swear witnesses. 


Where an affidavit is required by law, the 
maker of a false one can be punished for per¬ 
jury, although in courts of law or equity affi¬ 
davits are not considered as testimony. 


General Form of Affidavit. 

State of Missouri, Franklin County, Town of Washington, ss . 

Bernard Mense, being duly sworn, deposes and says (or alleges and 
says): That — (Here set out in full and accurate language the mat¬ 
ters to be alleged.) 

[Seal.] Bernard Mense. 

Sworn (or affirmed) before me, this twenty-ninth day of August, 
A. D. 1883. John Wellenkamp, 

Justice of the Peace. 

(If the affiant is unable to read, the subscription should be as follows:) 

Subscribed and sworn to before me, this -day of -, A.D. 18—, 

the same having been by me (or in my presence) read to this affiant, he 
being illiterate (or blind), and understanding the same. 

(Officer's signature and title.) 

Affidavit to Accounts. 

State of Illinois, Pulaski County, ss . 

Before me, the undersigned, one of the justices of the peace in and for 
said county, personally came Theodore Wehrfritz, of Mound City, and, 
being duly sworn according to law, deposes and says : That the ^bove 
account, as stated, is just and true. 

That the above sum of seventy-nine dollars is now justly due and 
owing to this deponent by the above named Robert Robinson. 

That he, the said Theodore Wehrfritz, has never received the same or 
any part thereof, either directly or indirectly, nor any person for him, by 
his direction or order, knowledge or consent. 

Theodore Wehrfritz. 

Sworn and subscribed before me, this thirteenth day of August, A.D. 
i88 3 - William Westermann, 

Justice of the Peace. 


K- 


-X 


- 











































APPRENTICES. 


'N 


Affidavit to Petition. 

State of Illinois, Clinton County, jj. 

Theodore Volmer, being duly sworn, says : That the facts set forth 
in the foregoing petition are true to the best of his knowledge and belief. 

Theodore Volmer. 

Sworn, etc. (as in preceding /or ms). 

Affidavit to Signature of Absent or Deceased Witness. 

State of Kansas, Crawford County, jj. 

Be it remembered. That on the fourth day of September, A.D. 1883, 
before me, the undersigned, James Atkinson, one of the justices of the 
peace in said county, personally appeared William Hawley, who, being 


407 


duly sworn, deposes and says : That Alexander Stuart, one of the sub¬ 
scribing witnesses to the within (will or deed) is (dead or absent from 
the State, as the case may be). 

That he has frequently seen said Alexander Stuart write, and that he 
is well acquainted with the handwriting of said Alexander Stuart. 

That to the best of his knowledge and belief (or he verily believes) 
the name of Alexander Stuart, signed to the same as one of the subscrib¬ 
ing witnesses, is the proper and individual handwriting of said Alexander 
Stuart. William Hawley. 

Subscribed and sworn to before me, this fourth day of September, 
A.D. 1883. James Atkinson, 

Justice of the Peace. 




APPRENTICE is a person, usually a 
minor, who is bound out to service for 
a number of years to learn some art 
or trade. The instrument by which 
such binding is made should be in writing and 
signed by the apprentice and his father, or, in 
case of his death or incapacity, by his mother 
or legal guardian. Apprentices are not enti¬ 
tled to wages unless expressly stipulated for, 
but the master, by his relationship with the 
apprentice, is bound to pay for his medical 
attendance and to supply him with all the 
necessaries of life. The master is entitled to 
all the earnings of the apprentice, and his 
power over the latter's person is similar to that 
of parent or guardian. The death of the mas¬ 
ter discharges the apprenticeship, unless in 
pursuance of direct statute provisions. The 
master cannot discharge the apprentice, even 
though the latter be incompetent to learn the 
trade, though for good cause such cases may 
be decided by the court. 

Indenture of an Apprentice. 

This indenture of apprenticeship between John Garrett, father of Philip 
Garrett, on the one part, and William Nead, of the other part, witnesseth : 
That the said Philip Garrett, aged 15 years on the 20th day of August, 
A.D. 1882, is hereby bound as an apprentice under the said William 


Nead, from the date hereof until the 20th day of August, 1886, to learn 
the trade and art of a printer; and is faithfully to serve the said William 
Nead and correctly to conduct himself during the term of his apprentice¬ 
ship. 

And the said William Nead hereby covenants that he will teach the 
said Philip Garrett the said trade and art, and will furnish him, during 
said apprenticeship, with board, lodging, washing, clothing, medicine, 
and other necessaries suitable for an apprentice in sickness and in health ; 
and will send him to a suitable public school at least three months during 
each of the first two years of the said term ; and at the expiration of the 
said apprenticeship will furnish him with two new suits of common wear¬ 
ing apparel and one hundred dollars in money. 

In testimony whereof, the parties hereto have set their hands and 
seals this twentieth day of August, A.D. 1882. 

Executed in presence of 1 

Peter Day, John Garrett, [l.s.] 

Notary Public. ) William Nead. [l.s.] 

Consent of the Minor. 

I hereby consent to the foregoing indenture, and agree to conform to 
the terms thereof in all things on my part to be performed. 

Dated the 20th day of August, in the year 1882. 

Philip Garrett. 

Release of an Apprentice. 

Know all men by these presents : That Philip Garrett, son of John 

Garrett, did by his agreement, bearing date the - day of-, bind 

himself as an apprentice unto William Nead, of ——, for a term of - 

from the date thereof, as by said indenture more fully appears. 

That, complaint having been made to the undersigned Justice of the 
Peace upon oath of Philip Garrett, apprentice of William Nead, to whom 
said Garrett is bound, that (here state the cause for release). That by 
reason thereof, said William Nead does hereby release and forever dis¬ 
charge said Philip Garrett and John Garrett, his father, of and from said 
agreement and all service and all other agreements, covenants, matters 
and things therein contained, on their or either of their parts to be 
observed and performed, whatsoever, from the beginning of the world 
unto the date hereof. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, this-day of-, 

• William Nead. 






















































4 oS 


ARBITRATION. 




:HEN it becomes necessary or expe¬ 
dient in matters of dispute to have 
an equitable settlement without the 
interposition of the courts, what are 
termed arbitrators are selected by the parties 
in interest. In ordinary cases the question is 
usually referred to a single person who has the 
confidence of both parties, and is conversant 
with the law and the rules of evidence. Ar¬ 
bitrators are not bound by legal rules in the 
admission or exclusion of evidence, unless it 
is so stipulated in the agreement. An award 
must be conformable to the terms of the 
submission, and only the precise questions 
submitted to them should be answered. A sub¬ 
mission to arbitration, voluntarily entered into 
by the parties, without the aid of the statutes 
or rules of court, may be revQked by either of 
the parties at any time before the publication 
of the award, though this would render the 
revoking parties liable in damages, which would 
include all the expenses incurred by the other 
party and all he could prove he had lost in any 
way by the revocation. 

Form of Submission to Arbitration. 

Know all men, That a controversy exists between the undersigned, 
Lewis Anderson and James Ray, concerning the boundary and division 
lines of the following tract of land, situated in (here describe the land, 
and state the portion in controversy). 

That said Lewis Anderson and James Ray do hereby submit said con¬ 
troversy to the abitrament of Nelson West and John Farnsworth. 


That said award shall be made in writing under the hands of said arbi¬ 
trators, ready to be delivered to said parties, or such of them as may de¬ 
sire the same, on or before the second day of February next. 

That said award shall in all things by us and each of us be well and 
faithfully kept, observed and performed. 

Witness our hands, etc. 

In presence of 1 Lewis Anderson. 

Walter Rex, > James Ray. 

Notary Public. 1 


Form of Arbitration Bond. 

Know all men by these presents: That Lewis Anderson and James 

Ray have, this-day of-, A. D.-, submitted their matters in 

controversy, concerning the boundary and division lines of a certain tract 
of land (describe it), to Nelson West and John Farnsworth, to arbitrate, 
award, order, judge and determine of and concerning the same. 

That we, the undersigned, bind ourselves, in the sum of -dollars, 

that said Lewis Anderson and James Ray shall submit to the decision and 
award of said arbitrators, provided said award be made in writing on or 
before the second day of February, A.D.-. 

(Signed) Eugene Small. 

Judson Willis. 

Form of Notice to Arbitrators. 

Gentlemen —You have been chosen arbitrators on behalf of the under¬ 
signed, to arbitrate and award between them, in divers matters and things, 
set forth in their submission, which will be produced for your inspection 

when you meet at-, in -, on the-day of-, at — o’clock 

— M., to hear the allegations and proofs. 

Dated, etc. Lewis Anderson. 

James Ray. 

General Form of Arbitrators’ Award. 

To all to whom these presents shall come, or may concern, know ye : 

That the matter in controversy existing between Lewis Anderson, of-, 

and James Ray, of-, as by their submission in writing, bearing date 

the —-— day of-, more fully appears, was submitted to Nelson West 

and John Farnsworth, as arbitrators. 

That said arbitrators, being sworn according to law, and having heard 
the proofs and allegations of the parties, and examined the matter in con¬ 
troversy by them submitted, do make this, their award, in writing: 

( Write out in full the award.) 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, this- 

day of-, A.D.-. 

Nelson West, 

John Farnsworth, 

A rbitrators. 


Al 


v" 



























































-. 


. 


ASSIGNMENTS. 


/ 


409 



i?nmen 



JvpTTNY transfer of property made in writing 
jJirli ’ s P ro P crl y ca ll c d an assignment, thus 
fijkAW distinguishing the act from a transfer 
made by delivery. In effect, it is pass¬ 
ing to another person all of one’s title or inter¬ 
est in any sort of real or personal property, 
rights, actions or estates. However, some 
things are not assignable ; an officer’s pay or 
commission, a judge’s salary, fishing claims, 
Government bounties, or claims arising out of 
frauds or torts. Personal trusts cannot be 
assigned, as a guardianship or the right of a 
master in his apprentice. 

Unlike many other legal devices, the holder 
of an assignment is not bound to show that a 
valuable consideration was given. The owner 
of a cause of action may give it away if he 
pleases, and in the absence of positive evi¬ 
dence to the contrary the court will presume 
that the assignment was for a sufficient con¬ 
sideration. Proof will only be called for when 
it appears that the assignment was a mere 
sham or fraudulent. No formality is required 
by law in an assignment. Any instrument 
between the contracting parties which goes to 
show their intention to pass the property from 
one to another will be sufficient. It may be 
proved, for instance, by the payee of a note, 
that he endorsed (or delivered without endorse¬ 
ment) the note to the assignee, and this is 
sufficient evidence of assignment 


In every assignment of an instrument, even 
J not negotiable, the assignee impliedly war¬ 
rants the validity of the instrument and the 
obligation of the third party to pay it. He war¬ 
rants that there is no legal defence against its 
collection arising out of his connection with the 
parties ; that all parties were legally able to con¬ 
tract, and that the amount is unpaid. 

An assignment carries with it all the collat¬ 
eral securities and guaranties of the original 
debt, even though they are not mentioned in 
the instrument. 

It is usual to use as operative words in an 
assignment the phrase, “ assign, transfer and 
set over ; ” but “ give, grant, bargain and sell, ” 
or any other words indicating an intention on 
the part of the parties to transfer the property, 
are sufficient in law. 

Where property is assigned for the benefit 
of creditors, its actual transfer to the assignee 
must be made immediately. When an assign¬ 
ment is made under the common law, the as¬ 
signor may prefer certain creditors; but in a 
State where this sort of an assignment is gov¬ 
erned by statute, no preference can be shown. 
An assignment for the benefit of creditors cov¬ 
ers all of the assignor’s property, wherever or 
whatever it may be, that is not exempt from 
execution. 

When insured property is sold, the insurance 
policy should be assigned. This can only be 


< 5 " 


O 














































/ 


4io 


BILLS OF SALE. 


done with the consent of the insurer, and that 
consent must be at once obtained. 

Correct schedules of the property assigned 
should accompany and be attached to every as¬ 


signment. 


Assignment of a Note. 

I hereby, for value received, assign and transfer the within written 
(or above written), together with all my rights under the same, to John 
Dobson. William Atwood. 


Assignment with Power of Attorney. 

In consideration of the sum of one thousand dollars (the receipt of 
which is hereby acknowledged), I do hereby assign, transfer and set over 
to John G. Stewart (of St. Louis, Mo.), all my right, title and interest in 
and to (here describe what). 

(And I do hereby constitute said John G. Stewart my attorney, in my 
name or otherwise, but at his own costs and charges, to take all legal 
measures which may be proper or necessary for the complete recovery and 
enjoyment of the premises.) 

Witness my hand (and seal) this 28th day of August, 1883. 

(Witnesses.) William Snyder, [l.s.] 


Assignment with Guaranty of Assignor. 

For value received, I do hereby assign, transfer and set over to John 
G. Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due and to become due 
thereon. 

In case the same cannot be recovered of the within named Edwin 
Byron, I agree and promise to pay to said John G. Stewart the amount 
thereof, together with all necessary and reasonable charges thereupon 
accruing. 

Witness my hand, etc. William Snyder. 

( Witnesses.) 


Shorter Form. 

For value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. 
Stewart the within obligation, hereby guaranteeing payment thereof. 

(Witnesses.) William Snyder. 

Assignment Without Recourse. 

For value received, I hereby assign, transfer and set over to John G. 
Stewart the within obligation, and all moneys due (and to become due) 
thereon. All failure of recovery, liabilities, losses, wholly at the risk of 
said John G. Stewart, without recourse in any event upon me. 

(Witnesses.) William, Snyder. 

Assignment of Wages. 

Knoiv all men by these presents: That I, William Snyder (of St. 
Joseph, Mo.), in consideration of one hundred dollars, the receipt of 
which I hereby acknowledge, do hereby assign, transfer and set over to 
John G. Stewart (of St. Louis, Mo.) all claims and demands which I now 
have, and all which, at any time between the date hereof and the 30th day 
of December next, I may or shall have, against Edwin Byron, for all sums 
of money due or to become due to me for services as-. 

That I do hereby appoint and constitute said John G. Stewart and 
his assigns my attorney, irrevocable, to do and perform all acts, matters 
and things in the premises, in like manner and to all intents and pur¬ 
poses as I could if personally present. 

In witness whereof, etc. 

Assignment of Money Due on Account. 

Know all men by these presents: That William Snyder, in con¬ 
sideration of the sum of one hundred dollars to him in hand paid, does 
hereby assign, transfer and set over all his title and interest in and rights 
under an account for (state what) in the sum of one hundred and fifty 
dollars, hereunto annexed, and all other sum and sums of money remain¬ 
ing due and payable upon said account, unto John G. Stewart, with full 
power to ask, demand and receive the same (at his own costs and ex¬ 
penses) to his own use, and to give discharges and receipts for the same, 
or any part thereof. 

That there is due said William Snyder, on said account, at the date of 
these presents, the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars, and that he has 
not received or discharged the same. 

In witness, etc 






BILL OF SALE is a formal written con¬ 
veyance of personal property. If the 
'F property is delivered when sold, or if 
part of the purchase-money is paid, a 
written instrument is not necessary to make 
the conveyance, but it is convenient evidence 
of the transfer of title. But, to protect the 
interests of the purchaser against the creditors 


of the seller, the bill is not sufficient of itself; 
there should also be a delivery of the prop¬ 
erty. If an actual and continued change of 
possession does not accompany the sale, it is 
void as against the creditors of the seller and 
subsequent purchasers and mortgagees in good 
faith, unless the buyer can show that his pur¬ 
chase was made in good faith, without intent 


















































BONDS. 


411 


to defraud, and that there was some good rea¬ 
son for leaving the property in the hands of 
the seller. 

Short Form of Bill of Sale. 

I, Henry Anderson, of Chester, Pa., in consideration of two hundred 
and fifty dollars, paid by A. D. Criste, of Munster, Pa., hereby sell and 
convey to said A. D. Criste one bay horse (give sex, size, color, age, etc.), 
warranted against adverse claims. 

Witness my hand, this 4th day of Sept., A.D. 1883. 

(Witness.) (Signed) Henry Anderson, [l.s.] 

Common Form—With Warranty. 

Know all men by these presents : That in consideration of one thou¬ 
sand dollars, the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, I do hereby 
grant, sell, transfer and deliver unto A. A. McHatton, his heirs, execu¬ 
tors, administrators and assigns, the following goods and chattels, viz.: 
(here describe the property). 


To have and to hold all and singular the said goods and- chattels for¬ 
ever. And the said grantor hereby covenants with said grantee that he is 
the lawful owner of said goods and chattels; that they are free from all 
encumbrances; that he has good right to sell the same, as aforesaid; and 
that he will warrant and defend the same against the lawful claims and 
demands of all persons whomsoever. 

In witness whereof, the said grantor has hereunto set his hand, this 
12th day of December, A.D. 1883. 

(Witness.) N. R. Jenner. 

Sale of Personal Property. 

Know all men by these presents : That I, Peter Dolan, of the city of 
Cleveland, county of Cuyahoga, State of Ohio, farmer, in consideration of 
four hundred dollars, to me in hand paid by Conrad Ullner, the receipt 
whereof I hereby acknowledge, have bargained, sold, granted and con¬ 
veyed unto the said Conrad Ullner the following property, to-wit: two 
horses; to have and to hold the same; unto the said party of the second 
part, his executors, administrators and assigns forever. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 20th 
day of March, 1883. Peter Dolan. 




XWa WRITTEN instrument, admitting an 
Wllf obligation on the part of the maker 
to pay a certain sum of money to 
another specified person at a fixed 
time, for a valuable consideration, is called 
a bond. The obligor is the one giving the 
bond; the beneficiary is called the obligee. 
This definition applies to all bonds, but gen¬ 
erally these instruments are given to guarantee 
the performance or non-performance of cer¬ 
tain acts by the obligor, which being done, 
or left undone, as the case may be, the bond 
becomes void, but if the conditions are broken, 
it remains in full force. As a rule, the bond 
is made out for a sum twice the amount of any 
debt which is apt to be incurred by the obligor 
under its conditions, the statement being set 
forth that the sum named is the penalty, as 
liquidated or settled damages, in the event of 
the failure of the obligor to carryout the con¬ 
ditions. 


An act of Providence, whereby the accom¬ 
plishment of a bond is rendered impossible, 
relieves the obligor of all liability. 

A bond may be sued upon twenty years 
after right of action begins. 

A bond simply for the payment of money 
only differs from a promissory note in having 
a seal. 

Short Form of Bond. 

Knoiu all men by these presents ; That we, John Smith, as principal, 
and William Meeser and A. J. Driscoll, as sureties, all of Bladensburg, 
in the county of Prince George, State of Maryland, are holden and 
stand firmly bound unto David Wright, of said county, in the sum of nine 
hundred dollars to be paid to the said David Wright, to the payment 
whereof we jointly and severally bind ourselves and our respective heirs 
firmly by these presents. Sealed with our seals. 

Dated at Bladensburg, this tenth day of June, 1882. 

(The condition attached is the same as in the succeeding forms.) 

Executed and delivered 1 John Smith. [l.s. 

in presence of > William Meeser. [l.s. 

Walter Wren. ) A. J. Driscoll. [l.s. 

Bond Secured by Mortgage. 

Know all men by these presents ; That I, Arthur Dean, of Towanda, 
in Bradford county, and State of Pennsylvania, am held and firmly bound 
unto Samuel Crafts, of Wyoming, in the same county and State, in the 
sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said Samuel Crafts, his 













































heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, and to this payment I hereby 
bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by these pres¬ 
ents. 

Sealed with my seal, this 12th day of November, A.D. 1883. 

The condition of the above obligation is: 

That if I, the said Arthur Dean, or my heirs, executors or adminis¬ 
trators, shall pay or cause to be paid unto the said Samuel Crafts the 

sum of one thousand dollars on the-day of-, with interest at the 

rate of-per cent per annum, payable six months from the date hereof, 

and every-months afterwards, until the said sum is paid, then the 

above obligation shall be void and of no effect; and otherwise it shall 
remain in full force. 

And I further agree and covenant, that if any payment of interest be 

withheld or delayed for-days after such payment shall fall due, the 

said principal sum and all arrearage of interest thereon shall be and 

become due immediately on the expiration of-days, at the option of 

said Samuel Crafts, his executors, administrators or assigns. 

Executed and delivered | 

in presence of > Arthur Dean, [l.s.] 

John Simmons. | 


General Form of Bond. 

Know all men by these presents : That I, John Grubb, of the town 
of Mound City, in the county of Pulaski, and State of Illinois, am held 
and firmly bound unto J. A. Williams, of Cairo, in the sum of one thousand 
dollars, to be paid to the .said J. A. Williams, his executors or assigns; for 
which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, ex¬ 
ecutors and administrators, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal. Dated the 28th day of July, 1883. 

The condition of the above obligation is such: 

That if the above-bounden John Grubb, his heirs, executors or admin¬ 
istrators, shall well and truly pay, or cause to be paid, unto the above- 
named J. A. Williams, his executors, administrators or assigns, the just 
and full sum of one thousand dollars, in five equal annual payments, from 
the date hereof, with annual interest, then the above obligation to be void; 
otherwise to remain in full force and virtue. 


Sealed and delivered in ' 
presence of 
Jno. G. Stewart, 
W. F. George. 


John Grubb, [l.s.] 


A Bond to Execute a Deed. 

Know all men by these presents: That I, John T. Nixon, of the 
city of St. Louis, in the State of Missouri, am held and firmly bound unto 
George Kline, of the same place, in the sum of nine hundred dollars, 
to be paid to the said George Kline, his executors, administrators or 
assigns; for which payment, well and truly to be made, I bind myself, my 
heirs, executors and administrators, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal. Dated the 30th day of July, 1883. 

The condition of the above obligation is such: 

That if the above-bounden John T. Nixon shall well and truly make, 
execute and deliver to the said George Kline a deed of release and 
quit-claim of said John T. Nixon’s interest in (designating the property) 
and shall suffer and permit the said George Kline, his heirs and as¬ 
signs, to peaceably occupy and possess said interest, then this obligation 
is to be void; otherwise to remain in full force. 

Sealed and delivered 1 John T. Nixon, [l.s.] 

in presence of > 

Jos. Peterson. ) 

A Bond to Execute an Assignment. 

Know all men by these presents: That I, Chas. Curtman, of the 
town of Washington, in the county of Franklin, State of Missouri, am 
held and firmly bound unto William T. Smith, of the town of Pacific, 
in the sum of two thousand dollars, to be paid to the said William T. 
Smith, his executors, administrators or assigns; for which payment, well 
and truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administra¬ 
tors, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal. Dated the 14th day of August, 1883. 

The condition of the above obligation is such : 

That if the above-bounden Chas. Curtman, his executors, adminis¬ 
trators or assigns, on or before the-day of- next, shall, upon the 

reasonable request, and at the proper cost and charges of the said Will¬ 
iam T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, make, execute and deliver, or cause so to 
be, to the said William T. Smith, his heirs or assigns, or to such person or 
persons as he or they shall nominate and appoint, and to such uses as he or 
they shall direct, a good and sufficient assignment of all such estate and 
interest as he, the said Chas. Curtman, now has in the lands and tene¬ 
ments of John Thompson at Washington, Mo., then this obligation to be 
void; otherwise to remain in full.force. 

Sealed and delivered 1 Chas. Curtman. [l.s.] 

in presence of > 

Sol. Winston. ) 



\ 






\ 


























EVERAL persons joining together for 
the accomplishment of any business 
or social purpose can, if they wish, 
legally organize themselves into a cor¬ 
poration, a form of partnership which com¬ 
bines the resources of all, and yet gives a 
limited pecuniary liability, amounting only to 
the amount of stock owned by each stock¬ 
holder. In the States, the legislature of each 
Commonwealth enjoys the power of regulating 
the corporations, and in the Territories this 
power is, of course, vested in the General 
Government. The actual cost of organization 
amounts to something less than $10, most of 
which is in fees to the Secretary of State. 
When the stock has been subscribed a meeting 
is called, where each shareholder casts a vote 
for every share which he owns or holds a 
proxy for, for each person who is to be elected 
director, or he may give one director as many 
votes as the number of shares he is voting, 
multiplied by the number of directors to be 
elected, amounts to, or distribute his votes as 
he chooses. Thus, if he owns ten shares of 
stock and there are six directors to be elected, 
he has sixty votes, which he can give, either 
ten for each director, or twenty for each of 
three, or sixty for one, or in any other way 
that he sees fit, so that his whole vote will not 
be more than sixty votes. These directors 
meet as soon after the election as possible and 
choose a president, vice-president, secretary 




and treasurer, whereupon the corporation is 
ready for business. 


FORMS FOR INCORPORATING. 

The law in all the States on the subject of 
incorporating companies is very similar, and 
the following forms of the Milwaukee Water 
Gas Company will furnish a good example of 
how this important public act is accomplished: 


STATE OF WISCONSIN, I 
City of Milwaukee. ( 

To -, Secretary of State : 

We, the undersigned, John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James 
Bell, John O’Neil, propose to form a corporation under an act of the Gen¬ 
eral Assembly of the State of Wisconsin, entitled “ An act concerning cor¬ 
porations,” approved May 24th, 1880, and all acts amendatory thereof, and 
that, for the purpose of such organization, we hereby state as follows, to- 
wit: 

The name of such corporation is Milwaukee Water Gas Company. 

The object for which it is formed is to carry on the business of manu¬ 
facturing water gas, or hydrogen, and to sell the product so manufactured. 

The capital stock shall be five hundred thousand ($500,000) dollars, 
divided into five thousand shares of one hundred dollars each. 

John Smith. 

John Jones. 

Charles Ford. 

James Bell. 

John O’Neil. 

(Endorsed on the back by the notary.) 

STATE OF WISCONSIN, I 
City of Milwaukee. f 

I, a notary public, in and for the said city of Milwaukee, and State 
aforesaid, do hereby certify that on this 30th of November, A.D. 1880, 1 
personally appeared before me John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, 
James Bell, John O’Neil, to me personally known to be the same persons 
who executed the foregoing statement, and severally acknowledged that 
they executed the same for the purposes therein set forth. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, the day and 

year above written. -, 

Notary Public. 


Also, there must be a further endorsement describing, the nature of 
the corporation thus: Statement of incorporation of the Milwaukee Water 
Gas Co. Location, City of Milwaukee, State of Wisconsin, Capital 
stock, $500,000. Object, manufacture of water gas. 


-H 




I 


( 5 ~ 


o 















































CORPORATIONS. 


State License for Incorporating. 

STATE OF WISCONSIN, ) c , , c , , 

Department of State. f Secretary of State. 

To all to whom these presents shall come—Greeting : 

Whereas, It being proposed by the persons hereinafter named to 
form a corporation under an act of the General Assembly of the State of 
Wisconsin, entitled “An act concerning corporations,” approved May 
24th, 1880, the object and purposes of which corporation are set forth in a 
statement duly signed and acknowledged according to law, and filed this 
day in the office of the Secretary of State. 

Now, therefore, I,-, Secretary of State of the State of Wisconsin, 

by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby author¬ 
ize, empower and license John Smith, John Jones, Charles Ford, James 
Hell and John O’Neil, the persons whose names are signed to the 
before mentioned statement, as commissioners to open books for subscrip¬ 
tion to the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Co., such being the 
name of the proposed corporation as contained in the said statement, at 
such times and places as the said commissioners may determine. 

In testimony whereof, I hereto set my hand and 
cause to be affixed the great seal of State. 
, ——a-— . Done at the city of Madison, this 6th day 

J great ^ of December, in the year of our Lord one 

| seal. 1 thousand eight hundred and eighty-one, and 

' '—y—' ' of the Independence of the United States 

the one hundred and sixth. 

t 

Secretary of State. 

To-, 

Secretary of State: 

The commissioners duly authorized to open books of subscription to 
the capital stock of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, pursuant to 
license heretofore issued, bearing date of the sixth day of December, A. 
D. 1881, do hereby report that they opened books of subscription to the 
capital stock of the said company, and that the said stock was fully sub¬ 
scribed ; that the following is a true copy of such subscription, viz.: We, 
the undersigned, hereby severally subscribe for the number of shares 
set opposite our respective names to the capital stock of the Milwaukee 
Water Gas Company, and we severally agree to pay the said company on 
each share the sum of one hundred dollars. 

SHARES. AMOUNT. 

John Smith. 1,000 $100,000 

John Jones.-. 1,000 100,000 

Chas. Ford. 1,000 100,000 

James Hell. 1,000 100,000 

John O’Neill.. 1,000 100,000 

S,ooo $500,000 


That said subscribers met at the time and place specified and pro¬ 
ceeded to elect directors, and that the following persons were duly elected 
for the term of one year : John Smith, John Jones, Chas. Ford, James 
Bell, John O’Neil. 

(Signed) John Smith. 

John Jones. 

Chas. Ford. 

James Bell. 

John O’Neil. 

When this document, properly endorsed, is sent to the Secretary of. 
State, he at once issues a charter to the corporation, which reads as 
follows: 


STATE OF WISCONSIN, » 
Dept, of State. f 


Secretary of State. 


To all to whom these presents shall come — Greeting: 

Whereas, A statement duly signed and acknowledged nas been filed 
in the office of the Secretary of State on the 30th day of November, 1881, 
for the organization of the Milwaukee Water Gas Company, under and 
in accordance with the provisions of “An act concerning corporations,” 
approved May 24, 1880, and in force July 1, 1880, and all acts amenda¬ 
tory thereof, a copy of which statement is hereto attached ; and 

Whereas, A license having been issued to John Smith, John Jones, 
Charles Ford, James Bell, John O’Neil, as commissioners, to open books 
for subscription to the capital stock of said company ; and 

Whereas, The said commissioners having, on the 20th day of Decem¬ 
ber, A.D. 1881, filed in the office of the Secretary of State a report of 
their proceedings under the said license, a copy of which report is hereto 
attached ; 

Now, therefore, I, -, Secretary of State of the State of Wiscon¬ 

sin, by virtue of the powers and duties vested in me by law, do hereby 
certify that the said Milwaukee Water Gas Company is a legally organ¬ 
ized corporation under the laws of this State. 

In testimony whereof, I hereby set my hand and cause 
to be affixed the great seal of State. Done at the 
city of Madison this 10th day of January, in the year 
of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty- 
two, and of the Independence of the United States 
the one hundred and seventh. 



Secretary of State. 



/ 














































•V <2 



(Hoco i<& (Umru§>f?errec|, ©J\ fuff* dlofTeefion of? iJorrqi& aqb 

Moiled of? (®> on^e^/anee^. 



iQ,Mf{\ DEED is defined as an instrument of 
\ /. \ j writing by which lands, houses, and 
jf|vAV other appurtenances thereon, are con¬ 
veyed by one person to another. This 
paper is signed, sealed and properly delivered. 
It must be executed by persons competent to 
contract, and may be either written or printed 
on parchment or paper. An acknowledgment 
of a deed can only be made before certain 
parties, differing in certain States, but includ¬ 
ing justices of the peace, notaries, masters in 
chancery, judges and clerks of courts, mayors 
of cities, commissioners of deeds, and others 
hardly necessary to specify here. That a deed 
may be valid, there must be a realty to grant, 
and a sufficient consideration. To legally con¬ 
vey property a man or woman must be of sane 
mind, of legal age, and the rightful owner of 
the property. The grantor is the person who 
makes the deed, and the grantee is the person 
to whom the deed is delivered. In the absence 
of any statute regulating the same, the wife of 
the grantor must acknowledge the deed ; other¬ 
wise, after the death of her husband, she will 
be entitled to a one-third interest in the prop¬ 
erty during her life. This acknowledgment 
must be of her own free will and accord, and 
the officer before whom the acknowledgment 
is taken must sign his name as a witness 
to the fact that no compulsion was used in 


securing her consent. Too much care cannot 
be used in seeing that the deed is properly 
acknowledged, witnessed and sealed. Upon its 
delivery to the person authorized to receive 
it the deed takes effect. 

When alterations or interlineations are 
made in the body of the instrument, they 
should be noted at the bottom and witnessed, 
but after the acknowledgment of the deed no 
person has the right to make the slightest 
alteration. Any such alteration in favor of the 
grantee vitiates the deed. When a general 
warranty deed is given, the grantor agrees to 
warrant and defend the property conveyed 
against all persons whatsoever. A quit-claim 
deed releases what interest the grantor may 
have in the land, but does not warrant and 
defend against others. Upon delivery, deeds 
should at once be recorded in the recorder’s 
office. 

Chancellor Kent’s Deed. 

This form is given by Chancellor Kent as sufficient to convey an abso¬ 
lute fee in any part of the United States. 

I, F. H. Hill, in consideration of three thousand dollars, to me paid 
by John F. Waite, do bargain and sell to John F. Waite (and his heirs) 
the lot of land (bounded or described), etc. 

Witness my hand and seal, etc. 


Short Deed in California. 


I, W. B. Baird, grant to D. D. Parsons all that real property situated 
in El Dorado county, in the State of California, bounded (or described) 
as follows: 

Witness my hand this-day of-. 1 

W. B. Baird. 





































































416 


ABSTRACT OF TITLE. 


Short Form in Indiana. 

Enos Baldwin conveys and warrants to William Green (description 
of the premises) for the sum of four thousand dollars. 

Witness my hand and seal this-day of-. 

Enos Baldwin, [l.s.] 

Short Form Used in Virginia and Texas. 

M. F. Crenshaw doth bargain, sell and grant unto W. H. Cavanagh 
all (here /allows the description of the real estate conveyed). 

Witness the following signature and seal. 

M. F. Crenshaw, [l.s.] 

Short Form Warranty Deed with Full Covenants. 

This conveyance, made this 10th day of May, by C. S. Smith, of 
Beloit, Wis., to Wm. Evans, of Lansing, Mich., witnesseth: 

That in consideration of (state what), the said Smith doth with the 
said Evans bargain, sell and grant, all, etc. (here describe the property, 
and add whatever covenants, conditions, restrictions, limitations, 
etc., agreed upon). 

And the said Smith covenants, That he has the right to convey said 
land to the grantee; that the same is free from all encumbrances; that the 
grantee shall have quiet possession of said land; that he will execute 
such further assurances of said lands as shall be requisite; and that he 
will warrant generally (or specially) the property hereby conveyed. 

Witness the following signature and seal, etc. 

General Form of Warranty Deed. 

Know all men by these presents: That I, J. A. Yarbro, of Tipton 
county, in the State of Tennessee, have this 15th day of October, for and 
in consideration of the sum of three thousand dollars, to me in hand 
paid, granted, bargained and sold, and by these presents do grant, 
bargain, sell and convey unto J. B. Coals, of the same place, the following 
described tract or parcel of land, situate in the county of Shelby, in the 
State of Tennessee, that is to say (here /allows the description). 

To have and to hold the premises hereby conveyed, with all the rights, 
privileges and appurtenances thereto belonging, or in anywise appertain¬ 
ing, unto the said Coals, his heirs and assigns, forever. 


And I, the said Yarbro, hereby covenant to and with the said Coals, 
his heirs and assigns, for myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, 
to warrant and defend the title to the premises hereby conveyed against 
the claim of every person whomsoever. * * 

In Witness Whereo/, I have hereunto subscribed my name and affixed 
my seal, this-day of-. J. A. Yarbro. [l.s.] 

Quit-Claim Deed. 

Know all men by these presents: That we, W. H. Cooley, of 
Council Bluffs, la., and Mary E., wife of the said Cooley, in consideration 

of the sum of-, to us in hand paid by Charles Chapman, of Hastings, 

Neb., the receipt whereof we do hereby acknowledge, have bargained, 
sold and quit-claimed, and by these presents do bargain, sell and quit¬ 
claim unto the said Chapman, and to his heirs and assigns forever, all our 
and each of our right, title, interest, estate, claim and demand, both at 
law and in equity, and as well in possession as in expectancy of, in and 
to all that certain piece or parcel of land situate, etc. (give description), 
with all and singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto 
belonging. 

In witness whereo/, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the 
day and year first above written. 

Signed, sealed and delivered, etc. 

W. H. Cooley. [l.s.] 
Mary E. Cooley, [l.s.] 

Short Form of Trust Deed. 

This conveyance, made this-day of-, witnesseth: 

That Thomas Pritchard, of Mills county, in the State of Iowa, conveys 
(and warrants) to N. W. Coleman, of Decatur county, in the State of 

Iowa, for the sum of-dollars, all the following described real estate, 

situated in the county of Fremont and State of Iowa, to wit: (here /al¬ 
lows the description). 

In trust, nevertheless, for the following purposes, to-wit: (here set 
/orth the objects and purposes to be ej/ected). 

In witness whereo/, said parties have hereunto set their hands, the 
day and year first above written. (Signed) Thomas Pritchard. 

N. \V. Coleman. 



“SSl/S?"---—■—'>s5V9»° 



°W^BSTRACTS OF TITLE are brief ac- 
ypvr counts of all the deeds upon which 

m 


til kAv titles rest, and judgments and instru 


ments affecting such titles — synopses 
of the distinctive portions of the various in¬ 
struments which constitute the muniments of 
title. 

The evidences of title are usually convey¬ 
ances, wills, orders or decrees of courts, judg¬ 
ments, judicial sales, sales by officers appointed 


/ 


by law, acts of the Legislature and of Congress. 

Conveyances. The abstract of convey¬ 
ances should show : 

1. Date. 

2. Character ( ivhcthcr an absolute or condi¬ 
tional conveyance; as, in fee , mortgage, or a 
lease). 

3. Names and residence of parties, and of 
executors, administrators, guardians, trustees, 
corporations, officers, or the like. 















































. 


ABSTRACT OF TITLE. 


4. All recitals which materially affect the title. 

5. The testatum clause. This part of the 
conveyance embraces : 

1. Name of grantor. 2. Name of grantee 
and words of limitation ; as to “ C. D., his 
heirs and assigns,” or, to “ C. D. and his as¬ 
signs,” or, to “ C. D. and E. F., and the heirs 
of C. D. ” 3. The consideration. 4. The 

description of the premises or parcels. This is 
generally done by giving the premises at large 
in the abstract of the first conveyance, and in 
subsequent conveyances to note each variation. 
5. The habendum — carefully and accurately 
stated. 6. The declaration of uses, trusts, 
limitations, or special agreements, if any. 7. 
Powers. If a settlement is made in pursuance 
of articles, or an appointment by virtue of a 
power, an inspection should be made of the 
articles of power. A deed executed by attor¬ 
ney should be produced with evidence that 
the power of attorney was recorded, and that 
the principal was alive when the deed was exe¬ 
cuted. 8. Covenants which may affect the 
vendee, and especially exceptions against en¬ 
cumbrances. 9. By what parties the deed is 
executed, the fact of signing, sealing, attesta¬ 
tion and acknowledgment and recording, as 
required by statute. 

If any of the deeds in the chain of title are 
quit-claim, the reason therefor should be as¬ 
certained. 

Wills. In abstracting wills it is necessary 
to consider : 

1. The date of the testator’s death. 

2. The court in which the probate is made. 
The date of letters testamentary, and any 
change in the executors or administrators, by 
death, removal, or otherwise. 

3. Any charge imposed by the payment of 
debts, legacies, etc. 

4. The persons to whom the lands are de¬ 
vised. 

5. Words of limitation, modification, condi¬ 
tions, charges on the devisee, etc. 


7 

417 


6. Facts which operate a partial revocation 
of the will ; as the birth of a child, or the sub¬ 
sequent alteration of the estate inconsistent 
with the terms of the will. 

Codicils should be given in the order of their 
dates. 

Orders or Decrees. Orders or decrees 
material to the title should be abstracted. 

Judgments. A party claiming title to real 
estate under an execution must show : 

1. A valid judgment. 

2. A levy and sale as required by law. 

3. A deed. The sheriff’s deed must, in gen¬ 
eral, recite the substance of the execution, the 
names of the parties, the action, the amount, 
and the date of the rendition of the judgment 
by virtue of which the estate was sold, and be 
executed and acknowledged as required by 
law. 

Judicial sales made by officers, executors, 
administrators, guardians of minors, lunatics, 
etc.— 

1. Must be examined for the appointment 
and authority of the person making the sale, 
and whether his authority continued in force 
till the sale. 

2. The service of summons, notice, or other 
process, upon all defendants, or persons inter¬ 
ested. 

3. The appointment of guardians ad litem 
for minors when necessary. 

4. The order of sale and its confirmation. 

5. The deed. 

Other sales include those by assignees or 
commissioners of insolvents, or assignees of 
bankrupts and tax sales. In the latter case, 
the proper records should be examined with 
the utmost care, in order to detect any omis¬ 
sion or defect in compliance with all the requi¬ 
sitions of the statute ; in the former case, the 
leading points are the authority of the assignee, 
etc., the order of sale and its confirmation, 
and the deed. 




























418 


GUARANTY. 


Acts of the Legislature maybe consid¬ 
ered in the same manner as private convey¬ 
ances. The abstract should show : 

1. The date of the act. 

2. The title of the act. 

3. The recitals of the act. 

4. The enacting clause in its own terms. 

5. A strict compliance with the terms of the 
act. 

Titles by Descent. In the absence of 
deeds pedigree should be ascertained, authen¬ 
ticated and incorporated. 

ENCUMBRANCES. Encumbrances mavbe as 

* 

follows : 

1. Judgments in the county where the land 
lies. 

2. Judgments in the United States courts. 

3. Executions from other counties. 


4. Mortgages. 

5. Liens of the creditors of deceased per¬ 
sons. 

6. Dower. 

7. Decrees in chancery. 

8. Action pending. 

9. Taxes. 

10. Mechanics’ liens. 

11. Lien of executor, administrator, guar¬ 
dian, or agent, who pays taxes upon the estate. 

12. Leases. 

13. Equity of a vendee in possession. 

14. Lien of a vendor for purchase-money. 

15. Caveats in case of a contested will. 

16. Rents assigned in lieu of dower. 

17. The levy of a distress warrant upon the 
property of certain debtors of the United 
States. 






•A V 


Gciacan: 





GUARANTY is an assurance made by 
a second party that his principal will 
. / / \ • perform some specific act. For in- 
stance, “A” gives “B” a note, and “C” 
by endorsing the instrument guarantees to 
“ B ” that “ A ” will pay it at maturity. “ C ” 
is the guarantor. His liability is special, and 
if “ B ” renews the note when it becomes due, 
then he is no longer liable. A guaranty for 
collection is a very different thing from a guar¬ 
anty of payment. The first warrants that the 
money is collectible; the latter, that it will be 
paid at maturity. In the first case the party 
guaranteed must be able to prove that due 
diligence was employed in attempting to col¬ 
lect the money; in the second, no such proof 
is necessary. The only form necessary in 
guaranteeing a note is writing one’s name across 




the back of it, a process commonly called 
endorsing. 

Guaranty of a Note. 

For value received, I guarantee the due payment of a promissory note, 
dated October 8, 1883, whereby John Paxson promises to pay George 
Andrews eighty dollars in three months. 

St. Louis, October 10, 1883. Peter Faber. 

General Guaranty. 

I hereby guarantee payment to any person who shall accept and retain 
this instrument as a guaranty, for all goods which he may from time to 
time supply to Eugene Parsons, not exceeding at any time the sum of 
five hundred dollars, this to be a continuing guaranty till specially 
revoked. Notice to be given me within ten days after its acceptance. 

St. Louis, September 8, 1S83. Darby Conger. 

Extension of Time. 

In consideration that George Andrews gives to John Paxson ad¬ 
ditional time to the extent of one month for payment of the indebtedness 
due him from said John Paxson guaranteed by me, I hereby continue my 
guaranty for due payment thereof. 

January 8, 1884. Peter Faber. 

Guaranty of Fidelity. 

In consideration of the performance of the agreements and convenants 
specified in the within agreement by M. M., with my son, A. A., I do hereby 
bind myself to said M. M. for the true and faithful observation and per¬ 
formance of all the matters and things by said A. A. agreed and cov¬ 
enanted therein, and that he shall well and truly serve said M. M. 

Witness my hand this-day of-, A.D. -. P. A. 


























































LANDLORD AND TENANT. 


419 



LEASE is a contract for the possession 
and enjoyment of real estate on one 
hand, and for the payment of rent or 
other income on the other. A land¬ 
lord is one who holds lands and houses which 
he lets out to others. A tenant is one who 
has temporary use of real estate belonging to 
another, the duration and terms of his occu¬ 
pancy being defined in the lease. In this 
instrument no particular form of words is 
necessary ; but it is important that all the 
conditions be plainly set forth, so that no 
misunderstanding can ensue. 

Verbal promises amount to nothing ; the law ( 
only considers what the lease states, so that 
the importance of clearness and comprehen¬ 
siveness in this document is apparent. 

Unless expressly prohibited by the lease, 
the lessor can sublet any part of the property 
acquired by the lease, or the whole of it. 

A married woman cannot lease her prop¬ 
erty, under the common law ; but under the 
statute, in many of the States, this prohibi¬ 
tion is removed, as will be found by consult¬ 
ing the section devoted to the rights of married 
women. A husband cannot make a lease 
which will bind his wife’s property after his 
death; even the common law terminates his 
control with his life. A guardian cannot 
give a lease extending beyond the ward s 
majority which the ward cannot annul, if he 


wishes. But if the ward does not annul the 
lease, the lessee is bound by it. 

When no time is specified in a lease, it is 
understood to run for one year. A tenancy 
at will is terminable by notice given from one 
month to six months, in advance, according 
to the peculiar statute of the State in which 
the property exists. In the Eastern States a 
written notice of three months is the general 
custom; in the Middle and Southern States, 
six months, and in the Western States, one 
month. 

The phrase “ a term of years ” is construed 
to mean at least two years when the figure is 
not given. 

Leases on mortgaged property, whereon the 
mortgage was given prior to the lease, termi¬ 
nate when the mortgage is foreclosed. 

When the landlord accepts a substitute, that 
fact relieves the first tenant. If the tenant is 
to pay the taxes on the property, that fact 
must be specified. 

There are a great many special features of 
the law of landlord and tenant in relation to 
agricultural tenancy, which the reader will do 
well to read carefully. 

Generally an outgoing tenant cannot sell 
or take away the manure. A tenant whose 
estate has terminated by an uncertain event 
which he could neither foresee nor control is 
entitled to the annual crop which he sowed 


















































420 


LANDLORD AND TENANT. 


while his estate continued, by the law of em¬ 
blements. He may also, in certain cases, take 
the emblements or annual profits of the land 
after his tenancy has ended, and, unless 
restricted by some stipulation to the contrary, 
may remove such fixtures as he has erected 
during his occupation for convenience, profit 
or comfort. For, in general, what a tenant has 
added he may remove, if he can do so with¬ 
out injury to the premises, unless he has 
actually built it in so as to make it an integral 
part of what was there originally. 

The immovable fixtures are the following : 
Agricultural erections. Fold-yard walls, cart 
house, barns fixed in the ground, beast house, 
carpenter shop, fuel house, pigeon house, 
pineries substantially fixed, wagon house, 
box borders not belonging to a gardener by 
trade, flowers, trees, hedges. Ale-house 
bar, dressers, partitions. Locks and keys. 
Benches affixed to the house. Statue erected 
as an ornament to grounds, sun-dial. Chim¬ 
ney piece not ornamental. Closets affixed to 
the house. Conduits. Conservatory, sub¬ 
stantially affixed. Doors. Fruit trees, if a 
tenant be not a nurseryman by trade. Glass 
windows. Hearths. Millstones. Looms sub¬ 
stantially affixed to the floor of a factory. 
Thrashing-machines fixed by bolts and screws 
to posts let into the ground. 

Short Form of Lease. 

John Parks leases to George Drake (description of premises), fora 
term of-, upon the payment of-. 

Dated the ist day of May, 1883. John Parks. 

Common Form of Lease. 

This Instrument, Made the ist day of May, 1883, Witnessetk, That 
Dominic Holden, of the city of St. Louis, State of Missouri, hath rented 
from William Hicks, of St. Louis, aforesaid, the dwelling and lot 82 
Chouteau Avenue, situated in said town of St. Louis, for five years from 
the above date, at the yearly rental three hundred dollars, payable 
monthly, on the first day of each month, in advance, at the residence of 
the said William Hicks. 

At the expiration of said above mentioned term, the said Holden 
agrees to give the said Hicks peaceable possession of said dwelling, in as 
good condition as when taken, ordinary wear and casualties excepted. 

In witness whereof, we place our hands and seals the day and year 
aforesaid. 

Signed, sealed and delivered Dominic Holden, [l.s.] 

in presence of 

John Doghertv, William Hicks. [l.s.] 

Notary Public. _ 


Lease of Farm and Buildings. 

This Indenture, Made this ninth day of June, one thousand eight 
hundred and eighty-two, between Raymond Johnston, of the township of 
Lake, county of Ripley, and State of Missouri, of the first part, and 
Anson Lee, of the said township and county, of the second part, 

Witnessetk, That the said Raymond Johnston, for and in consider¬ 
ation of the yearly rents and covenants hereinafter mentioned, and re¬ 
served on the part and behalf of the said Raymond Johnston, his heirs, 
executors and administrators, to be paid, kept and performed, hath 
demised, set and to farm let, and by these presents doth demise, set and 
to farm let, unto the said Anson Lee, his heirs and assigns, all that certain 
piece, parcel or tract of land situate, lying and being in the township of 
Lake aforesaid, known as lot No. (description of farm here), now in the 
possession of Joel Hancoe, containing one thousand acres, together with 
all and singular the buildings and improvements, to have and to hold the 
same unto the said Anson Lee, his heirs, executors and assigns, from the 
first day of July next, for and during the term of seven years thence, 
next ensuing, and fully to be complete and ended, yielding and paying 
for the same, unto the said Raymond Johnston, his heirs and assigns, the 
yearly rent, or sum of two thousand dollars, on the first day of July in 
each and every year, during the term aforesaid, and at the expiration of 
said term, or sooner if determined upon, he, the said Anson Lee, his 
heirs or assigns, shall and will quietly and peaceably surrender and 
yield up the said demised premises, with the appurtenances, unto the said 
Raymond Johnston, his heirs and assigns, in as good order and repair 
as the same now are, reasonable wear, tear and casualties, which may 
happen by fire, or otherwise, only excepted. 

In witness whereof, we have hereto set our hands and seals. 

Signed, sealed and delivered I Raymond Johnson, [l.s.] 

in the presence of l Anson Lee [ l , s .] 

Joseph Jarley. I 

Lease of a Mill. 

This Agreement, Made this first day of January, between George 
Bain, of St. Louis, Mo., in St. Louis county, and State of Missouri, of the 
first part, and James Meek, of Marissa, in St. Clair County, and State of 
Illinois, of the second part, witnesseth : 

That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the 
rents, covenants and agreements hereinafter mentioned, reserved and 
contained, on the part and behalf of the party of the second part, his 
executors, administrators and assigns, to be paid, kept and performed, doth 
lease the mill property of the party of the first part, being one of the mills 
known and designated as the Atlantic Mills, in the city of St. Louis, 
together with all the machinery now in the same belonging to the said party 
of the first part, and all stoves, boilers, fixtures, heaters and machinery, 
and every article now in the said mill which appertains to the same, and is 
necessary to its successful operation; and also all the dwellings and store¬ 
houses used in connection with said mill, which now belong to said party 
of the first part. 

And the said party of the first part further agrees to pay all taxes and 
insurances on said premises, and to furnish water-power, water-wheels, 
main-shafting and gearing sufficient at all times to keep in constant and 
full operation said mill, and all the running works of the same, and all 
machinery driven by water-power now in said mill. 

And the said party of the first part further agrees to secure to the 
said party of the second part the quiet and peaceable possession of all and 
every part of said premises, machinery and tools, and all grounds apper¬ 
taining to said mill, and all passage-ways to and from the same which are 
now used and may be necessary for the accommodation of the same, for 
five years from the first day of April next. 

It is mutually understood and agreed between the parties hereto, that 
in case said mill should be necessarily stopped from casualty, or in case 
there shall be a want of or failure of water-power, the rent above men¬ 
tioned to be paid shall cease, and not be chargeable during the continu¬ 
ation of such stoppage, want or failure. 

In witness whereof, etc. 

Landlord’s Agreement. 

This is to certify that I have this first day of May, 1883, let and rented 
unto Dominic Holden my house and lot known as number 82 Chouteau 





























■K 


RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 


421 


Avenue, in the city of St. Louis, Missouri, with the appurtenances and 
sole and uninterrupted use thereof for five years, to commence on the first 
day of June next, at the yearly rental of three hundred dollars, payable 
monthly in advance on the first day of each and every month. 

William Hicks. 

Tenant’s Agreement. 

This certifies that I have hired and taken from William Hicks his 
house and lot, number 82 Chouteau Avenue, in the city of St. Louis, Mis¬ 
souri, with appurtenances thereto belonging, for five years, to commence 
on the first day of June, 1883, at a yearly rental of three hundred dollars, 
to be paid monthly in advance. 

Dominic Holden. 


Notice to Quit. 

To Charles Egan : 

Sir : Please observe that the term of one year for which the house 
and land at No. 380 Walnut Street, and now occupied by you, were rented 
to you, expired on the first day of June, 1883, and as I desire to repossess 
said premises, you are hereby requested and required to vacate the same. 

Respectfully yours, 

St. Louis, June 8, 1883. Amos Norton. 

Tenant’s Notice of Leaving. 

Mr. A mos Norton : 

Take notice that I shall, on the first day of May next, deliver up to you 
the premises I now occupy as your tenant, known as No. 380 Walnut 
Street, in the city of St. Louis. Charles Egan. 

St. Louis, April 1, 1883. 





Ri^tj • of • Ola med -Women 




HE common law of the United States 
has some curious provisions regard¬ 
ing the rights of married women, 
though in all the States there are statu¬ 


tory provisions essentially modifying this law. 
As it now stands the husband is responsible 
for necessaries supplied to the wife even should 
he not fail to supply them himself, and is held 
liable if he turn her from his house, or other¬ 
wise separates himself from her without good 
cause. He is not held liable if the wife 
deserts him, or if he turns her away for good 
cause. If she leaves him through good cause, 
then he is liable. If a man lives with a 
woman as his wife, and so represents her, even 
though this representation is made to one who 
knows she is not, he is liable the same way as 
if she were his wife. 


In many of the States ante - marriage con¬ 
tracts are recognized, and they will secure to 
married women even greater privileges than 
are intended to be secured by statute, or 
greater powers and rights may be secured by 
transferring the property owned by them to 
trustees. Such instrument should clearly set 


forth what the trust is, and should be care¬ 
fully drawn. 

When estates are to be settled where the 
widow is entitled to a dower interest, some 
definite calculation is necessary to learn how 
long she will probably live and the present 
value of her interest in the estate. For this 
purpose the following table is generally used. 
When the sum is ascertained the estate can be 
promptly settled. 


Expectation of Life. 


’> 

cn 

a > 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

> 

crq 

0 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

> 

Qrq 

0 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

> 

crq 

0 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

> 

crq 

0 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

0 

28.15 

20 

34.22 

40 

26.04 

60 

15-45 

80 

5.85 

1 

36.78 

21 

33-84 

41 

25.61 

61 

14.86 

81 

5.50 

2 

38.74 

22 

3346 

42 

25-19 

62 

14.26 

82 

5.16 

3 

40.01 

23 

33-° 8 

43 

24.77 

63 

13.66 

83 

4.87 

4 

40-73 

24 

32.70 

44 

24-35 

64 

i3-°5 

84 

4.66 

s 

40.88 

25 

32-33 

45 

23.92 

65 

12.43 


4-57 

6 

40.69 

26 

3i-93 

46 

23-37 

66 

11.96 

86 

4.21 

7 

40.47 

27 

31-5° 

47 

22.83 

67 

11.48 

87 

3-9° 

8 

40.14 

28 

31.08 

48 

22.27 

68 

II.OI 

88 

3-67 

9 

39-72 

29 

30.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

IO. 50 

89 

3-56 

IO 

39-23 

3° 

30.25 

50 

21.17 

7° 

10.06 

90 

3-43 

II 

38.64 

31 

29.83 

51 

20 . 6 l 

7 1 

9.60 

9 i 

3-32 

12 

38.02 

32 

29-43 

52 

20.05 

72 

9.14 

92 

3.12 

13 

37-41 

33 

29.02 

53 

19.49 

73 

8.69 

93 

2.40 

14 

3^-79 

34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.25 

94 

1.98 

15 

36.17 

35 

28.22 

55 

18.35 

75 

7.83 

95 

1.62 

l6 

3 S -76 

36 

27.78 

56 

17.78 

76 

7.40 



17 

35-37 

37 

27-34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.99 



18 

34-98 

38 

26.91 

58 

16.63 

78 

6-59 



19 

34-59 

39 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

79 

6.21 




























































422 


REAL ESTATE MORTGAGES. 



Real v Estate vOlopt^afe ^ 


J-5>.^ 




IH^ CONVEYANCE of property, either 
real or personal, made in order to 
b secure payment of a debt, is called 
a mortgage. When the debt is paid 
the mortgage becomes void and of no value. 
The word, like many others of our legal 
terms, comes from the 
French. “ Mort,” dead, 
and “ gage,” pledge; 
a “ dead-pledge,” so 
called because the 
property is dead to 
the mortgageor unless 
he fulfils the condi¬ 
tions necessary to re¬ 
deem it. In real estate 
mortgages the person 
giving the mortgage 
retains possession of 
the property, receives 
all the rents and other 
profits, and pays all 
taxes and other ex¬ 
penses. The instru¬ 
ment must be acknowl¬ 
edged, like a deed, 
before a proper public 
officer, and recorded 
in the office of the county clerk or recorder, 
or whatever officer’s duty it is to record such 
instruments. All mortgages must be in writ¬ 
ing. They must contain a redemption clause 



How the Mortgage Generally Terminates. 


and must be signed and sealed. The time 
when the debt becomes due, to secure which 
the mortgage is given, must be plainly set 
forth, and the property conveyed must be 
clearly described, located and scheduled. 

Some mortgages contain a clause permit¬ 
ting the sale of the 
property without de¬ 
cree of court when a 
default is made in the 
payment either of the 
principal sum or the 
interest. 

A foreclosure is a 
statement that the 
property is forfeited 
and must be sold. 

When a mortgage is 
assigned to another 
person, it must be for 
a valuable considera¬ 
tion ; and the note or 
notes which it was 
given to secure must 
be given at the same 
time. 

If the mortgaged 
property, when fore 
closed and brought to sale, brings more money 
than is needed to satisfy the debt, interest and 
costs, the surplus must be paid to the mort¬ 
gageor. 


\ 












































































"71 


REAL ESTATE MORTGAGES. 


423 


Satisfaction of mortgages upon real or per¬ 
sonal property may be either— 

1. By an entry upon the margin of the rec¬ 
ord thereof, signed by the mortgagee or his 
attorney, assignee or personal representative, 
acknowledging the satisfaction of the mort¬ 
gage, in the presence of the recording officer; 
or — 

2. By a receipt endorsed upon the mortgage, 
signed by the mortgagee, his agent or attorney, 
which receipt may be entered upon the margin 
of the record ; &r — 

3. It may be discharged upon the record 
thereof whenever there is presented to the prop¬ 
er officer an instrument acknowledging the sat¬ 
isfaction of such mortgage, executed by the 
mortgagee, his duly authorized attorney in 
fact, assignee or personal representative, and 
acknowledged in the same manner as other 
instruments affecting real estate. 

Mortgages of personal property will be found 
set forth at length under the head of Chattel 
Mortgages. 

Promissory Note Secured by Mortgage. 

$1,000. Lansing, Mich., Dec. 1st, 1883. 

One year after date I promise to pay to S. H. Moore one thousand 
dollars at the First National Rank of Lansing, Mich., with interest at 
the rate of ten per cent per annum, for value received. 

This note is secured by a mortgage of even date herewith, on a cer¬ 
tain tract or parcel of land situate ( describe the premises). 

(Signed) R. S Marsh. 

Mortgage to Secure Payment of Money, with Power to 
Sell on Default. 

This Indenture, Made this 20th day of Jan’y, A.D. 1884, between 
John Stanton, of Norwich, Conn., of the first part, and Lyman Randall, 
of the same place, of the second part, witnesseth: 

That the said party of the first part, for and in consideration of the 
sum of six thousand dollars, does grant, bargain, sell and convey unto 
the said party of the second part, and to his heirs and assigns, all (give a 
complete description 0/ the premises mortgaged), together with all and 
singular the hereditaments and appurtenances thereunto belonging, or in 
anywise appertaining. 

This conveyance is intended as a mortgage, to secure the payment of 
the sum of-dollars, in-from the day of the date of these pres¬ 
ents, with - interest, according to the conditions of a certain bond, 

dated this day, executed by the said John Stanton to the said party of the 
second part; and these presents shall be void if such payment be made. 


But in case default shall be made in the payment of the principal or 
interest, as above provided, then the party of the second part, his execu¬ 
tors, administrators and assigns, are hereby empowered to sell the 
premises above described, with all and every of the appurtenances, or 
any part thereof, in the manner prescribed by law ; and out of the money 
arising from such sale, to retain the said principal and interest, together 
with the costs and charges of making such sale ; and the overplus, if any 
there be, shall be paid by the party making such sale, on demand, to the 
party of the first part, his heirs or assigns, etc. 

In witness whereof, said party of the first part has hereunto set his 
hand and seal the day and year first above written. 

Executed and delivered ) John Stanton, [l.s.] 

in presence of > 

U. S. Gardner. ) 


Assignment of Mortgage. 

Know all men by these presents ; That I, C. D., of-, in - 

county. State of-, the mortgagee named in a certain mortgage given 

by A. B., of-, in-county, State of-, to said C. D., to secure the 

payment of-dollars and interest, dated the-day of-, recorded 

in volume -, on page -, of the registry of deeds for the county 

of-, in consideration of the sum of-dollars, to me paid by E. F., 

of-, in - county, State of-, the receipt of which is hereby 

acknowledged, do hereby sell, assign, transfer, set over and convey unto 
said E. F., his heirs and assigns, said mortgage and the real estate there¬ 
by conveyed, together with the promissory note, debt and claim thereby 
secured, and the covenants therein contained. 

To have and to hold the same to him, the said E. F., and his heirs and 
assigns, to his and their use and behoof, forever; subject, nevertheless, to 
the conditions therein contained (and to redemption according to law). 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand (and seal), this- 

day of-. 

Executed and delivered 1 [Signature.] [Seal.] 

in presence of 


Release or Discharge of Mortgage. 

This debt, secured by the mortgage dated the twenty-fifth day of Jan¬ 
uary, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty- 
three, and recorded with mortgage deeds volume two, page two hundred 
and six, has been paid to me by Martin Klotz, and in consideration thereof 
I do discharge the mortgage, and release the mortgaged premises to said 
Martin Klotz and his heirs. 

Witness my hand and seal, December 5th, 1883. 

Benjamin Eaton, [l.s.] 

Executed and delivered ' 
in presence of 
George Smith. 

CITY OF ST. LOUIS, I 

State of Missouri, t s ‘ s ' December 5th, A.D. 1883. 

The said Benjamin Eaton acknowledged the foregoing instrument to be 
his free act and will. Before me, 

Gordon Smith, 

Clerk of Circuit Court. 


Shortest Form of Mortgage. 

I, Joseph Smith, in consideration of five hundred dollars, to me paid 
by Finley Burke, do mortgage unto Finley Burke, and his heirs, the follow¬ 
ing tract of land (describe it). 

To secure the payment of (state what amounts, places, times, etc.) 

Joseph Smith, [l.s ] 


V 






I 



























424 


CHATTEL MORTGAGES. 


(J 


\ 



HATTEL mortgages are mortgages on 
'personal property. Most of the rules 



VU. 71 applicable to mortgages on real 
estate apply also to those on personal 
property, though in some States there are 
laws regulating personal mortgages. Any 
instrument will answer the purpose of a chat¬ 
tel mortgage which would answer as a bill of 
sale, with a clause attached providing for the 
avoidance of the mortgage when the debt is 
paid. As with real estate, so with a chattel 
mortgage, great care should be taken. 

A chattel mortgage will not cover property 
subsequently acquired by the mortgageor. 
Mortgages of personal property should con¬ 
tain a clause providing for the equity of 
redemption. A mortgagee may sell or trans¬ 
fer his mortgage to another party for a con¬ 
sideration, but such property cannot be seized 
or sold until the expiration of the period for 
which the mortgage was given. Mortgages 
given with intent to defraud creditors are void. 

Form of Chattel Mortgage. 

Know all men by these presents : That I, John Johnson, of the city 
of Chicago, in the county of Cook, and State of Illinois, am justly 


indebted unto James Lewis, of the same place, in the sum of-dollars, 

on account, to be paid on the-day of-, with interest from this date. 

Now, therefore, in consideration of such indebtedness, and in order to 
secure the payment of the same, as aforesaid, I do hereby sell, assign, 
transfer and set over unto the said James Lewis, his executors, adminis¬ 
trators and assigns, the goods and chattels mentioned in the schedule 
hereto annexed, and now at the residence No. 1410 Jackson Street, in the 
city of Chicago aforesaid. 

Provided, however, that if the said debt and interest be paid, as above 
specified, this sale and transfer shall be void; and this conveyance is also 
subject to the following conditions: 

The property hereby sold and transferred is to remain in my possession 
until default be made in the payment of the debt and interest aforesaid, 
or some part thereof; but in case of a sale or disposal, or attempt to sell" 
or dispose of the same, or a removal of or attempt to remove the same 
from said residence aforesaid, or an unreasonable depreciation in value 
(or if from any other cause the security shall become inadequate), the said 
James Lewis may take the said property, or any part thereof, into his own 
possession. 

Upon taking said property, or any part thereof, into his possession, 
either in case of default, or as above provided, the said James Lewis shall 
sell the same at public or private sale; and after satisfying the aforesaid 
debt and the interest thereon, and all necessary and reasonable costs, 
charges and expenses incurred by him, out of the proceeds of such sale, 
he shall return the surplus to me or my representative. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this- 

day of-. 

Executed in presence of) 

Wm. F. George. f 




John Johnson, [l.s.] 


Release and Satisfaction of Mortgage. 

Know all men by these presents : That the debt secured by mortgage 

upon the following described-property, situated in-, in- 

county, in the State of-, to wit: (describing it), wherein John 

Johnson is grantor, and James Lewis is grantee, and dated-, a- 

of which is-in volume-, page-, in the office of the (register or 

recorder) of deeds of-county, -, has been fully satisfied, in con¬ 

sideration of which said mortgage is hereby released. 

James Lewis. 

Witness: -. 



Y- 


-M 


c) 









































































































# 

?3 


J||HE purpose of all lien laws is to retain 
the possession of personal property in 
f the hands of the owners until it has 
been properly paid for. Without pos¬ 
session no lien is admitted at common law. It 
is a created right, for the benefit of mechanics, 
tavern-keepers, liverymen, pasturers and car¬ 
riers. Builders and persons furnishing mate¬ 
rial are given by statute a lien on both land 
and building, if their claim is made within the 
time named in the different statutes. These 
periods will be found, under their appropriate 
heads, in another chapter. No possession is 
necessary under this lien, and the right of re¬ 
demption is lost by the sale of the property 
under the lien. The surplus, of course, goes to 
the owner. Liens are foreclosed by order of 
court, upon petition duly made. Liens will 
lie against vessels and wharves as well as 


other buildings. 

When a mechanic desires to draw up a lien for 
the recovery of money due him for labor or ma¬ 
terial, the form given below will be found conve¬ 
nient. It is a statement addressed to the county 


clerk setting forth his bargain, the failure to 
receive his pay, and the fear that he will lose 
the money unless the lien be now made. This 
paper must be sworn to and filed in the county 
clerk’s office, and if it is not paid in a reason¬ 
able time the property will be sold for the debt. 
It does not make any difference if it is the con¬ 
tractor or the owner of the building who is in 
default. The mechanic has nothing to do with 
either of them—he holds the property itself for 
his money; and even if the owner has paid the 
contractor, who should have paid the laborer, 
the property will be sold unless the laborer is 
paid. 

Sub-Contractor’s or Workman’s Notice. 

To-——: 

You are hereby notified that I have been employed by-to (here 

state whether to labor or furnish material, and substantially the na¬ 
ture of the contract) upon your (here state the building, and where 
situated, in general terms); and that I shall hold the (building, or as 
the case may be) and your interest in the ground liable for the amount 
that (is or may become) due me on account thereof. 

* (Signature.) 

This notice, with a copy of the contract, if it can be obtained, shall be 
served within 40 days after payments should have been made. The owner 
may retain money due the contractor to pay such claims, and if there is 
not enough to pay them in full, he shall pay them pro rata. If such pay¬ 
ment shall not be made within ten days after the same may become due, 
suit may be brought to enforce it. 





0 

. 


Y- 



''"T;, WILL is an instrument of writing de- 
§M daring what a person desires to have 
y [ / \ • done with his property after his de- 
mise. Any one of lawful age and 
sound mind can make a valid will, although 
in some States during the lifetime of their 


husbands married women cannot do so. A 
will only becomes of force upon the death of 
the maker, and can be changed or modified at 
his pleasure until that event occurs. The last 
will annuls all previous ones, unless it be a 
codicil or amendment to a previous will. A 



























































EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS. 


K 


426 


great deal of latitude is allowed in the con¬ 
struction of a will. For instance, if the testa¬ 
tor marries after making a will, or has chil¬ 
dren subsequent to its date, it is supposed 
that he intended to change the disposition of 
his property, and the law accordingly will 
change it for him. Courts do not always re¬ 
quire written wills; sometimes what are called 
nuncupative wills are admitted to probate. 
These depend upon the testimony of witnesses, 
and are uncertain and dangerous. Many of 
the States will not admit nuncupative wills 
unless made within ten days before death, or 
by persons in the army or navy. 

A wife cannot be deprived of her right of 
dower, which is one-third of the proceeds of 
the real estate and appurtenances of her hus¬ 
band. She may be devised property in lieu of 
dower, which she can so take or not, as she 
may choose ; but if the words “ in lieu of 


dower ” are not used, she may take the 
bequest and her dower also. 

A corporation cannot accept bequests unless 
that power is expressly granted in its charter. 

No one can serve as executor of a will who 
is under age, a lunatic, a drunkard or a con¬ 
vict. An executor may decline the trust if he 
chooses, which declension must be made in the 
presence of two witnesses. There is no differ¬ 
ence in the duties of an executor and adminis¬ 
trator ; the names have this origin: the execu¬ 
tor is appointed by the person making the will, 
the administrator is appointed by the court. 

When a married woman makes a will, her 
husband must be appointed administrator in 
preference to any one else. 

No witness to a will can inherit any prop¬ 
erty under it. They are not required to know 
what the will contains, but simply to witness 
the signing of the document. 






,S soon after the death of the testator 
r™ as may be possible, the will must be 
produced in court, and filed there with 
affidavits, showing its custody and the 
death of the testator. The judge orders pub¬ 
lication to be made, advertising the day when 
the will is to be offered for probate, and 
notices must be sent to the heirs-at-law. At 
the appointed time, all of the persons inter¬ 
ested, including the executor or executors, 
assemble in court. The witnesses swear to 
the signature of the will, and to the state of 


the testator’s mind at the time the will was 
signed. Letters of administration are then 
granted to the executor, and a certified copy 
of the will and of the letters should be recorded 
in every county where the deceased owned 
real estate. The person administering must 
give a bond in double the amount of the estate 
for the faithful discharge of his duties. When 
a person owning property dies intestate, that 
is, leaving no will, it becomes the duty of the 
next of kin, or the widow, to petition the Pro¬ 
bate Court for letters of administration 


















































<51 


WILLS. 


427 


As soon as the letters are granted, the ad¬ 
ministrator or executor addresses himself to 
the settlement of the estate. This is done by 
advertising for all persons owing the estate to 
settle the same, and for creditors of the estate 
to present their claims. At the same time a 
careful inventory of the property of the 
deceased is made, and the same appraised. 
This appraisement and inventory is filed in the 
Probate Court. The first money coming in is 
applied to the payment of the funeral expenses 
and the medical and nurses’ bills; next in order 
come debts to the Government, liens or mort¬ 
gages, and, last of all, general debts of all 
kinds. If there is not enough property to pay 
the debts, the Probate Court must be at once 
notified of this insolvency, and the estate must 
then be settled according to the insolvent laws. 

The administrator is responsible for all the 
property of the deceased, valued and listed ac¬ 
cording to the inventory and appraisement, 
and he must keep very careful accounts of all 
his transactions for the estate. Pie must make 
semi-annual reports of the condition of the 
property, and when everything is ready for 
settlement, he presents a report, called his final 
settlement, to the court, and, upon presentation 
of the receipts in full of the heirs and credit¬ 
ors, he is discharged from his office and his 
bond cancelled and destroyed. 

Short Form for a Will. 

I, James Dickson, of the city of Chicago, in the county of Cook, and 
State of Illinois, being of sound mind and memory and understanding, do 
make my last will and testament in manner and form following : 

First. I give and bequeath to my daughters Mary and Jane two thou¬ 
sand dollars each after they have attained the age of twenty years. 

Second. I give and bequeath to my wife Susan all my household furni¬ 
ture, and all the rest of my personal property, after paying from the same 
the legacies already named, to be hers forever: but if there should not be 
at my decease sufficient personal property to pay the aforesaid legacies, 
then so much of my real estate shall be sold as will raise sufficient money 
to pay the same. 

Third. I also give, devise and bequeath to my wife Susan all the 
rest and residue of my real estate as long as she shall remain unmarried, 
and my widow: but on her decease or marriage, the remainder thereof I 
give and devise to my said children and their heirs, respectively, to be 
divided in equal shares between them. 

I appoint my wife Susan sole executrix of this my last will and testa¬ 
ment. 

In testimony 'whereof, I hereunto set my hand and seal, and publish 
and decree this to be my last will and testament, in presence of the wit¬ 


nesses named below, this eighth day of March, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three. 

James Dickson, [l.s.] 

Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Dickson as 
and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request 
and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our 
names as witnesses hereto. 

John Smith, residing at Chicago in Cook County. 

Peter Jones, “ “ “ “ “ “ 

Another Form of Will. 

Know all men by these presents: That I, Joseph Atkinson, of Media, 
in the county of Chester, and State of Pennsylvania, merchant, consider¬ 
ing the uncertainty of this life, and being of sound mind and memory, do 
make, and declare, and publish, this my last will and testament. 

First. I give and bequeath unto my beloved wife Mary the use, im¬ 
provement and income of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands, and their 
appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county, State of Penn¬ 
sylvania, to have and to hold the same to her for and during her natural 
life. 

Second. I give and bequeath to my son Robert two thousand dollars, 
to be paid to him by my executor, hereinafter named, within six months 
after my decease; and I also give, devise and bequeath to my said son 
Robert the reversion or remainder of my dwelling-house, warehouses, lands 
and their appurtenances, situate in Nelson township, Chester county, State 
of Pennsylvania, and all profit, income and advantage that may result 
therefrom, from and after the decease of my beloved wife Mary. 

Third. I give, devise and bequeath to my beloved wife Mary all the 
residue of my estate, real, personal or mixed, of which I shall be seized or 
possessed, or to which I shall be entitled at the time of my decease; to 
have and to hold the same to her and her executors and administrators 
and assigns forever. 

Fourth. I do nominate and appoint my brother James Atkinson to be 
the executor of this, my last will and testament. 

In testimony whereof, I have to this, my last will and testament, con¬ 
tained on two sheets of paper, and to each sheet thereof, subscribed my 
name and set my seal; and to this, the last sheet thereof, I have here sub¬ 
scribed my name and affixed my seal, this eighteenth day of May, in the 
year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three. 

James Atkinson. 1 l.s.] 

Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said James Atkinson, 
as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request 
and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our 
names as witnesses hereto. 

Thomas May, residing at Media, Pa. 

John Nolan, “ “ “ “ 

Henry Mann, “ “ “ “ 

Codicil to a Will. 

Whereas, I, Richard Roe, of the city of Pittsburg, in the county of 
Allegheny and State of Pennsylvania, have made my last will and testa¬ 
ment, in writing, bearing date the fourteenth day of February, in the year 
of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighty-three, in and by which 
I have given to the Pennsylvania Institution for Deaf Mutes, in the city of 
Philadelphia, the sum of one thousand dollars. 

Now, therefore, I do, by this my writing, which I hereby declare 
tc be a codicil to my said last will and testament, and to be taken as a 
part thereof, order and declare that my will is that only the sum of 
five hundred dollars shall be paid to the said Pennsylvania Institution for 
Deaf Mutes as the full amount bequeathed to the said institution, and that 
the residue of the said legacy be given to the person who shall be acting 
as treasurer at the time of my decease of the Baptist Publication Society, 
located in the city of Philadelphia, to be expended by the society in such 
manner as the officers of the said society may deem best for the interests 
of said society ; and, lastly, it is my desire that this codicil be annexed to 
and made a part of my last will and testament as aforesaid, to all intents 
and purposes. 

In testimony whereof, etc. (as in the form of a will). 







































o 


K 


428 


DUTIES OF ADMINISTRATORS. 


7 


& 





•o^o» 




| Duties of Administrators in fettling Estates. 


(I ? - •—£=T2g"' 






r^JpHEN a person dies, leaving no valid 
will behind him, his estate is dis¬ 
tributed among his heirs by what 
is known as operation of laiv. This 
is regulated by the statute of the State in 
which the deceased resided at the time of his 
death. The distribution must be made by an 
administrator duly appointed by law. The 
administrator is appointed by the court having 
jurisdiction in such cases, on being satisfied 
that the person proposed is legally qualified. 
The appointment must be made with the con¬ 
sent of the person appointed. It is the gen¬ 
erally accepted rule that any one is legally 
competent to be an administrator who is com¬ 
petent to make a contract. Certain classes of 
persons are disqualified by statute, as in the 
State of New York, for instance, drunkards, 
gamblers, spendthrifts, etc. The relatives cf 
the deceased are .considered as entitled to the 
appointment to administer the estate, and the 
order of precedence is regulated by statute. 
The husband is to be granted administration 
on the wife’s personal estate, and administra¬ 
tion on the husband’s estate is to be granted to 
the widow and the next of kin in the following 
order if they or any of them will accept: 

1. To the widow. 

2. To the children. 

3. To the father. 

4. To the brothers. 

5. To the sisters. 


/ 


6. To the grandchildren. 

7. To any other of the next of kin who 
would be entitled to a share in the distribu¬ 
tion of the estate. 

The guardians of minors who are entitled 
may administer for them. In case none of the 
relatives or guardians will accept, the admin¬ 
istration will be given to the creditors of the 
deceased. The creditor who applies first, if 
legally competent, is to be preferred. If no 
creditor applies, any person who is legally 
qualified may be appointed. In the city of 
New York the public administrator may ad¬ 
minister the estate after the next of kin. In 
the State of New York the surrogate may 
select, among the next of kin, any one in 
equal degree, and appoint him sole adminis¬ 
trator to the exclusion of the others. Incase 
there are several persons of the same degree 
of kindred to the intestate entitled to admin¬ 
istration, they are preferred in the following 
order: 

1. Males to females. 

2. Relatives of the whole blood to those of 
the half blood. 

3. Unmarried to married women ; and 
should there be several persons equally enti¬ 
tled, the surrogate may grant letters to one 
or more of them, as his judgment may sug¬ 
gest. 

If letters of administration should be un¬ 
duly granted they may be revoked. 






\ 


<0 


O 













































Administration may likewise be granted on 
certain conditions, for a certain limited time, 
or for a special purpose. 

I he powers and duties of an administrator 
differ from those of an executor only inasmuch 
as he must distribute and dispose of the estate 
according to the direction of the law, as he 
has no will to follow. 

First. The administrator must give bond, 
with sureties, for the faithful execution of his 
trust. 

Second. He must make an inventory of the 
goods and chattels of the intestate, in accord¬ 
ance with the requirements of the law. 

Third. Two copies of this inventory shall 


be made, one of which will be lodged with 
the judge of the court, and the other will be 
kept by the administrator. The latter will be 
obliged to account for the property mentioned 
in the inventory. 

Fourth. Having completed the inventory, 
the administrator must then collect the out¬ 
standing debts of the intestate, and also pay 
the debts of the same. The order of payment 
is regulated by local statutes. 

Having liquidated all the debts of the in¬ 
testate, the administrator will divide the re¬ 
mainder of the assets among the surviving 
relatives of the deceased. In so doing, he 
will act under the direction of the court. 


41 :®^ 





ij|||:HEN two or more persons agree to 
mjk invest their labor, time and means 
IIJ) together, sharing in the loss or 
profit that may arise from such 
investment, such agreement is termed a part¬ 
nership. Persons competent to transact busi¬ 
ness on their own account may enter into part¬ 
nership. The agreement may be oral or writ¬ 
ten, under seal or not. When formed without 
limitation, it is termed a general partnership, 
and when entered into for the performance of 
any particular work, it is termed a special 
partnership. Limited partnerships are regu¬ 
lated by statutes in the several States. A part¬ 
ner signing his individual name to negotiable 
paper which is for use of the partnership firm 
binds all the partners thereby. Any act not 
required by the nature of the business does 
not bind them. 


Partnership effects may be bought and sold 
by a partner. He may make contracts, receive 
money, endorse, draw and accept bills and 
notes, and while this may be for his own private 
account, if it apparently be for the use of the 
firm, his partners will be bound by his action: 
provided, the parties dealing with him were 
ignorant of the transactions being on his private 
account. Any one lending his name to a firm, 
or allowing it to be used after he has with¬ 
drawn the same, is still responsible to third 
persons as a partner. A partnership can be 
discontinued at any time, unless a specified 
period is designated in the agreement. Even 
then a partner may withdraw by giving pre¬ 
vious notice ; being liable, however, in dam¬ 
ages if such are caused by his withdrawal. If a 
partner dies, and his executors and administra¬ 
tors continue his business, they are personally 


/ 




O 



















































PARTNERSHIP. 


responsible for the debts of the firm. Part¬ 
ners may mutually agree to dissolve the firm, 
ora dissolution may be effected for good and 
sufficient reasons by the court. Upon dissolu¬ 
tion public announcement should be made of 
the fact. 

Partnership Agreement. 

This Agreement, made this first day of April, 1883, between Charles 
Jean and David Sellers, both of St. Louis, Missouri, witnesseth: 

The said parties agree to associate themselves as copartners for two 
years from this date, in the business of buying and selling cotton, under 
the name and style of Jean & Sellers. 

For the purpose of conducting the above-named business, Charles 
Jean has at the date of this writing invested ten thousand dollars as cap¬ 
ital stock, and David Sellers has paid in the like sum of ten thousand 
dollars, both of which amounts are to be expended and used in common, 
for the mutual advantage of the parties hereto in the management of their 
business. 

That the details of the business may be thoroughly understood by 
each, it is agreed that during the aforesaid period accurate and full book 
accounts shall be kept, wherein each partner shall enter and record, or 
cause to be entered and recorded, full mention of all moneys received and 
expended, as well as every article purchased and sold belonging to, or 
in any wise appertaining to such partnership; the profits, gains, expendi¬ 
tures and losses being equally divided between them. 


It is further agreed that once a year, or oftcner should either partner 
desire, a full, just and accurate exhibit shall be made to each other, or to 
their executors, administrators or representatives, of the losses, profits 
and increase made by reason of such copartnership. And after such an 
exhibit is made, the surplus profit, if such there be, resulting from the 
business, shall be divided between the subscribing partners, share and 
share alike. 

Should either partner desire, or should the death of either of the par¬ 
ties, or other reasons, make it necessary, they will each to the other, or, in 
case of death of either, the surviving partner to the executors or adminis¬ 
trators of the party deceased, make a full, accurate and final account of 
the condition of the partnership as aforesaid and will fairly and accu¬ 
rately adjust the same. 

It is also agreed that in case of a misunderstanding arising with the 
parties hereto, which cannot be settled between themselves, such difference 
of opinion shall be settled by arbitration, upon the following conditions, to- 
wit: Each party to choose one arbitrator, which two thus chosen shall 
select a third; the three thus chosen to determine the merits of the case 
and arrange the basis of a settlement. 

In witness whereof, the undersigned hereto set their hands the day 
and year first above written. 

Signed in presence of 1 Charles Jean. 

Frank Smith. V David Sellers. 

Henry Stiles. ) 

Notice of Dissolution. 

The partnership heretofore existing under the name of Jean & Sellers 
is this-day of-, A.D. -‘—, dissolved by mutual consent. 

Charles Jean. 

David Sellers. 


430 



Q) 


Y- 


1 




























HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. 


431 


S) -q~ 


ST ^ 1 




Wfi Hov/ • to • $)eeu pe*a*<J)atent. If 



dS* 2— 





eK diompfefe ^ijnop^i^ o{? tfte aqt> i^egufafion^ S^o^emiog tfie 

Unifecl §fafe<3> ^afeot ©ffiee. 


/t" NY PERSON who has invented or dis- 
IK'm- covered a new and useful art, machine, 
|// / V. manufacture or composition of matter, 
or any new and useful improvement 
thereof, may obtain a patent, provided the 
invention or discovery has not been known 
or used by others in this country, and not 
patented or described in any printed pub¬ 
lication in this or any foreign country, and 
not in public use or on sale for more than two 
years prior to his application, unless the same 
is proved to have been abandoned. A patent 
may also be obtained by any person who, by 
his own industry, genius, efforts and expense, 
has invented and produced any new and orig¬ 
inal design for a manufacture, bust, statue, 
alto-relievo or bas-relief; any new and original 
design for the printing of woolen, silk, cotton 
or other fabrics ; any new and original impres¬ 
sion, ornament, pattern, print or picture to 
be printed, painted, cast, or otherwise placed 
on or worked into any article of manufacture ; 
or any new, useful and original shape or con¬ 
figuration of any article of manufacture, the 
same not having been known or used by others 
before his invention or production thereof, nor 
patented or described in any printed publica¬ 
tion. 


In case of the death of the inventor, the 
application may be made by his executor or 
administrator. In such case the oath will be 
made by the executorjar administrator. 

In case of an assignment of the whole inter¬ 
est in the invention, or of the whole interest 
in the patent to be granted, the patent will, 
upon request of the applicant or assignee, 
issue to the assignee ; and if the assignee hold 
an undivided part interest, the patent will, 
upon like request, issue jointly to the inventor 
and the assignee ; but the assignment in either 
case must first have been entered of record, 
and of a day not later than the date of the 
payment of the final fee. The application 
and oath must be made by the actual inventor, 
if alive, even if the patent is to issue to an 
assignee. If the inventor be dead, it may be 
made by the executor or administrator, or by 
the assignee of the entire interest. 

THE APPLICATION. 

All applications for letters patent must be 
made to the Commissioner of Patents. A 
complete application comprises the petition, 
specification, oath and drawings, and the 
model or specimen when required. 


/ 


































































K 

43 2 


HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. 


7 \ 


An application for a patent will not be placed 
upon the files for examination until all its 
parts, except the model or specimen, are 
received. 

THE SPECIFICATION 

Is a written description of the invention or 
discovery, and of the manner and process of 
making, constructing, compounding and using 
the same, and is required to be in such full, 
clear, concise and exact terms as to enable any 
person skilled in the art or science to which it 
appertains, or with which it is most nearly 
connected, to make, construct, compound and 
use the same. It must conclude with a spe¬ 
cific and distinct claim or claims of the part, 
improvement or combination which the appli¬ 
cant regards as his invention or discovery. 

In framing the specification the applicant 
should follow the appended arrangement, such 
portions as refer to drawings being omitted 
when the invention does not admit of repre¬ 
sentation by drawings. 

1. Preamble giving the name and residence 
of the applicant, and the title of the inven¬ 
tion. 

2. General statement of the object and 
nature of the invention. 

3. Brief description of the drawings, show¬ 
ing what each view represents. 

4. Detailed description, explaining fully the 
alleged invention, and the manner of con¬ 
structing, practicing, operating and using it. 

5. Claim, or claims. 

6. Signature of inventor. 

7. Signatures of two witnesses. 

In original applications the applicant must 
distinctly state, under oath, whether the in¬ 
vention has been patented to himself, or to 
others, with his consent or knowledge, in any 
country. 

THE OATH. 

The applicant, if the inventor, must make 
oath that he believes himself to be the first 


and original discoverer or inventor of the art, 
machine, manufacture, composition or im¬ 
provement for which he desires a patent, and 
that to his best knowledge and belief the 
same was never before known or used. He 
must also state his place of residence, and the 
State or country of which he is a citizen. 

When applications are made by an adminis¬ 
trator or executor, the form of oath varies 
accordingly. 


DRAWINGS. 

The applicant for a patent is required by 
law to furnish a drawing of his invention, 
where the nature of the case admits of it. 

1. Drawings must be made upon pure 
white paper of a thickness corresponding to 
three-sheet Bristol board, and the surface of 
the paper must be calendered and smooth. 
India ink only must be used, to secure per¬ 
fectly black and solid lines. 

2. The size of sheet on which a drawing is 
made must be exactly ten by fifteen inches. 
One inch from its edges a single marginal line 
is to be drawn, leaving the “ sight ” precisely 
eight by thirteen inches. Within this margin 
all work and signatures must be included. 

3. All drawings must be made with the pen 
only. 

4. Drawings should be made with the fewest 
lines possible consistent with clearness. 

5. Letters and figures of reference must be 
carefully formed. They must never appear 
upon shaded surfaces, and, when it is difficult 
to avoid this, a blank space must be left in the 
shading where the letter occurs, so that it may 
appear perfectly distinct and separate from the 
work. If the same part of an invention appear 
in more than one view of the drawdng, it must 
always be represented by the same character, 
and the same character must never be used to 
designate different parts. 

6. The inventor’s signature must be placed 
at the lower right-hand corner of the sheet, 

_ 















































•M®. 


a 


ft) 


and the signatures of witnesses at the lower 
left-hand corner; all within marginal line. 

7 - Drawings should be rolled, not folded, 
for transmission to the office. 

MODELS 

Must clearly exhibit every feature of a ma¬ 
chine which forms the subject of a claim for 
letters patent, but should include no other mat¬ 
ter than that covered by the actual invention 
or improvement, unless necessary to the exhi¬ 
bition of the invention in a working model. 

Very often a working model is desirable in 
order to fully and readily understand the opera¬ 
tion. 

EXAMINATION. 

Applications are classified and taken up for 
examination in regular order, those in the same 
class being examined and disposed of, as far as 
practicable, in the order in which they are 
presented. 

AMENDMENTS, ETC. 

The applicant has a right to amend before 
or after the first rejection ; and he may amend 
as often as the examiner presents any new 
references or reasons for rejection. 

When an original or reissue application is 
rejected on reference to an expired or unex¬ 
pired domestic patent, which substantially 
shows or describes but does not claim the re¬ 
jected invention, or to a foreign patent, or to a 
printed publication, and the applicant shall 
make oath to facts showing a completion of the 
invention before the filing of the application 
for the domestic patent, or before the date of 
the foreign patent, or before the date at which 
the printed publication was made, and shall 
also make oath that he does not know and does 
not believe that the invention has been in pub¬ 
lic use or on sale in this country for more than 
two years prior to his application, and that he 


has never abandoned the invention, then the 
patent or publication cited will not bar the 
grant of a patent to the applicant, except upon 
interference. 

When an application is rejected on reference 
to an expired or unexpired domestic patent 
which shows or describes, but does not claim, 
the rejected invention, or to a foreign patent, 
or to a printed publication, or to facts within 
the personal knowledge of an employe of the 
office, set forth in an affidavit of such em¬ 
ploye, or on the ground of public use or sale, 
or upon the mode or capability of operation 
attributed to a reference, or because the alleged 
invention is held to be inoperative, or frivolous, 
or injurious to public health or morals, affida¬ 
vits or depositions supporting or traversing 
these references or objections may be received ; 
but they will be received in no other cases, 
without special permission of the Commis¬ 
sioner. 

In case an applicant neglects to prosecute 
his application for two years after the date 
when the last official notice of any action by 
the office was mailed to him, it will be held 
that the application has been abandoned. 

DESIGNS. 

Patents for designs are granted for three and 
one-half years, or for seven years, or for four¬ 
teen years, as the applicant may, in his appli¬ 
cation, elect. 

When the design can be sufficiently repre¬ 
sented by drawings or photographs, a model 
will not be required. 

Whenever a photograph or an engraving is 
employed to illustrate the design, it must be 
mounted upon Bristol board, 10 by 15 inches 
in size, and properly signed and witnessed. 
The applicant will be required to furnish ten 
extra copies of such photograph or engraving 
(not mounted), of a size not exceeding 7^ 
inches by 11. 


/ 


—H 





























<3 


\ 

434 


HOW TO SECURE A PATENT. 


REISSUES. 


CAVEATS. 




When the original patent is invalid or in¬ 
operative by reason of a defective or insuffi¬ 
cient specification, or by reason of the patentee 
claiming as his invention or discovery more 
than he had a right to claim as new, a reissue 
will be granted to the original patentee, his 
legal representatives, or the assignees of the 
entire interest, provided the error has arisen 
from accident, mistake or inadvertence, and 
without any fraudulent or deceptive intention. 


On payment of a fee of $10, any citizen 
of the United States who has made a new 
invention or discovery, and desires further 
time to mature the same, may file in the 
Patent Office a caveat setting forth the distin¬ 
guishing characteristics of the invention and 
praying protection of his right until he shall 
have matured his invention. Such caveat 
shall be filed in the confidential archives of 
the Patent Office, and shall be operative for 
the term of one year from the filing thereof. 


APPEALS. 

An applicant for a patent or a reissue, any 
of the claims of whose application have been 
twice rejected, may appeal from the decision 
of the primary examiner to the Board of Ex- 
aminers-in-Chief, having once paid a fee of 
$10. The appeal must be made in writing, 
signed by the applicant or his attorney, and 
must set forth the points of the decision upon 
which the appeal is taken. 


ASSIGNMENTS. 

Every patent, or any interest therein, shall 
be assignable in law by an instrument in 
writing. The patentee or his assigns may 
also grant and convey, in like manner, an 
exclusive right under his patent for the whole 
or any specified part of the United States. 

Schedule of Fees. 


FORM, DATE AND DURATION OF 
PATENTS. 

Every patent will bear date as of a day not 
later than six months from the time at which 
the application was passed and allowed, and 
notice mailed to the applicant, if within that 
period the final fee be paid. 

A patent will not be antedated. 

Every patent will contain a short title of 
the invention or discovery, and a grant to the 
patentee, his heirs and assigns, for the term 
of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to 
make, use and vend the invention or discovery 
throughout the United States and Territories 
thereof. 

EXTENSIONS. 

Patents granted since March 2, 1861, can¬ 
not be extended, except by act of Congress. 



On filing each application for a Patent.$15 

On issuing each Original Patent (17 years). 20 

On application for Re-issue. 30 

On application for Extension. 50 

On granting every extension of Patent (7 years;. 50 

On each Caveat. 10 

On appeal to Examiners-in-Chief. 10 

On appeal to Commissioner of Patents. 20 

On filing a Disclaimer. 10 

On application for Design (3% years). 10 

On application for Design (7 years). 15 

On application for Design (14 years). 30 

On each Trade-Mark (30 years) . 25 

On each Label (28 years). 6 


CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE 
PATENT OFFICE. 

Personal attendance of applicants at the 
Patent Office is unnecessary, as all business is 
required to be transacted in writing. 

Correspondence should be addressed to 
“ The Commissioner of Patents. ” 

Express charges, freight, postage, and all 
similar charges, must be fully prepaid to ensure 
reception. 


O 

















































PENSION LAWS. 


435 


A letter concerning an application should 
state the name of the applicant, the title of the 
invention, the serial number of the application 
and the date of filing the same. 

A letter concerning a patent should state the 
name of the patentee, the title of the inven¬ 
tion, and the number and date of the patent. 

All correspondence of the Patent Office will 
be answered without unnecessary delay. 
Telegrams must ordinarily be received before 


three p m. to insure an answer the same day. 

AGENTS AND ATTORNEYS. 

Any intelligent person of good moral char¬ 
acter, upon filing a proper power of attorney, 
may appear as the agent or attorney in fact 
of an applicant. 

The power of attorney must be filed in all 
cases before an attorney, original or associate, 
will be allowed to inspect papers or take action 
of any kind. 



,V~ P.;NY person who has been, since the 4th 
yfjjMf of March, 1861, disabled in the mili- 
■//'Y\tary or naval service of the United 
States, or in its marine corps, shall, 
upon making due proof of the fact, be placed 
on the list of invalid pensioners of the United 
States. No claim for pension on the part of a 
State militiaman, or non-enlisted person, on 
account of disability from wounds received in 
battle, shall be valid unless prosecuted to a 
successful issue prior to July 4, 1874. 


RATES OF PENSION PER MONTH, 



DISABILITIES. 


Loss of both hands. 

Total disability in both hands. 

Loss of both feet. 

Total disability in both feet. 

Loss of sight of both eyes... 

Loss of sight of one eye, the sight of 
the other having been previously lost 

Loss of one hand and one foot. 

Total disability in one hand and one 

foot.-. 

Any disability equivalent to the loss of 

a hand or foot.-. 

Any disability incapacitating for the 
performance of any manual labor .... 
Any disability resulting in a condition 
requiring the regular aid and attend¬ 
ance of another person. 

Total deafness. 


>3 

S 'O £ 

c_ ^ ''V 
^ 5* ^ 
O 


$25 00 


20 OO 
25 OO 


>3 

S ^ ^ 

O q 

. 

: ^ § 


$20 00 


>3 

S <0 

fV. ^ '** 

O' ^ 


$25 


25 00 


25 00 


S 

* 

tv * v 

■ * v 
: ■k I 


$31 

31 

31 

31 

31 

31 

24 

24 

18 

24 






$72 OO 

72 OO 

72 OO 

72 OO 
36 OO 


June 
4> *74- 
25 50 00 

OO 


* Rate from June, 1880, in case the disability is permanent and requires 
the regular aid and attendance of another person. An applicant for 
increase of pension from $31.25 to $72 per month must furnish the testi¬ 
mony of his physician, or of two credible witnesses, to prove the extent 
to which he requires the aid and attendance of another person. 



The same provision of law which entitles to 
$31.25 per month entitles to $72 per month, 
provided that in the latter case the disability 
is permanent. The loss of a leg above the 
knee, or an arm at or above the elbow, entitles 
the person so disabled to a pension of $24 per 
month after June 4, 1874. 

The rates of $10, $12, $14 and $16 per 
month will be allowed in cases in which the dis¬ 
ability bears the same proportion to that pro¬ 
duced by the loss of a hand or foot that those 
rates bear to the rate of $18 per month. 

The phrase “ total disability ” is construed 
to refer to a total disability for the perform¬ 
ance of manual labor requiring severe and 
continuous exertion. The phrase “ any man¬ 
ual labor” includes the lighter kinds of labor 
which require education and skill. 

The first step to be taken by an applicant 
for pension is to file a declaration before a 
court of record, or before some officer thereof 
having custody of its seal, setting forth the 
ground upon which he claims a pension. Blank 
forms of declaration are furnished upon request 
at Commissioner of Pensions office. The iden¬ 
tity of the applicant must be shown by the 
testimony of two credible witnesses, who must 
appear with him before the officer by whom 



I 









































































PENSION LAWS. 


43 6 


the declaration may be taken. A pensioner 
who may deem himself entitled to an increase 
of pension should file a declaration on a blank 
form furnished for the purpose, setting forth 
the ground upon which he claims such increase. 
A declaration for increase of pension may be 
taken before any officer duly authorized to 
administer oaths. 

All invalid pensions granted under the gen¬ 
eral law will terminate at re-enlistment, or 
when the disabilities for which they were al¬ 
lowed shall have ceased. 

A widow’s pension will end at her remar¬ 
riage, and not be renewable should she again 
become a widow. 

Pensions allowed to dependent mothers and 
sisters end at remarriage, or when dependence 
ceases. Pensions allowed to dependent fathers 
end when the dependence ceases. 

The name of any pensioner shall be stricken 
from the roll upon his or her failure to claim 
a pension for three years after the same shall 
have become due. 

To entitle a widow or children to pension, 
the death of the husband or father must have 
been the result of injury received or disease 
contracted under such circumstances as would 
have entitled him to an invalid pension had he 
been disabled. 

A widow is entitled to a pension of the same 
rate as that to which the husband would have 
been entitled had he been totally disabled. In 
addition to this rate, she will be allowed $2 
per month for each child of the officer or soldier 
under the age of sixteen years. 

In the applications of widows and children 
for pensions, they will be required to prove 
that death of husband resulted from the injury 
or disease on account of which his pension was 
granted; and, if the husband had not estab¬ 
lished his claim for an invalid pension, the 
widow shall prove origin and cause of the fatal 
disease. Widows will be required to prove 
their marriage to the person on account of 


whose service and death the claim is made ; 
also proof of dates of birth of children by 
copy of church record. 

A mother claiming a pension must prove the 
cause and date of the death of her son ; her 
relationship ; that he left no widow or minor 
child or children surviving; and her depend¬ 
ence upon him for support. 

A father claiming pension on account of the 
death of his son, upon whom he was depend¬ 
ent for support, must prove facts similar to 
those required of a mother. 

The claim on behalf of minor brothers and 
sisters should be made by a guardian duly ap¬ 
pointed. 

In administration of the pension laws, no 
distinction is made between brothers and sisters 
of the half blood and those of the whole blood. 
Evidence in a claim for pension cannot be veri¬ 
fied before an officer who is engaged in the 
prosecution of such claim. 

In claims for increase of pension, a fee of 
$10 will be allowed. All letters of enquiry 
relative to claims pending in Pension Office 
should give the number of the claim. 

No sum of money due, or to become due, 
to any pensioner, shall be liable to attachment, 
levy or seizure, under any legal or equitable 
process. 

Agents for paying pensions shall receive 
two per centum on all disbursements made by 
them to pensioners. 

No agent, or attorney, or other person, shall 
demand or receive any other compensation for 
his services in prosecuting a claim for pension 
or bounty-land than such as the Commissioner 
of Pensions shall direct to be paid to him, not 
exceeding $10. 

Every officer, or enlisted or hired man, who 
has lost a limb, or the use of a limb, in the 
military or naval service of the United States, 
is entitled to receive, once every five years, an 
artificial limb or apparatus, or commutation 
therefor. The period of five years is reckoned 
































from the filing of the first application after June cases, $50. Applications for artificial limbs 
17, 1870. The commutation allowed in case should be transmitted through the proper pen- 
of the amputation of a leg is $75 ; in all other sion agent to the surgeon-general of the army. 


@ , Xf , S) 


(i'lA- 

.... - 

it 


. \l/ . 

• /l\ • 




a I Fence. 




HE legal regulations of the States and 


Territories with 
are embodied 


regard 

o 


to fences 


in 


the 


following sum¬ 


mary : 

—Legal fence, live feet high. 


L 

Alabama.- 

Arizona. —Four and one-half feet. 

Arkansas. —Five feet. 

California. —The legal fence is described with great particularity— 
wire, post and rail, brush, picket, ditch and pole, and hedge; wire fences, 
not less than three separate strands, the first eighteen inches from the 
ground, the others two and one foot apart. 

Colorado.—F our and one-half feet. 

Connecticut. —Five and a half feet, with provisions essentially as in 
Massachusetts. 

Delaware. —Four feet, with a ditch within two feet, is a lawful fence. 
Wood or stone fences, or hedge, four and a half feet high. 

Florida. —Five feeL 

Georgia. —Five feet. 

Idaho. —Four feet. 

Illinois. —“Fences four and one-half feet high, of whatever material 
the fence-viewers shall deem sufficient.” 

Indiana.-—A ny structure in the nature of a fence, such as good hus¬ 
bandmen generally keep. 

Iowa. —Four and one-half feet high, or fifty-four inches. Harbed wire 
fence prescribed as legal fence, 1876. 

Kansas. —“Worm fences four and one-half feet ; turf, four feet, with 
ditches ; wire fence, posts twelve feet apart.” 

Kentucky. —“All sound or strong fences, five feet high, so close that 
stock cannot creep through,” is the definition of the legal fence. 

Maine.—F our feet. 

Maryland.—F ive feet. 

Massachusetts. —The legal fence is four feet high. A “sufficient 
barrier” only is demanded, whether the equivalents be furnished by 
streams, ditches, live growths, or constructions in wood, stone or other 

material. 


Michigan. —Fences four and one-half feet high, or rails, timber, 
boards, stone, or other things deemed equivalent thereto in the judgment 
of fence-viewers. 

Minnesota.— Fences four and one-half feet high, etc. Barbed fence 
defined by the act of 1877. 

Missouri. —Hedge five feet, fence four and one-half feet. 

Montana.— Four and one-half feet. 

Nebraska. —The legal fence is described as “ such a fence as good 
husbandmen generally keep.” 

New Hampshire. —Four feet. 

New Jersey.— Fences are to be four feet two inches high, of wood, 
brick or stone, and four and a half feet if of other materials. 

New Mexico. —Four feet. 

New York. —The town meetings prescribe what shall be deemed a 
legal fence in each town. Assessors and commissioners of highways per¬ 
form the duties of fence-viewers. Four and one-half feet is the usual height 
prescribed. 

North Carolina. —Five feet. 

Ohio.—“ A fence, of whatever material, constructed in all respects such 
as good husbandmen ought to keep.” Statute of 1865. 

Pennsylvania.—T owns and counties secure special legislation for 
fencing railway lines, and to prevent running of the stock at large. 

Rhode Island. —Stone or wood fences must be four and a half feet 
high ; hedges and ditches are elaborately described. 

South Carolina.—F ences must be six feet high, of wood or hedge, 
or ditches equivalent as barriers. 

Tennessee. —Five feet. 

Texas. —Five feet high. Barbed wire defined as legal fence. 

Utah. —Four and one-half feet. 

Vermont. —The legal fence is five and a half feet high, with provisions 
essentially as in Massachusetts. 

Virginia. —Five feet. 

Washington Territory. —Four feet. Barbed wire fence must carry 
a top rail of wood. 

West Virginia. —Legal fences, four and a half feet high. 

Wisconsin. —“Fences four and one-half feet high,” etc. By act of 
April, 1878, barbed wire fence is defined as a legal fence. 



/ 
























































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


Assignments, Attachments. Chattel Mortgages, Divorce. Exemptions, Rights of Married Women. Deeds and their Acknowledgment, 

Wills and Mechanics’ Liens. Illustrations: The Coats of Arms of the States. 




ALABAMA. 


ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by statute, which forbids prefer¬ 
ences or any provision for the release of the debtor. There is no 
insolvent law. 


ATTACHMENTS may issue 
upon affidavit of the creditor or 
his agent that the defendant is 
non-resident, has absconded, dis¬ 
posed of, transferred, or attempt¬ 
ed to remove his property out of 
the State, and garnishment pro¬ 
cess may be issued in aid of exe¬ 
cution. Judgments do not con¬ 
stitute liens. Stay of execution jj \ N i • -;./ jjj 

is allowed in justices’courts for ^ 

thirty to sixty days, but the only 3 f-V * B 

way to delay the collection of a l! K 

• , , c .. „ , . Cfe5H5SSHS2SHHHSHS2SSSE52SHSSSESaSash 

judgment of the Circuit Court is 

by appeal, which requires a bond for double the amount, legal inter¬ 
est, damages and cost of the appeal. Under the Constitution there can 
be no imprisonment for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace 
is limited to $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded in the county where 
the grantor resides, also where the property is; and if the property is 
removed to a different county from the one in which the grantor re¬ 
sides, must there be recorded within six months from the removal. 

DEEDS may be acknowledged within the State before judges of a 
court of record or their clerks, chancellors and registers in chancery, 
justices of the peace or notaries public. Out of the State and in the 
United States, by the judges and clerks of any court of record in any 
State, notaries public or commissioners appointed by the Governor. 
Out of the United States,by the judge of any court of record, mayor or 
chief officer of any city, town, borough or county, notary public or any 
diplomatic, consular or commercial agent of the United States. The 
wife may relinquish her right of dower by joining her husband in a 
conveyance and acknowledging the relinquishment. The husband 
must join in conveyance of the wife’s separate property. Neither seal 
nor scroll is necessary. One witness is required. 

DIVORCE may be obtained for the following causes: Impotency, 
adultery, desertion for two years, habitual drunkenness, imprison¬ 
ment for two years and continued cruelty. An allowance must be 
made by the court, out of the husband’s estate, for the support of the 
wife pending suit; also an allowance when the decree is made. The 


custody of minor children may be given to either parent, in the dis¬ 
cretion of the court. 

EXEMPTIONS are as follows: A homestead not exceeding 160 
acres of land, or a lot in a city, town or village, with a dwelling- 
house thereon, not exceeding the value of $2,000. Personal property 
to the value of $1,000. May be selected by the debtor. Waiver of 
exemption is not valid unless joined in by the wife. 

MARRIED WOMEN may hold all property,real and personal, ac¬ 
quired before and after marriage, as a separate estate not liable forthe 
husband’s debts, and it may be devised or bequeathed as by a single 
woman. This separate estate is liable for debts contracted by the 
woman before marriage, and for contracts after marriage for articles 
of comfort and support of family. The wife is entitled to dower of 
one-half of husband’s real estate, if he leave no lineal descendants, 
one-third if there are any, provided she has no separate estate; if her 
separate estate is less than the dower interest would be, she is entitled 
to as much as would make it equal. Women attain their legal ma¬ 
jority at twenty-one, but may marry without consent of their parents 
at eighteen. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. The process of collecting on liens is by 
attachment. Proceedings must be commenced within six months 
after the work is finished. Mechanics, contractors and laborers have 
a lien for work and labor done, or materials furnished; laborers and 
other employes of railroad companies have a lien upon all the prop¬ 
erty of the company for work done, and agricultural laborers have a 
lien on the crops for their wages. 

WILLS are recorded in the probate judge’s office ; two witnesses are 
required. All persons over twenty-one years of age can dispose of 
real estate; all over eighteen, of personal property. Married women 
may bequeath their separate estates. No nuncupative will can dis¬ 
pose of more than five hundred dollars’ worth of property. 

ARIZONA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. No insolvent or assignment law in this Territory. 

ATTACHMENTS issue in actions upon contract for direct pay¬ 
ment of money where plaintiff has no security, or when defendant is 
a non-resident. The plaintiff must give bond. Jurisdiction of jus¬ 
tices of the peace is limited to $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. The statute specifies certain classes of 
property on which mortgage can be placed. If mortgagee has pos¬ 
session of property, recording is not necessary. 

DEEDS maybe acknowledged at any place in the Territory, before 
a justice or clerk of the Supreme Court, or of any court of record, a 


















































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 


s 

439 


justice of the peace, the mayor of a city or a registrar of deeds. The 
officer taking the acknowledgment must affix thereto his official seal. 
All rights of dower and curtesy are abolished. The wife must be 
examined apart from her husband to ascertain if she acts by her own 
free will. 

MARRIED WOMEN may carry on business and sue and be sued 
in their own names. All property acquired before marriage, and all 
afterwards acquired, by gift, grant, devise or inheritance, is separate 
estate, liable for her own, but not for her husband’s debts. She may 
control it and dispose of it in all respects like a single woman. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Artisans,builders, mechanics, lumber mer¬ 
chants, and all others performing labor or furnishing material for the 
construction or repair of any building, have a lien upon the same for 
the labor done or material furnished. Besides liens of the usual de¬ 
scription, any mechanic or artisan who alters or repairs any article of 
personal property has a lien thereon to secure his just charges, and 
may retain possession until he is paid. 

WILLS. The statute provides in great detail the manner in which 
wills shall be executed. Testators, male or female, must be twenty- 
one years of age. Two witnesses are required. Nuncupative wills 
cannot dispose of more than three hundred dollars’ worth of property. 
Married women may devise their separate estate. 

ARKANSAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS for the benefit of creditors may be made with or 
without preference. Bond must be given by assignee in double the 

amount of property assigned, and 
all property received under as¬ 
signment must be sold at auction 
within 120 days. 

ATTACHMENTS may issue 
in a civil action, at or after 
commencement thereof, against 
property, where defendant is a 
non-resident of the State, or a 
foreign corporation, or has been 
absent four months from the State, 
or has departed from it with in¬ 
tent to defraud his creditors, or 
has left the county of his resi¬ 
dence to avoid service of a summons, or conceals himself so that a 
summons cannot be served upon him, or has transferred, sold, con¬ 
veyed or removed his property out of the State, or is about to sell, re¬ 
move or dispose of the same with fraudulent intent. Under a written 
attachment debts due the defendant may be garnisheed. Plaintiff 
must give bond with sureties to pay all damages defendant may sus¬ 
tain if the action is wrongly maintained. Jurisdiction of justices of 
the peace is limited to $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be proved as other mortgages. 
They may be filed and not recorded, at the option of the mortgagee, 
and are liens from time of filing. Before sale under mortgage, the 
property must be appraised, and must bring two-thirds of the ap¬ 
praised value, or it is reserved from sale sixty days. At second offer¬ 
ing it is sold for what it will bring. 

DEEDS must be acknowledged before a judge or clerk of the 
Supreme or Circuit Court, judge of County Court, justice of the peace 
or notary public. Two witnesses are required. No scroll or seal need 
be used. When husband and wife convey the lands of the husband, 
the certificate must show that the wife acknowledged the relinquish¬ 
ment. 

DIVORCE maybe granted for impotency, bigamy, adultery, con¬ 
viction of felony, habitual drunkenness, wilful desertion for one year, 
cruel and barbarous treatment. Plaintiff must reside in the State one 
year before bringing suit. Court may allow alimony to the wife. 

EXEMPTIONS. The homestead of a married person or head of a 
family in the country, not exceeding 160 acres, with improvements, 
not to exceed $2,500. Personal property of married person, $500 be¬ 


sides wearing apparel, and of a person unmarried, $200 and wearing 
apparel. 

MARRIED WOMEN have absolute and unqualified right in prop¬ 
erty of every kind and are not liable for debts or contracts of the 
husband. But a schedule under oath, and verified by some other 
reputable person, must be made by the husband and wife, and filed in 
the recorder’s office of the county where the property is, and of the 
county where they reside. The wife may control her property, may 
carry on business on her sole and separate account, may sue and be 
sued, may make a will and may insure her husband’s life for her ben¬ 
efit. The widow is entitled to one-third part of the estate, unless 
legally relinquished by her. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Laborers have a lien on the product of 
their labor; builders and mechanics, on all buildings for which they 
have furnished work, labor or materials. The original contractor 
must file his lien with the circuit clerk within three months after all 
the work shall have been done or the material furnished. 

WILLS are recorded in the Probate Court of the county in which 
most of the bequeathed land is situated ; but if only personal property, 
then in the county where the testator died. All over twenty-one 
years may devise real estate; all over eighteen, personal property. 
Three witnesses are required. Married women may devise their sep¬ 
arate property. 

CALIFORNIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law by which a debtor surrender¬ 
ing his property may receive a discharge from his debts. No 
preferences permitted. No dis¬ 
charge in case of fraud, nor from 
debts due as a depositary of funds 
received as banker, broker or 
commission merchant. Assign¬ 
ments are not allowed unless un¬ 
der this law. 

ATTACHMENT issues in an 
action upon a contract for the 
direct payment of money, where 
the contract is made or is pay¬ 
able in this State, and is not se¬ 
cured by any mortgage or lien 
upon real or personal property, 
or any pledge of personal property; or, if originally so secured, such 
security has, without any act of the plaintiff, become valueless. Gar¬ 
nishee process can be had in all cases where property is liable to 
attachment. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid against third parties, must 
show the residence and trade of the mortgageor and mortgagee, the 
rate of interest charged and when and where it is payable, and mort¬ 
gageor and mortgagee must each make affidavit that the mortgage is 
bona fide and made without design to defraud or delay creditors. 

DEEDS may be acknowledged within the State before any judge 
or clerk of a court of record, recorder, justice of the peace or notary 
public. Without the State, before any judicial officer, commissioner 
or notary. Husband or wife can convey separate property without 
the other joining, but both must join when the property is in common. 
A conveyance by a married woman has no validity until acknowl¬ 
edged. Deeds are known as grants, and need not be under seal. 
Two witnesses are required. 

DIVORCES are granted for adultery, extreme cruelty, conviction of 
felony, wilful desertion, neglect or habitual intemperance continued 
for one year. No divorce can be granted by default. 

EXEMPTIONS. The homestead on which debtor resides, to the 
value of $5,000, if he is the head of a family; if not, to the value of 
$1,000. Personal property exempt includes chairs, tables, desks and 
books,$200; necessary household and kitchen furniture,sewing-ma¬ 
chines, stoves, beds, etc.; provisions for family forthree months, three 
cows, four hogs, two horses, oxen or mules; seed, grain and vege¬ 
tables for sowing, not above $200 in value; tools and implements of 






























































440 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 


a mechanic or artisan; instruments of a physician, surgeon or den¬ 
tist; professional library of attorney, minister, editor or teacher; a 
miner’s cabin, not exceeding $500 of value, with all tools and gear 
necessary for his business, not exceeding $500. Two horses or mules 
with harness, and the miner’s claim worked by him, and not exceed¬ 
ing $1,000 in value, are also exempt. 

MARRIED WOMEN. All property acquired in any manner before 
marriage, or afterwards by gift, grant, inheritance or devise, is wife’s 
separate property, controlled by her and not liable for debts of the 
husband. The husband’s property similarly acquired is not liable for 
debts of the wife. All property acquired after marriage by husband 
or wife, except as above, shall be common property, but under the 
husband’s control. Dower and curtesy are abolished, but the sur¬ 
vivor takes half the common property after payment of debts and 
expenses of administration. A married woman may dispose of her 
separate estate by will without the consent of her husband and may 
insure her husband’s life for her benefit. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Mechanics, laborers and material-men 
have a lien on buildings for work done or materials furnished. An 
original contractor may file his claim within sixty days ; others, within 
thirty davs. Suit must be brought within ninety days from the date 
of filing the claim. A lien has precedence over any subsequent or 
previous unrecorded encumbrance. 

WILLS. Real or personal property may be disposed of by will by 
all persons over eighteen years of age. Two witnesses are required. 
Married women may dispose of their separate property without con¬ 
sent of their husbands. Nuncupative wills not exceeding $1,000 are 
valid, but must be reduced to writing within thirty days. 

COLORADO. 

ASSIGNMENTS. There is no insolvent or assignment law. 

ATTACHMENTS. Where defendant is a non-resident or a foreign 

corporation, evades service or at¬ 
tempts to remove his goods with 
intent to defraud, plaintiff may 
obtain a writ of attachment by 
making affidavit and giving suf¬ 
ficient bond. Garnishee process 
will issue in aid of attachment 
where sufficient property to sat¬ 
isfy the same is not found. No 
civil action can be begun by ar¬ 
rest, except in cases where mal¬ 
ice, fraud or wilful deceit is 
shown, when execution may issue 
against defendant’s body, and he 
may be imprisoned not exceed¬ 
ing one year, or until the judgment is satisfied. Jurisdiction of 
justices of the peace is limited to $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES, to be valid as to third parties, must 
be acknowledged before a justice of the peace or notary public in the 
district where grantor lives, unless possession of the chattels actually 
passes. If the mortgageor retain possession the mortgage must ex¬ 
pressly provide for such possession ; otherwise it is void. Mortgage 
may be given for a term of two years, and after default mortgagee 
must take possession without delay, or his lien will be void as to third 
parties. 

DEEDS maybe acknowledged before any justice, clerk or deputy 
clerk of the Supreme or District courts, county judge, county clerk or 
recorder, justice of the peace or notary public. Outside of the State, 
before the Secretary of any State under the seal of the State, any 
authorized officer in any State or Territory or any commissioner of 
deeds. Witnesses are not necessary, but are desirable. A seal is re¬ 
quired, but a scroll will answer. 

DIVORCES may be granted for adultery, impotency, bigamy, wil¬ 
ful desertion for one year, habitual drunkenness for two years, 
extreme cruelty or conviction for felony or infamous crime. One 
year’s residence in the State is required before bringing suit, except 


where the offence was committed in the State or while one or both of 
the parties resided there. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead consisting of house and lot in town 
or city, or a farm of any number of acres, in value not exceeding 
$2,000, is exempt if occupied by a householder and head of a family, 
provided it has been entered on record as a homestead and so speci¬ 
fied in the title. Personal property, including wearing apparel of the 
debtor and his family, pictures, school books, library, etc., and house ¬ 
hold furniture, not exceeding $100; provisions for six months, tools, 
implements or stock in trade, $200; one cow and calf, ten sheep and 
necessary food for six months; working animals up to $200; the 
library and implements of a professional man up to $300. The head 
of a family may select personal property to the value of $1,000; others, 
to the value of $300. 

MARRIED WOMEN are treated, in all respects, as to their prop¬ 
erty rights, as if they were single. A wife may carry on trade or 
business, sue or be sued, contract debts, transfer real estate, and in 
all ways bind her separate property, without the husband’s joining. 
She may make a will, but cannot bequeath more than half her prop¬ 
erty away from her husband without his consent in writing. The 
husband cannot by will deprive his wife of over one-half of his 
property. Dower is abolished. The husband is liable for debts of the 
wife contracted before marriage to the extent of the property he may 
receive through her, but no further." 

MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person furnishing materials or doing 
labor to the amount of more than $25 on any building may hold a lien 
thereon. The principal contractor must file his lien within forty days, 
and sub-contractor within twenty days. Suit must be brought within 
six months. 

WILLS. To devise real property, the testator, if male, must be 
twenty-one; if female, eighteen years of age. Either may bequeath 
personal property at seventeen years of age. Two witnesses arc re¬ 
quired. Neither husband nor wife can deprive the other of more 
than one-half the property by will, except the wife receive written 
consent of the husband allowing her to do so. 

CONNECTICUT. 

ASSIGNMENTS. In cases of insolvency, the Probate Court may 
appoint a trustee, on motion of a judgment-creditor for over $ico, 
when no property can be found 
to attach. On the hearing which 
follows, the petition may be 
granted, and the trustee takes 
possession of all property not ex¬ 
empt. An allowance is made to 
the debtor for the support of his 
family, and if the estate will pay 
seventy per cent he receives a 
full discharge. The debtor’s 
property is exempt for two years 
from legal process upon debts 
which might have been proved. 

Voluntary assignments can be 
made by a debtor to a trustee 
chosen by himself, but the court of probate may substitute another. 

ATTACHMENTS. In cases of fraud or judgment for damages for 
misconduct or neglect, defendant may be arrested, and may give bail 
to the person making the arrest. Goods concealed in the hands of 
agents, or money due the judgment-debtor, may be reached by foreign 
attachment; and no assignment of future earnings, unless recorded 
within forty-eight hours, will prevent their attachment when due. 
Where goods and lands cannot be found, the person of a defendant 
may be attached. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace limited to $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded like deeds of real es¬ 
tate. A chattel mortgage of property not perishable in its nature is 
good although the grantor retains posses-don. Property exempt 
from execution is also a proper subject for a chattel mortgage. 




























































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


441 


\ 


DEEDS must be in writing and under seal, a scroll being sufficient. I 
Two witnesses are required. Acknowledgment in the State is made ! 
before a judge of a court of record, justice of the peace, notary public, ' 
town clerk, commissioner of the Superior Court or commissioner of 
the school fund. The wife need not be privately examined apart 
from her husband. She must join with her husband in conveyance of 
her separate real estate, but the husband conveys his property without 
her signature. Dower attaches only to the separate real estate of the 
husband at his death. 

DIVORCE. Absolute divorce may be granted by the Superior Court 
for adultery, fraud, duress or force in obtaining the marriage, wilful 
desertion for three years, seven years’ absence without being heard of, 
habitual intemperance, intolerable cruelty, sentence to imprisonment 
for life, the commission of any crime punishable by imprisonment in 
the State penitentiary and any such misconduct as permanently de¬ 
stroys the happiness of the petitioner and defeats the purposes of the 
marriage relation. Three years’ residence in the State is necessary 
before filing a petition. Either party may marry again after divorce, 
and the court may change the wife’s name and make order for alimony 
and custody of children. 

EXEMPTIONS. There is no homestead exemption. Personal 
property is exempt as follows: Libraries not above $500 in value; a 
cow worth $150; ten sheep, not over $50 in value; two hogs, and 200 
pounds of pork. Implements of trade, the horse, harness and buggy 
of a practicing physician, and the boat, not exceeding $200 in value, 
of a person engaged in fishing, and used for that purpose, are also 
exempt. 

MARRIED WOMEN. Previous to the year 1S77, the husband ac¬ 
quired a right to the use of all the real estate of the wife during her 
life, and if he had a child by h'er and survived her, then during his own 
life as tenant by curtesy. By the act of May 20th, 1877, the rights of 
married women are materially enlarged. Any woman married after 
that date retains her real estate as if unmarried. She may make con¬ 
tracts, convey real estate and sue or be sued in regard to any property 
owned by her at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired. The 
estate is liable for her debts, and, jointly with her husband, for debts 
contracted for joint benefit of both or household expenses. The sepa¬ 
rate earnings of a wife are her sole property. Dower exists only in 
real estate of which the husband is possessed at the time of his decease. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Any person furnishing materials or rend¬ 
ering services exceeding $25, in the construction or repair of any 
building or railroad, may have a lien on such building and land upon 
which it stands, or upon the railroad ; provided that no such lien shall 
attach to any estate not owned by the party against whom such claim 
exists. A certified claim must be lodged within sixty days, and the 
premises may be foreclosed as in the case of a mortgage. A person 
w.shing to obtain such lien shall file with the town clerk a certificate 
in writing describing the premises, the amount of the claim and the 
date of the commencement. Vessels are subject to a lien for work 
or materials furnished exceeding $20 in amount, claim to be filed within 
ten days of the completion of the work. Liens for mariners’ wages 
have precedence. 

WILLS must be in writing, signed by the testator and attested by 
three witnesses in his presence and in presence of each other. All 
persons over eighteen years of age can bequeath both real and per¬ 
sonal property. Wills are recorded in the Probate Court, and ten years 
are allowed to probate a will after the death of the testator. 

DAKOTA. 

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences are allowed, but are not valid 
against any creditor not assenting thereto, if they tend to coerce the 
creditor to release his claim, or provide for payment of fraudulent 
claim, or reserve any benefit to assignor or confer any power on 
assignee which may delay the conversion of the assigned property or 
exempt the assignee from liability for neglect of duty. No insolvent 
law is in force. 


ATTACHMENTS may issue on plaintiff’s giving bond when de¬ 
fendant is a non-resident, absconds, conceals or conveys property to 
defraud creditors. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to 
$100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are void unless the original or an 
authenticated copy be deposited with the register of deeds in the 
county in which the mortgaged property, or any part ot it, at such 
time is situated. Mortgage must be signed by mortgageorin the pres¬ 
ence of two persons, as witnesses thereto, and no other proof or 
acknowledgment is necessary. A chattel mortgage can be created, 
renewed or extended only by a writing subscribed by the mortgageor, 
and must be renewed every three years. 

DEEDS must be in writing, duly signed by the maker, and re¬ 
corded with the register of deeds of the county in which the property is 
situated. Acknowledgment may be made in the Territory before a 
justice or clerk of the Supreme Court or of any court of record, a 
justice of the peace, the mayor of a city, or a register of deeds. The 
officer taking the acknowledgment affixes thereto his official seal. 
Outside of the Territory, before a justice, judge or clerk of any court 
of record of the United States or of any State or Territory, a notary 
public, or any other officer authorized by law to take such proof or 
acknowledgment, or by a commissioner appointed for the purpose by 
the Governor of Dakota pursuant to the Political Code. No certifi¬ 
cate of the official character of the officer is needed when acknowledg¬ 
ment is taken out of the Territory. Conveyance by a married woman 
has no validity until acknowledged. Dower and curtesy are un¬ 
known, and the wife need not join in conveying property of the hus¬ 
band, nor the husband in conveyance of land belonging to the wife, 
except in case of homesteads, when both must concur in and sign the 
same joint instrument, provided the owner is married and both hus¬ 
band and wife are residents of the Territory. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead consisting of not more than 160 
acres, with buildings and appurtenances thereon, and personal prop¬ 
erty defined by statute, aggregating in value not to exceed $1,500, is 
exempted to a householder. Anon-householder may have So acres, 
or a half acre in town or city, with personal property. Tools and 
implements of a mechanic to the value of $200, books and instruments 
of a professional man to the value of $600, are also exempt from 
seizure. 

MARRIED WOMEN may transact business in all respects the 
same as if unmarried. Neither husband nor wife has any interest in 
the separate estate of the other. The earnings and accumulations of 
the wife are her separate property and not liable for the hushand’s 
debts nor even for household debts contracted bv her as her husband’s 
agent. Her separate property is, however, liable for her own debts, 
contracted before or after marriage, if such debts are contracted on 
her own responsibility. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Mechanics, laborers or material - men 
who shall perform labor upon, or furnish materials, machinery or 
fixtures for, any building or other improvement, shall have for such 
labor performed, or materials, machinery or fixtures furnished, a lien 
upon such building or improvement, also upon the land upon which it 
is situate. The receiving of collateral security on the same contract 
will invalidate the lien. 

WILLS. Both real and personal property may be disposed of by 
will by all persons above eighteen years of age. Two witnesses are 
required, and wills the body of which is in the testator’s handwriting, 
and signed and dated by him, need not be attested. Married women 
may dispose of their separate property without consent of their hus¬ 
bands. A will made by an unmarried woman is revoked by her mar¬ 
riage and not revived by the death of her husband. 

DELAWARE. 

ASSIGNMENTS must be made for the benefit of all creditors 
alike. Voluntary assignments are governed by the common law, ex- 









































442 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 



cept that a special partnership 
may not give preferences. The 
assignee must file within thirty 
days a schedule of property as¬ 
signed, and two appraisers are 
then appointed by the chancellor. 

A domestic insolvent law is in 
existence, providing for a full 
surrender and equal distribution 
of all property, but it is seldom 
used, and no provision is made 
for the discharge of the debtor 
upon his making an assignment. 

ATTACHMENT may issue in SHsaSEHsasasasasasssasHsasESHSSHSEsS 
domestic cases when the debtor cannot be found, when defendant 
has fraudulently left the State, etc., and against foreign corporations 
or non-residents of the State. In both cases an affidavit setting forth 
the above facts must be given by the creditor or some responsible 
person in his stead. A capias may not be issued against the body of 
any debtor until an execution against his goods has been returned 
unsatisfied. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are a valid lien for three years when 
recorded within ten days after acknowledgment. The lien of a pur¬ 
chase-money mortgage recorded within sixty days after it is made 
has preference over any judgment against the mortgageor or other un¬ 
known lien of a prior date. Foreclosure is made by order of the 
court; no equity of redemption. 

DEEDS must be recorded in the county in which the land lies 
within one year after the sealing or delivery thereof. A scroll answers 
for a seal, and one witness is sufficient. Acknowledg.ments may be 
made before any judge or clerk of record, justice of the peace or 
notary public. Outside of the State, the same as in Alabama. The 
wife must relinquish her right of dower, must be separately ex¬ 
amined, and the examination certified. 

DIVORCE may be granted by the Superior Court for adultery, im- 
potency at the time of marriage, habitual drunkenness, extreme 
cruelty, desertion for three years or conviction of crime sufficient to 
constitute a felony. In the case of marriage by fraud or for want of 
age, the wife being less than sixteen, the husband being less than 
eighteen, at the time of marriage, absolute divorce or divorce from bed 
and board may be granted, at the discretion of the court. The wife 
receives all her real estate and such other allowance and alimony as 
the court may decree where the husband is proved to be in fault. 
Wilful neglect of the husband to provide the necessities of life also 
forms sufficient grounds for divorce. 

EXEMPTIONS. Family pictures, family Bible and library; lot in 
burial-ground and pew in church; family wearing apparel and tools 
and implements necessary to carry on business, the whole not exceed- 
ing $75 in value, are exempt from attachment. In addition to the above 
the head of a family may claim $200 of personal property. In New¬ 
castle county wages of laborers are also exempt. No homestead law. 

MARRIED WOMEN, married since 1873, retain all real and per¬ 
sonal property held at marriage, or since acquired from any person 
other than the husband, as their separate estate, and not subject to 
the disposal of the husband or liable for his debts. They may receive 
wages for personal labor, sue or be sued in respect to their own prop¬ 
erty as if unmarried ; and the rents, issues and profits of their separate 
estate are not controlled by the husband. The widow is entitled to 
ont;-third dower of all the lands and tenements whereof her husband 
was seized at any time during her marriage, unless she shall have re¬ 
linquished such right for and during the term of her natural life. She 
may be an administratrix, and the husband’s life may be insured for 
her benefit if premium does not exceed $150. 

MECHANICS' LIENS. Any person who has furnished material 
or performed labor to an amount exceeding $25 may obtain a lien upon 
the building or structure for which such labor was given or such ma¬ 
terial furnished. Claims must be filed within ninety days, and con¬ 


tractors must file a statement within thirty days after the expiration of 
ninety days from completion of the building. 

WILLS must be in writing, signed by the testator, and two wit¬ 
nesses are required. Any person, male or female, twenty-one years 
of age, and of sound mind, may dispose of real or personal property. 
Married women, in order to dispose of their property by will, must 
obtain the written consent of their husband, signed, sealed and 
attested by two witnesses. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent law is in force, ex¬ 
cept that assignments of the property of a special partnership with 
preferences are not valid. 

ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond when the de¬ 
fendant is a non-resident, or removes, or is about to remove his prop¬ 
erty, etc. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within twenty days 
after execution. In case of bills of sale, deeds of trust, or other prop¬ 
erty which is exempt from execution, the mortgage must be signed by 
wife of grantor. 

DEEDS may be acknowledged before any justice or court of record 
and of law, any chancellor of State, any judge of Supreme, Circuit, 
District or Territorial Court, any justice of the peace, notary public or 
commissioner of the Circuit Court of the district appointed for that 
purpose. The officer must annex to the deed a certificate under his 
hand and seal. Acknowledgments outside of the District must be 
accompanied by certificate of the register, clerk or other public officer, 
under his official seal, that the officer was what he purported to be 
at the time of the acknowledgment. Deeds made outside of the 
United States may be executed and acknowledged before any judge or 
chancellor of any court, master in chancery or notary public, or any 
secretary of legation or consular officer of the United States. 

EXEMPTIONS. Family wearing apparel; household furniture to 
the amount of $300; provisions and fuel for three months ; tools or in¬ 
struments necessary to carry on any trade, to the value of $200; library 
and implements of a professional man or artist not above $300; 
family pictures and library to the value of $400, and a farmer’s team 
and other utensils to the value of $100, are exempt from attachment or 
sale on execution, except for servants’ or laborers’ wages. There is 

no homestead exemption. 

• 

MARRIED WOMEN may bequeath, devise or convey property or 
interest therein in the same manner as if unmarried. Real or per¬ 
sonal property belonging to the wife at marriage or afterwards ac¬ 
quired is separate estate. She may sue and be sued in all matters 
pertaining to her property, and the husband is not liable for any con¬ 
tracts made by her in respect to her personal estate. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Any mechanic or laborer or material-man 
who shall perform labor or furnish materials for the construction or re¬ 
pair of any building, shall have a lien upon such building, and the land 
upon which the same is situated, for such labor done or material fur¬ 
nished, when the amount exceeds $20. Claims must be filed with the 
clerk of the Supreme Court of the District within sixty days after the 
work is completed. 

WILLS. To dispose of real estate or personal property by will, 
males must be twenty-one, and females eighteen years of age, must be 
of sound mind and capable of making a deed or contract. Three wit¬ 
nesses are required. Married women may bequeath their separate 
estate. Wills are recorded in the registry of wills. 


FLORIDA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. As no insolvent or assignment laws are in exist¬ 
ence in this State, debtors may assign their property with or without 
preference. 




/ 


-X 


c) 





































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


ATTACHMENT may issue by 
plaintiff giving bond with two se¬ 
curities in at least double the 
debt or sum demanded. Adffia- 
vit must be made setting forth the 
amount actually due; that de¬ 
fendant is a non-resident, and 
that plaintiff has good reason to 
believe he is about to part with 
his property fraudulently before 
judgment can be obtained, or 
intends to remove from the State, 
or to fraudulently secrete his 
property, etc. No arrest is al¬ 
lowed in civil actions, and no imprisonment for debt except in case 
of fraud. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace limited to $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, unless property is 
delivered within twenty days and remains in the possession of the 
mortgagee. Unless the mortgaged property be delivered at the time 
of execution of the mortgage, or within the twenty days, and unless 
such mortgage shall be recorded in the office of record for the county 
in which the mortgaged property shall be at the time of said execu¬ 
tion, the mortgage becomes ineffectual and invalid. Foreclosure is 
made by bill in equity or petition to the Circuit Court of the county in 
which the property lies. 

DEEDS may be acknowledged before any judge, justice of the 
peace or notary public, or before the clerk of a Circuit Court. If exe¬ 
cuted in another State, or foreign country, they may be acknowledged 
the same way as in Alabama. Deeds must be in writing, sealed and 
delivered in the presence of two witnesses, and must be recorded 
within six months after the sealing and delivery of the instrument. A 
scroll is sufficient for a seal. 

DIVORCE. Applicants for divorce must have resided two years 
within the State. Absolute divorces may be granted only by the Cir¬ 
cuit Courts. Adultery, impotency, bigamy, extreme cruelty, habitual 
intemperance or desertion for one year are sufficient causes. Alimony 
may be granted to the wife by the courts, and provision for a division 
of property when a decree is granted. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of 160 acres of land, together with 
improvements, in the country, or a residence and one-half acre of 
ground in a village or city, is exempted to the head of a family. Also 
personal property to the value of $1,000. No property is exempt from 
sale for taxes or for obligations contracted for its purchase or for the 
erection of improvements thereon. The wages of every laborer who 
is the head of a family are also exempt under any process of law. 

MARRIED WOMEN retain all real or personal property owned 
at marriage or acquired thereafter, and are not liable for the husban d’s 
debts. In order that it shall be free from his debts, the property 
must be inventoried and recorded within six months after mar¬ 
riage or subsequent acquirement of the property. The wife may 
sell and convey all real estate inherited by her the same as if 
she were unmarried; but her husband must join in all sales, 
transfers and conveyances of her property, both real and per¬ 
sonal. She is entitled to dower in a life estate in one-third of all the 
real estate of which her husband was seized and possessed at his 
death or at anytime during his life, unless she has relinquished the 
same; also an absolute one-third of his personalty. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Mechanics and laborers have a lien upon 
a building for which they have furnished labor and materials, and upon 
the owner’s interest in the lot on which the building stands. Claims 
must be filed within six months after the work is done or materials 
furnished, and suit be brought within one year. Agricultural laborers 
have a lien on the crops cultivated by them to the amount of their 
wages, and laborers and contractors have a prior lien on logs, lumber, 
etc., for their labor in cutting or manufacturing the same into boards, 
laths or shingles. Machinery furnished for any mill, distillery or 
manufactory obtains a lien to the extent of the interest of the tenant 
or contractor. 

/ 



443 


71 


WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age and of sound mind 
may dispose of real or personal property. Three witnesses are required. 
Nuncupative wills must be proved by three witnesses who were pres¬ 
ent when it was made, and such will may be reduced to writing and 
sworn to within six days. 

GEORGIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by a statute which permits prefer¬ 
ences, except by special partnership, but every assignment made by 
a debtor insolvent at the time, 
either in trust or in behalf of a 
creditor, is fraudulent and null 
and void when any trust or bene¬ 
fit is reserved to the assignor, or 
any person for him. There is no 
insolvent law and no imprison¬ 
ment for debt. 

ATTACHMENTS may issue 
by plaintiff filing bond in double 
the amount involved, when de¬ 
fendant is a non-resident, is 
about to remove without the lim¬ 
its of the county', absconds, con¬ 
ceals himself, or resists legal arrest, attempts to remove property be¬ 
yond the State, or fraudulently disposes of property, or threatens or 
prepares so to do, or creates a fraudulent lien thereon. First attach¬ 
ment levied has priority. Garnishment issues in aid of attachment or 
judgment, but wages of journeymen, mechanics and laborers are 
exempt from garnishment. Jurisdiction of justice of the peace is 
limited to $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within thirty days in 
the county where the mortgageor resides ; and if the property is situ¬ 
ated in another county, it should be recorded there also. Foreclos¬ 
ure by affidavit before justice, notary, or, if non-resident, before 
commissioner for the State. 

DEEDS must be attested by two witnesses, and if not recorded 
within one year the deed loses priority over a subsequent deed re¬ 
corded within the year. A deed must be in writing, under seal (a 
scroll will answer), and made for a consideration. Acknowledgments 
within the State may be taken by ajudge or clerk of a court of record, 
commissioner of deeds, justice of the peace or notary public. In 
other States or Territories, by a commissioner of deeds for Georgia, 
or judge of court of record in the State where executed, with a certi¬ 
ficate of the clerk under the seal of such court of the genuineness of 
the signature of such judge. 

DIVORCE. Grounds for total divorce are as follows: Marriage 
within the prohibited degrees of affinity or consanguinity; mental or 
physical incapacity at the time of marriage; force, menace, duress or 
fraud in obtaining it; adultery, wilful desertion by either party for 
three years, cruel treatment by, or habitual intoxication of either 
party, or sentence to the penitentiary for two years or over for any 
offence involving moral turpitude. No total divorce may be granted 
except by the concurrent verdict of two juries, rendered at different 
times of court; and when a divorce is granted, the jury rendering the 
final verdict determines the rights and disabilities of the parties. 

EXEMPTIONS. Each head of a family, or guardian, or trustee of 
a family of minor children, and every aged or infirm person, or per¬ 
son having the care and support of dependent females of any age, 
who is not the head of a family, is entitled to realty or personalty, or 
both, to the value in the aggregate of §1,600. Said property shall be 
exempt from levy and sale by virtue of any process whatever, under 
the laws of this State, except for taxes, purchase-money of the home¬ 
stead, labor done thereon, or material furnished therefor, or for the 
removal of encumbrances. 

MARRIED WOMEN retain as a separate estate all property in 
their possession at the time of marriage, or afterwards acquired and 
are not liable for any debts, defaults or contracts of the husband. By 



c) 






















































444 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


consent of her husband advertised for four weeks she may become a 
free trader, in which event she is liable the same as if unmarried. 
The wife may not bind her estate by any contract of suretyship, either 
in behalf of her husband or any other person. The widow takes 
dower in one-third of all the lands of which her husband was seized 
at his death; and wife and children, after the husband’s death, are 
entitled to one year’s support from his property, all other claims yield¬ 
ing to this. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Mechanics, not having taken personal 
security, have a prior lien on the property built or repaired by them, 
which lien attaches, without regard to the title, in said property. The 
claimant must have substantially complied with his contract, must 
have recorded his lien within three months in the clerk’s office of the 
county in which the property is situated, and must bring suit within 
one year after it becomes due. Those furnishing machinery, or labor 
for its repair, officers and employes of steamers or other water craft, 
millwrights, and builders of railroads, have a like lien if similarly en¬ 
forced. Landlords have a special lien for rent on crops, which is 
superior to the homestead exemption law, and to all other liens 
except for taxes. 

WILLS may be made by persons of either sex who have arrived 
at the age of twenty-one years. Three witnesses are required. Wills 
are recorded in the Ordinary’s Court. Married women may bequeath 
their separate estate. 

IDAHO. 

ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law exists, under which the debtor 
is discharged upon making an assignment, as therein provided, except 
in cases of fraud. 

ATTACHMENTS may issue in actions upon contract for the direct 
payment of money, when the plaintiff has no lien or security, or when 
the defendant is a non-resident, etc. Jurisdiction of justices of the 
peace is limited to $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded in the county where 
the debtor resides; otherwise they are null and void as regards credit¬ 
ors and purchasers. Record should also be filed in the county where 
the goods may be. Affidavit must be made as to good faith, and no 
intention to defraud creditors. 

DEEDS must be acknowledged the same as in Dakota; they must 
be in writing, signed and sealed (scroll will do), and no witnesses are 
required. Dower and curtesy are unknown. The husband must join 
in conveying the realty of the wife, who must be examined privately, 
certifying that the act is free and voluntary, without fear or compul¬ 
sion, or influence of the husband, and that she does not desire to re¬ 
tract the execution of the same. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead worth $5,000 is exempted to a house¬ 
holder who is head of a family; either husband or wife may select the 
homestead. Personal property is also exempted to the value of $300. 
Exemption does not extend to purchase-money or to mortgages on the 
property. 

MARRIED WOMEN. All property, both real and personal, owned 
at marriage or afterwards acquired, by either wife or husband, re¬ 
mains a separate estate. All property acquired after marriage is held 
in common. Separate property of the wife should be inventoried with 
the county recorder; the husband has control of it during marriage, 
but cannot create a lien or encumbrance unless joined by the wife, 
who is examined separately. If the husband mismanages, or commits 
waste, the District Court may, on application of wife, appoint a trustee 
to manage her separate property. Upon the death of husband or wife 
half the common property goes to survivor; if no direct descendants, 
all goes to survivor. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. The improvement and development of 
mines, claims, flumes, bridges and ditches come under the law of me¬ 
chanics’ liens. Claims must not be less than $25. Original contractor 
must file his claim within sixty days; others within thirty. The lien 


expires after one year unless suit is brought, and continues in force 
two years and no longer. Mechanics or artisans have a lien on arti¬ 
cles left with them to repair or alter, and may sell them within two 
months unless charges are paid, provided the sale be advertised for 
three weeks. 

WILLS. At twenty-one years of age testator may dispose of realty, 
and at eighteen of personal property; two witnesses are required. 
Married women may dispose of their separate estate, both real and 
personal. Husband must leave wife one-half of common property. 
The will must first be recorded in the Probate Court, afterwards in all 
counties where any realty is conveyed by the will. 

ILLINOIS. 

ASSIGNMENTS are made without preference, and all debts must 
be paid pro rata. While no provision is made for the discharge of the 

debtor, yet all proceedings may 
be discontinued with the assent of 
the debtor and a majority of the 
creditors in number and amount. 
The County Court has jurisdic¬ 
tion in all cases of assignment 
for benefit of creditors. Assignee 
must file bond, inventory and 
valuation, and send notice to 
creditors, who must present their 
claims under oath within three 
months. Claims not so presented 
do not share in dividends until 
after the payment of all claims 
properly presented and allowed. 
Assignee is required to make legal division among creditors at the 
first term of court after the three months allowed, and to render final 
account within one year. No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS may issue by plaintiff giving bond with approved 
security, in double the amount of the claim. Plaintiff must also make 
affidavit to one or more of the following facts: That the debtor is 
non-resident, conceals himself, resists process being served on him, 
has departed from the State or is about to do so, with the intention of 
removing his effects ; or has, within two years preceding, fraudulently 
disposed of his property', or a part thereof, so as to hinder or delay 
creditors; or where the debt sued on was fraudulently contracted. 
Writs may issue from courts of record on claims exceeding $20, from 
justices’ courts not exceeding $200, and in county courts claims may 
not exceed $1,000. The wages of any person who is head of a family 
are exempt from garnishment to the amount of $50. Jurisdiction of 
justices of the peace is limited to $200. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES should be properly acknowledged and 
recorded, although as between the parties themselves this is not neces¬ 
sary. Property must be fully described so it may be identified. They 
are invalid as to third parties if given for longer than two years, or if 
the property mortgaged is allowed to remain in possession of the mort- 
gageor, unless expressly provided for in the mortgage. A mortgage 
given on a stock of goods is fraudulent as to third parties, if the mort- 
gageor be allowed to remain in possession of the goods. 

DEEDS may be acknowledged before a master in chancery', notary 
public, United States commissioner, circuit or county clerk, justice 
of the peace, any court of record having a seal, or any judge, clerk or 
justice of any such court. Outside of the State and in the United 
States, in conformity with the laws of the State, Territory or District 
where made. The officer must be authenticated by the certificate of 
the county' clerk or clerk of record under his official seal. If before 
a justice of the peace, it must be certified by the proper clerk, under 
the seal of his office, that the person before whom the acknowledg¬ 
ment was made was a justice of the peace at the time of making the 
same. No deed will waive homestead right, unless expressly stated, 
both in the deed and certificate of acknowledgment. A scroll answers 
for a seal, and no witnesses are required. 













































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


445 


DIVORCE may be granted, where complainant has been a resident 
of the State for one year, for impotency, bigamy, adultery, desertion 
or drunkenness for two years, attempt upon the life of the other by 
poison or other means showing malice, extreme cruelty, conviction of 
felony or other infamous crime. If no defence is interposed, decree 
may be granted on testimony of complainant alone ; but examination of 
witnesses must be had in open court, and the judge is required to be 
satisfied that all proper means have been taken to notify defendant. 
When decree is granted the court may restore the wife’s maiden name. 
During pendency of suit the court may require the husband to pay 
such sum as may enable the wife to maintain or defend the suit, and 
alimony, when declared just and equitable. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead valued at$i,ooois exempted to every 
householder who has a family; such exemption not covering liabilities 
for purchase-money or improvement of the homestead. After the death 
of a householder his family are entitled to the exemption so long as 
the survivor occupies it, .or until the youngest child is twenty-one years 
of age. There are also exempted to every person wearing apparel, 
school books, family pictures and family Bible, and $100 worth of 
other property' selected by the debtor. In addition to this, $300 worth 
may be selected by the debtor if a head of a family; but such selection 
cannot be made from any money or wages due; no exemption is 
allowed when the debt is for the wages of laborer or servant; $50 
of wages is exempt to every head of a family if residing with the 
same. 

MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right realty and per¬ 
sonalty, may sue and be sued, contract and incur liabilities, the same 
as if unmarried ; but they may not enter into or carry on any partner¬ 
ship business without consent of the husband, unless abandoned by 
him or he is incapable of giving assent. Beyond the necessaries, the 
husband is not liable for debts of the wife, except in cases where he 
would be jointly liable if the marriage did not exist. The estate of 
both is liable for family expenses, but the wife’s separate earnings are 
her own. A surviving wife or husband takes one-third of all the 
realty of the deceased, unless relinquished in due form. The husband 
and wife are put upon the same footing as to dower, and the estate 
of curtesy is abolished. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Any person who shall, as principal con¬ 
tractor, by contract, express or implied, with the owner of any lot 
or piece of land, furnish labor, material or services, in building, 
altering, repairing or ornamenting any house or building on said 
lot, shall have a lien upon the lot or building for the amount due 
him for such labor, material or services; provided, that the owner 
shall only be liable to the extent of his interest therein ; and every sub¬ 
contractor, mechanic, workman or other person who shall, in pursu¬ 
ance of the original contract, perform any labor or furnish any ma¬ 
terials for the purposes above mentioned, shall have a lien as in the 
case of principal contractors, the aggregate of such liens not to exceed 
the price stipulated in the original contract, unless it shall appear to 
the court that the owner and principal contractor designed to defraud 
sub-contractors by fixing an unreasonably low price in the contract. 
When the contract is expressed, if the time stipulated for its comple¬ 
tion is beyond three years from its commencement, or if the date of 
payment is more than one j'ear from its completion, there shall be no 
lien. If the contract is implied, no lien shall be had unless the con¬ 
tract be completed within one year from its commencement. 

WILLS. All males twenty-one, and all females eighteen years of 
age, may dispose of real and personal property. Two witnesses are 
necessary. Wills are filed in the Probate Court, and originals remain 
there. 


INDIANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. By filing with the recorder of the county in 
which assignor resides, within ten days after its execution, an indenture 
duly signed and acknowledged, setting forth a full description of all 
his realty and accompanied by a schedule of all his personalty, to 
which assignor makes oath, any debtor in embarrassed circumstances 


may make a general assignment 
of all property in trust for the 
benefit of all bona fide creditors. 

Trustee makes oath and files 
bond in Circuit Court, also copy 
of assignment, within fifteen days 
after execution of indenture. If 
the trustee named fails to act, the 
court may appoint a substitute 
upon petition. Trustee’s com¬ 
pensation is fixed by the court, 
and dividends are declared pro¬ 
rata on all claims allowed by 
trustee or the court. No pro¬ 
vision for discharge of debtor from his liabilities. 

ATTACHMENTS may issue against the property of non-residents 
or foreign corporations, and against all who have disposed of, or are 
about to dispose of their property to defraud, hinder or delay credit¬ 
ors. Plaintiff must give bond to answer damages if proceedings are 
unjust or oppressive. An affidavit is also required, which may be 
made by the creditor or his attorney. All creditors who file under the 
original attachment, before final judgment, share pro rata in the pro¬ 
ceeds of the attached property. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace 
is limited to $200. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are not valid as to third parties unless 
recorded within ten days; a mortgage of perishable articles left in the 
hands of the grantor, with right to use the same, is void ; a mortgage 
on a stock of goods, the grantor having a right to sell, is void ; any 
mortgage is void if unregistered and the chattels left with the 
grantor; so also is a recorded mortgage if the goods are left unreason¬ 
ably long with the grantor, after default is made in payment. 

DEEDS must be in writing, and acknowledged and recorded 
within forty'-five days from their execution ; seals are abolished and 
witnesses are not necessary; dower and curtesy are unknown ; hus¬ 
band and wife must join in conveying the separate estate of either. 
Acknowledgments within the State may be taken before a judge or 
clerk of a court of record, justice of the peace, auditor, recorder, no¬ 
tary, or mayor of a city; in other States and Territories before similar 
officers or a commissioner of deeds for Indiana. 

DIVORCE. Petitioners for divorce must be bona fide residents of 
the State for two years, and of the county at the time of, and for at 
least six months prior to filing the petition ; the oath of two resident 
freeholders being required to this fact. Decrees may issue by the 
Superior or Circuit Court for the following causes: Impotency at 
marriage; adulter}' (where connivance or collusion is not proven); 
habitual cruelty or habitual drunkenness by either party; abandon¬ 
ment for two years; failure by the husband to provide for the family 
for a period of two years, and conviction of either party of an infa¬ 
mous crime at any time subsequent to marriage. 

EXEMPTIONS. There is no homestead exemption; any resident 
householder has exempted real or personal property, or both, to the 
amount of $600 on any debt founded on contract since May 31st, 1S79. 
On debts founded on contracts made previous to that date, exemption 
is $300. Exemption does not, in any event, affect liens for labor, 
purchase-money or taxes. 

MARRIED WOMEN retain all realty and personalty owned by 
them at marriage, or afterwards acquired, and are not liable for the 
husband’s debts. The husband is liable for debts of the wife con¬ 
tracted before marriage only to the extent of the personal property he 
may receive from or through her, or derive from sale or rent of her 
lands. She may sell personal property, but she may not conveyor 
encumber her real estate unless the husband joins. Suits against her 
separate estate should be brought in the name of both. A widow 
takes one-third of her deceased husband’s real estate in fee simple, 
free from all demands of creditors, where the estate does not ex¬ 
ceed $10,000; where the estate is over $10,000 and under $20,000, she 
takes one-fourth; and one-fifth if it exceeds $20,000. She also takes 
one-third of the personalty after payment of debts, and in all cases 



1 / 





















































446 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES ANtT TERRITORIES. 


takes $500, without accounting, and may occupy the dwelling and 
forty acres of land for one year, rent free. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Workmen, contractors, mechanics and 
others who may furnish labor or materials have a lien on the land 
and buildings for material or labor furnished; the statute also pro¬ 
vides a lien on all boats, for work or repairs, or wages earned. Em¬ 
ployes of corporations have a lien on the property and earnings for 
all labor done,which takes precedence of all other claims. Con¬ 
tractors have a lien on railroads where they are not in operation; 
commission merchants on goods left for storage, artisans on articles 
left for repair, and landlords on crops raised on leased lands. Notice 
must be filed within sixty days after the completion of the work, and 
suit must be brought within one year. 

WILLS. All persons twenty-one years of age may bequeath both 
real and personal property. Record must be made in the office of the 
county clerk where probated. No witnesses are required. Nuncu¬ 
pative wills may not exceed $100. Married women may dispose of 
their separate estate. 


IOWA. 

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences are allowed, regulated by 
statute. A debtor may make assignment for the benefit of all credit¬ 
ors, with inventory and schedule 
of debts. Claims must be filed 
with the assignee within three 
months after publication of as¬ 
signment. Dividends are made 
pro rata, after State and mu¬ 
nicipal taxes have been paid in 
full. An assignment does not 
discharge the debtor from all lia¬ 
bilities. 

ATTACHMENTS are sub¬ 
stantially the same as in Illinois. 
Upon plaintiff giving bond for 
penalty and making affidavit that 
defendant is a non-resident or a 
foreign corporation, has disposed of or is about to remove his prop¬ 
erty, intends to permanently remove from the State, has absconded or 
concealed his property, a writ of attachment may issue. Jurisdiction 
of justices of the peace is limited to $100; by consent of parties, $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be acknowledged and recorded 
the same as deeds and other conveyances. The mortgaged property 
is left in possession of the mortgagee unless otherwise provided. 
Sales under foreclosure may be made in the same manner as other 
sheriff sales, and foreclosure may be made by sheriff without action of 
court. 

DEEDS must be in writing, signed and acknowledged; no seal or 
scroll is necessary; no witnesses are required. Acknowledgments in 
the State may be made before a judge or clerk of any court of record, 
county auditor or his deputy, each notary or justice of the peace in 
his own county. Out of the State, before some court of record, notary 
public or justice of the peace, or a commissioner for the State of 
Iowa. 

DIVORCE may be granted by the District or Circuit Court of the 
county in which plaintiff resides. Plaintiff must declare under oath 
that he or she has resided in the State for one year next preceding 
the filing of the petition, unless defendant is resident, and received 
personal service of the writ. A decree may issue against the hus¬ 
band for adultery, wilful desertion for two years, conviction of felony 
subsequent to marriage, habitual drunkenness and continued ill-treat¬ 
ment. The husband may obtain a decree for like causes, and also 
when the wife at the time of marriage was pregnant by another. 
Bigamy or impotency at the time of marriage is also a sufficient cause 
to annul. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead in country of 40 acres, or in town 
or city of one-half acre, with improvements and buildings to the 



aggregate value of $500, is exempted to the head of every family. If 
less than $500 in value, it may be increased to that amount. It is not 
exempted from executionfor the purchase-money thereof,or for debts 
contracted prior to its acquirement. Upon the death of either hus¬ 
band or wife the homestead passes to the survivor. Professional men 
are allowed their libraries, instruments, etc., and a team and wagon; 
printers retain their presses and type to the value of $1,200. The head 
of a family may claim wearing apparel, tools, a gun, his library and f 
furniture to the extent of $200 in value. The personal earnings of the 
debtor for ninety days preceding the execution, certain stock, with 
food for them for six months, a pew in church and a lot in a burying 
ground are also exempt. Non-residents and unmarried persons, not 
being heads of families, can only claim their ordinary wearing ap¬ 
parel and trunk necessary to carry the same, to the value of $75. 

MARRIED WOMEN may own in their own right real and per¬ 
sonal property acquired by descent, gift or purchase, may sell, convey 
and devise the same, may sue and be sued, make contracts and buy 
goods in their own name. Wife or husband are not liable for the 
debts of the other before marriage, or for separate debts incurred 
afterwards. The wife’s earnings are her own, and her note is good 
against her own estate. Women attain majority at eighteen, or ear¬ 
lier upon marriage ; a female of fourteen may marry. The surviving 
wife or husband is entitled to one-third of the real estate of the de¬ 
ceased, free from all claims of creditors. If they leave no children, 
survivor takes one-half, parents the other half. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Mechanics and workmen have a lien upon 
buildings and improvements, and the ground upon which they are sit¬ 
uated, for work done or materials furnished. Railways are liable for 
construction and improvements. The taking of collateral security 
invalidates a lien. The lien must be filed by principal contractor 
within ninety days; by sub-contractor and others, within thirty days- 
Suit must be brought within two years after filing statement. Liens 
have priority in the order in which they are filed, and are assignable; 
and when for labor alone, they ai;e exempt from execution. 

WILLS. Testators must be twenty-one years of age. Two wit¬ 
nesses are required. Nuncupative wills cannot exceed $300 worth of 
property, and must be sworn to by at least two disinterested witnesses. 
Foreign wills must be probated in the State. 

KANSAS. 


ASSIGN MENTS must be for the benefit of all creditors alike, and 
do not discharge the debtor. Creditors whose claims amount to more 
than ten dollars are notified by 
the clerk of the District Court, 
and a meeting is held to choose 
an assignee. Unless a majority 
of the creditors are present the 
appointment rests with the court. 

Those who fail to appear are pre¬ 
cluded. One month is given 
assignee to pay out funds in his 
hands after allowance of de¬ 
mands. The property must be 
appraised, and assignee is in all 
respects subject to order of the 
court, and his accounts are 
passed upon by a commissioner 
before his discharge. An assignment must be executed and recorded 
the same as any conveyance of real estate. No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS are substantially the same as in Illinois. They 
may be had against the property of non-resident debtors, or in cases 
of fraud or attempt to remove or secrete property. Money or prop¬ 
erty due or belonging to defendant may be reached by garnishment. 
Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES need not be acknowledged; copy of 
mortgage deposited with register of deeds in county where mortgageor 
lives. Mortgage of perishable articles left in the hands of mortgageor 



/ 


19 

















































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


447 


with right to use them, or of a stock of goods left in the hands of 
the mortgageor with privilege to sell, are void as to creditors of the 
mortgageor unless they are duly notified. 

DEEDS must be in writing; neither seals, scrolls nor witnesses are 
required. Acknowledgments in the State must be before a court hav¬ 
ing a seal, a judge, justice or clerk thereof; a justice of the peace, 
notary public, county clerk or register of deeds, or mayor or clerk of 
a city; outside the State, before a court of record, or clerk or officer 
holding the seal thereof, a notary public, justice of the peace, or com¬ 
missioner appointed by the Governor of Iowa; if before a justice of 
the peace they must be accompanied by a certificate of his official 
character, to which the seal of some court shall be affixed. No sepa¬ 
rate acknowledgment is necessary on the part of the wife, but she 
should join the husband in conveying, whether the property is her 
separate estate or not. 

DIVORCE. To obtain a decree of divorce, plaintiff must have re¬ 
sided in the State one year, and must bring suit in the county of resi¬ 
dence. Decrees are granted in the Circuit Court on the following 
grounds: Adultery, impotency, fraudulent contract, extreme cruelty, 
habitual drunkenness, gross neglect, abandonment for one year or 
conviction of felony. 

EXEMPTIONS. An independent fortune is exempted in this State. 
A homestead of 160 acres of farming land, or of one acre within an in ■ 
corporated town or city, with buildings and improvements thereon, 
with no limit to value. The head of every family is allowed personal 
property as follows: The family library, school books and family 
Bible; family pictures and musical instruments in use ; pew in church 
and lot in burial ground; all wearing apparel of the family, beds, bed¬ 
steads and bedding, one cooking stove and appendages and all other 
c hoking utensils, and all other stoves and appendages necessary for 
the use of the debtor and his family; one sewing-machine, spinning- 
wheel and all other implements of industry, and all other household 
furniture not herein enumerated, not exceeding $500 in value; two 
cows, ten hogs, one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, or in lieu of 
one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, a span of mules or horses; 
twenty sheep and their wool; food for the support of the stock for one 
year; one wagon, two plows, drag and other farming utensils not ex¬ 
ceeding in value $300; grain, meat, vegetables, groceries, fuel, etc., 
for the family fcr one year; the tools and implements of any me¬ 
chanic, miner or other workman, kept for the purpose of carrying on 
his business, together with stock in trade not exceeding $400 in value; 
library, instruments and office furniture of any professional man. 
Residents, not the head of a family, have tools, implements and stock 
in trade up to $400. No personal property is exempt for the wages of 
any clerk, mechanic, laborer or servant. A lien on the homestead may 
be created by husband and wife joining in the mortgage. 

MARRIED WOMEN have the same property rights as men, and 
may make contracts, carry on business, sue and be sued, and sell or 
convey real estate precisely as their husbands; their earnings or profits 
are their own. A note or endorsement made by a married woman will 
b nd her property the same as if unmarried. Homestead is absolute 
property of widow and children, and neither wife nor husband may 
b jqueath more than half their property without written consent of the 
other. If either die intestate and without children, the entire property 
goes to the survivor. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Mechanics, workmen and others perform¬ 
ing labor, or furnishing materials for the construction or repair of any 
building, have a lien on the building and the whole tract of land. 
Original contractor must file his claim in the office of the Circuit Court 
within four months; sub-contractors and others, within two months. 
Suit must be brought within one year. Artisans or mechanics may 
hold articles of construction or repair, and if charges are not paid 
within three months they may sell the same. 

WILLS are recorded in the office of the Probate Court; if made in 
other States they must be probated in the county where the property 
lies. The testator must be twenty-two years of age, and two witnesses 

are required. 


KENTUCKY. 

ASSIGNMENTS are regulated by statute. Any preference may 
be set aside in six months. Trustee must give bond, and settle his 

account in two years. A general 
assignment for the equal benefit of 
all creditors may be made, and all 
claims must be proven. There is 
no provision for the discharge of 
an insolvent debtor unless debts 
are paid in full. No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENT issues where 
defendant is non-resident or a 
foreign corporation, or has been 
absent from the State, evades 
service, conceals, attempts to re¬ 
move, disposes of or conveys 
property with intent to defraud 
or delay creditors. Plaintiff 
must give bond in double the amount of his claim, with security. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be duly acknowledged and re¬ 
corded, and, except as to creditors having actual notice, take effect 
only from the time they are recorded in the county clerk’s office. 
The mortgaged property may remain in possession of the mortgageor, 
and may be redeemed within five years. 

DEEDS executed in this State by others than married women are 
acknowledged before the clerk of a County Court, or may be proved 
by two subscribing witnesses, or by one who also proves the attesta¬ 
tion of the other, or by proof of two witnesses that the subscribing 
witnesses are both dead or out of the State, or one so absent and the 
other dead, and like proof of the signature of one witness and the 
grantor. The deed of a married woman must be acknowledged before 
a clerk of the County Court, who shall explain to her the contents and 
effect of the deed separately and apart from her husband ; if she 
freely and voluntarily acknowledge the same, and is willing for it 
to be recorded, he shall certify the same. Deeds made by residents of 
Kentucky must be recorded within sixty days from the date thereof; 
four months is allowed to non-residents, and if living out of the 
United States, twelve months. The record dates from the time when 
the clerk’s fee is paid. No seal or scroll need be used, and no wit¬ 
nesses are required. 

DIVORCE. Before a petition can be presented for a decree of 
divorce, one year’s continuous residence in the State is required. 
Jury trials are not permitted, and decrees are granted by courts having 
equitable jurisdiction. An absolute divorce may be granted to the 
party not in fault on the ground of adultery, impotency, etc., separa¬ 
tion for five years, condemnation for felony subsequent to the mar¬ 
riage, force, duress or fraud in obtaining the marriage, or uniting with 
any religious society which requires a renunciation of the marriage 
contract. Habitual neglect or maltreatment on the part of the hus¬ 
band, or where the husband is a confirmed drunkard, may give the 
wife a divorce; and where the wife is proven unchaste, or pregnant by 
another man at the time of marriage, the husband is entitled to 
divorce. The parties are free to marry again, and their personal 
property is restored. 

EXEMPTIONS. To bona, fide housekeepers with a family are ex¬ 
empted from execution and attachment for debt: A homestead to the 
value of $1,000; two work beasts, or one work beast and one yoke of 
oxen; two cows and calves; one wagon or cart; two plows and gear; 
five head of sheep; provisions for family and provender for stock for 
one year; the tools and stock of a mechanic who is a housekeeper and 
has a family, not exceeding $200 in value; libraries or instruments of 
professional men, which may vary in value from one to seven hundred 
dollars; the wages of a laboring man to the amount of fifty dollars, 
except for house rent and necessaries. 

MARRIED WOMEN may hold real or personal property as a sep¬ 
arate estate free from the control of the husband or liability for his 
debts. By petition to the Circuit Court, in which the husband must 



J 






































■V 


-n>t 


448 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


join, she may acquire the right to transact business in her own name. 
Unless dower be barred, forfeited or relinquished, she takes one-third 
of the real estate and one-half of the personal property. 


MECHANICS’ LIENS. Mechanics, laborers and workmen, under 
the general law, have a lien for labor performed or materials furnished 
upon the improvements and interest of the employer in the land. 
Sub-contractors and workmen have a lien by giving the owner written 
notice of their claim, and that they look to the land and improvements 
for compensation. Claims must be filed within sixty days. Suit must 
be brought within six months after filing the account. 


LOUISIANA. 


ASSIGNMENTS without preferences may be made without re¬ 


gard to the insolvent law. 



Under the State laws an insolvent debtor 
may make surrender of property 
to creditors, or an involuntary 
surrender may be forced by any 
creditor who issues an execution 
which is returned unsatisfied. 
Surrender vests all property in 
creditors, and stops all legal pro¬ 
ceedings against the debtor; the 
latter must file sworn schedules 
of assets and liabilities. The 
debtormay be discharged by con¬ 
sent of a majority of creditors in 
number and amount, unless 
guilty of fraud or preference, in 
which case he is deprived of the 


benefit of the insolvent laws, and is liable to imprisonment. 

ATTACHMENTS may issue on application of creditor, under oath, 
when the debtor is about to leave the State permanently, without 
there being a possibility of obtaining judgment against him previous 
to his departure; when the debtor resides out of the State; when he 
conceals himself to avoid service of suit; when he has or is about to 
mortgage, assign or dispose of his property with intent to defraud his 
creditors or give an unfair preference to some of them ; and when he 
has converted, or is about to convert, his property into money or evi¬ 
dence of debt with intent to place it beyond the reach of his creditors. 
Defendant must give bond equal to the amount of his claim, with at 
least one solvent surety. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is 
limited to $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES are unknown to the laws of Louisiana. 

DEEDS may be acknowledged, within the State, before a no* 
tary public, parish recorder or his deputy, in the presence of two wit¬ 
nesses. In other States, before a commissioner of Louisiana, or in 
conformity to the laws of the State where acknowledged. The hus¬ 
band must join the wife in conveying her real estate, and authorize 
her; in disposing of his own real estate, the wife must be examined 
separately and renounce all her rights. 

DIVORCE. Sentence of either party to imprisonment in the peni¬ 
tentiary is sufficient ground for divorce. A decree may also be ob¬ 
tained by either party for adultery, habitual intemperance or cruel 
treatment of such a nature as to render living together insupportable. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead of 160 acres of land, with buildings 
and improvements thereon, is exempted to the head of a family, if 
owned and occupied as a residence, together with personal property, 
the whole not to .exceed $2,000; all wearing apparel, implements, 
stock, etc., with provisions and supplies necessary for the plantation 
for one year. If the wife own separate property in her own right to 
the value of $2,000, there is no exemption. 


WILLS. Any person twenty-one years of age may make a will. 
The will must be proved in the County Court of the county where tes¬ 
tator resided. If the will was written by the testator himself, only 
one witness is necessary; if written by any other person, two witnesses 
are required. Married women may dispose of their separate estate. 


MARRIED WOMEN may hold and control both real and personal 
property owned at time of marriage; all property or revenues of sep¬ 
arate property acquired by either husband or wife after marriage is 
held in common, and is divided equally between them at dissolution 
of the marriage either by death or divorce. The wife may carry on a 
separate business, but her husband will be bound by her contracts, so 
long as the community of property exists; she cannot sue without the 
concurrence of her husband, and she cannot bind herself or her prop¬ 
erty for his debts. There is no right of dower to the wife. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS are known as “privileges;” these are 
allowed to architects, contractors, workmen and furnishers of mate¬ 
rial. For all work exceeding in value five hundred dollars, the agree¬ 
ment must be reduced to writing and registered with the recorder of 
mortgages. To be of effect against third parties, all privileges and 
liens must be recorded in the parish where the property is situated. 

WILLS of four kinds are recognized: nuncupative by public act, 
nuncupative by private act; mystic or sealed wills, and olographic 
wills. The first must be dictated by testator to a notary public and 
read in the presence of three resident or five non-resident witnesses, 
and must be signed by the testator and witnesses. The second must 
be written in the presence of five resident or seven non-resident wit¬ 
nesses, read to them and signed by the testator and the witnesses, or at 
least two of them. In the country three resident or five non-resident 
witnesses will suffice, if more cannot be obtained. The third form, 
or mystic will, is first signed by the testator, then enclosed in an envel - 
ope and sealed up. The testator then declares in the presence of a 
notary and seven witnesses that that paper contains his will, signed 
by himself, the notary endorses the act of superscription on the will 
or envelope, and that act is signed by the notary, the testator and the 
witnesses. Olographic testaments are written entirely by the testator 
himself, and dated and signed by him. No attestation or other form 
is required. The following cannot act as witnesses: Women of any 
age; males under sixteen; the deaf, dumb, blind or insane; those de¬ 
barred by the criminal law from exercising civil functions; those who 
stand as heirs or legatees under the will, except in case of mystic tes¬ 
taments. 


MAINE. 


AN ASSIGNMENT without preferences may be made for the 
benefit of creditors, who have three months thereafter to become par¬ 
ties. All property, except what 


is lawfully exempt, of the insol¬ 
vent debtor is transferred by such 
assignment and may not be at¬ 
tached for six months after first 
publication. Only creditors who 
are parties to an assignment are 
benefited. By the insolvent law 
1S7S-79, where his debts exceed 
$300, a voluntary petition maybe 
filed by the debtor. For involun¬ 
tary proceedings, at least two 
creditors, owning one-fourth of 
the debts, should act. Assign¬ 
ees, approved by the court, may 



set aside an assignment made within four months of the filing of 
insolvency petition. They dispose of the property and divide the 
assets. The insolvent debtor is then discharged. Preferences or 
fraudulent conveyances are void. Proof, brought within two years, 
of fraud, may annul the discharge. For debts of less than three 
hundred dollars the debtor makes a general disclosure and is dis¬ 
charged. 

ATTACHMENTS. All property not exempt by law is liable 
to attachment for debt; neither affidavit nor security being re¬ 
quisite, unless the creditor is a non-resident. By consent of par¬ 
ties or by appraisement, attached perishable property may be sold at 
once, and the proceeds held by the officer. Upon affidavit of creditor 
of his belief that the debtor is going to leave the State and take away 
more property than is necessary for his present support, and that his 


K. 


c) 

















































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


claim is for over ten dollars, the debtor may be arrested. Debtors 
under arrest may make complete disclosure and be discharged. Any 
person owing an insolvent debtor may be held as trustee ; but claims 
for wages under twenty dollars cannot be garnisheed except in case 
of debt incurred for necessaries. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, 
$100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES for over $30 must be recorded where 
the mortgageor resides, or possession of property pass to mortgagee. 
Mortgageor may redeem within sixty days after notice of foreclosure. 

DEEDS. All deeds must be under seal. Within the State ac¬ 
knowledgments are made before a justice of the peace or a notary 
public; in other States, before a magistrate, justice of the peace, no¬ 
tary public or commissioner of deeds for this State; in foreign coun¬ 
tries, before a notary public or United States minister or consul. One 
grantor may make the acknowledgment. The wife joins to relinquish 
dower. 

DIVORCE. The Supreme Judicial Court grants divorce for impo- 
tency, adultery, or for three years’ wilful desertion. Alimony may be 
allowed and dower if the husband be to blame. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $500, or any lot purchased from State 
as a homestead; $50 furniture, $150 library, $300 team, $50 poultry, 
$100 sewing machine, $10 lumber; cow and heifer, ten sheep and 
lambs, plow, wagon, mowing machine, a two-ton boat, the flax, raw 
and manufactured, from one acre of ground, wearing apparel, pro¬ 
visions, fuel, seed grain, provender for stock, and tools. After the 
debtor’s death, his family has the benefit of the exemptions. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds real and personal 
property, acquired in any way except from the husband, the same as if 
single. She may make contracts, sue and be sued and do business 
in her own name; and her property may be taken to satisfy judgments 
against her. Her property is liable only for her own debts. She 
joins husband in a deed selling his property to relinquish dower. He 
joins with her in selling hers only when such property comes from 
him. A wife, being abandoned by her husband, may be allowed to 
take and use his personal property. Dower, life estate in one-third 
of all husband’s real property owned during coverture; one-half if no 
children. He has same interest in deceased wife’s estate. 

MECHANICS’ LIEN on buildings holds good and may be en¬ 
forced bv attachment within ninety days. Statement must be filed 
within thirty days after work is done or material furnished. Lien 
against vessels four days after launching. 

WILLS. Three disinterested witnesses. Testator must be twenty- 
one years of age and of sound mind. Nuncupative wills must be 
reduced to writing within six days. Wills devising real estate must 
be recorded the same as deeds. 

MARYLAND. 

ASSIGNMENTS. Either on his own application, or that of two or 
more creditors whose claims exceed $230, a debtor is decided to be in¬ 
solvent. Except on proof of 
fraud or preference, he is dis¬ 
charged by surrender of his prop¬ 
erty. Claims of non-resident 
creditors are not affected, unless 
filed in the proceedings. Assign¬ 
ments without preferences or pro¬ 
visions for release of debtor are 
allowed. 

ATTACHMENTS maybe ob¬ 
tained by simple affidavit when 
defendant is a non-resident, or 
has absconded; and by affidavit 
with security in double amount 
of claim, where plaintiff believes defendant is about absconding, or 
has disposed of, or intends to dispose of or conceal his property to 
defraud his creditors. Attachments reach debtor’s propert)' whether 
in his own hands or in those of others. Wages for less than $100 not 

¥- _ __= 



7 ] 

449 


yet due cannot be attached. No imprisonment for debt. Jurisdiction 
of justices of the peace, $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must have seal, be acknowledged and 
recorded within twenty days. Before recording affidavit must be 
made that the consideration is true and bona. fide. To foreclose, 
mortgagee gives bond and twenty days’ notice before sale. Court 
must confirm sale. 

DEEDS must be sealed and have at least one witness. Acknowl¬ 
edgments within the State are taken by any court of record, or justice 
of the peace who is certified to under seal of a court of record. In 
other States, by a notary public, court of record or commissioner of 
deeds for Maryland. In foreign countries,by United States minister 
or consul or notar) - public under seal. Wife joins husband to release 
dower. No separate examination. Deeds must be recorded within 
six months from date of execution. 

DIVORCE. Absolute, for adultery, three years’ abandonment, or 
antenuptial misconduct of wife. Partial, for cruelty, abandonment 
and desertion. Alimony and restoration of wife’s property. 

EXEMPTIONS. Besides wearing apparel, books, and tools used 
for earning a living, there is exempt other property to the value of 
$100. No homestead. 

MARRIED WOMEN. Property acquired by a married woman is 
her own, controlled by herself, and is free from her husband’s debts. 
She conveys by joint deed with the husband, but devises and be¬ 
queaths the same as if single. She may be sued with her husband on 
joint contracts made by them, and the property of both is equally 
liable. Dower one-third, if they have children ; one-half, if none. 

MECHANICS’ LIEN is to one-fourth of the value. Lien lasts 
four years on stationary and two years on floating property. In 
Calvert, Charles, Kent and St. Mary’s counties there are no liens on 
stationary property. Notice must be given to owner within sixty 
days and claim filed within six months. 

WILLS. Age twenty-one for males, eighteen for females. Three 
witnesses. No witness needed for wills granting personal property. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 


ASSIGNMENTS. An assignment for the benefit of all creditors is 
good against an attaching creditor, but maybe voided by an assignee 
in insolvency. One creditor may 
file petition for bankruptcy pro¬ 
ceedings. Discharge, barring 
fraud or preference, is granted 
upon payment of fifty per cent, 
or by consent of majority in num¬ 
ber and value of creditors. At¬ 
tachments less than four months 
old are dissolved by insolvency 
proceedings. 

ATTACHMENTS. All unex¬ 
empted property is liable to at¬ 
tachment, but real estate may not 
be attached in suits for less than 
$20. Bond with good security 
being furnished by the debtor, the attachment is dissolved. The 
debtor may be arrested and held to bail on sworn testimony that he is 
about leaving the State, and that he has property which he is reserv¬ 
ing from the payment of his debts. A debtor against whom a judgment 
has been obtained may be sworn as to the amount of his prop¬ 
erty, and if he refuse to surrender it, he maybe arrested. He may 
then apply for relief by taking the poor debtor’s oath. Jurisdiction 
of justices of the peace, $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within fifteen days. 
Foreclosure requires three weeks’ notice. 

DEEDS require to be under seal. No witness is needed. Ac¬ 
knowledgment of one grantor is sufficient. Wife joins to bar dower. 
No separate examination. Acknowledgments are taken by justices of 
the peace or notaries public. In other States, by justices of the peace, 
















































45° 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


notaries public, magistrates or commissioner of deeds for Massachu¬ 
setts. Im foreign countries, by United States Consuls. A certificate 
of his official character should accompany the acknowledgment 
taken by any officer other than the commissioner of deeds. 

DIVORCE. Unfaithfulness, incapacity, three years’ desertion, cru¬ 
elty, drunkenness, neglect to provide, sentence to five years’ impris¬ 
onment and joining a sect which disavows marriage, are grounds 
for absolute divorce. Alimony is allowed, and where the husband is 
at fault the wife’s personal property is restored. 


EXEMPTION. Homestead, $800 (must be recorded as such) ; fur¬ 
niture, $300; sewing machine, $100; library, $50; tools and imple¬ 
ments, $100; stock in trade, $100; boats and outfit, $100; one cow; 
one hog and six sheep, and wages under $20. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is man¬ 
aged by herself, and is not liable for her husband’s debts. She may 
make contracts, sue and be sued and do business in her own name, 
provided a certificate is filed by her or her husband in the office of the 
town clerk. Contracts and conveyances between husband and wife 
are not allowed. Her conveyances of real estate are subject to hus¬ 
band’s tenancy by curtesy. A wife cannot make a will affecting her 
husband’s right to one-half of the personal property and his tenancy 
by curtesy in her real estate, without his written consent. Dower as 
by common law. 


MECHANICS’ LIEN covers building and the lot on which it stands. 
A lien for material not ordered by the owner will be defeated un¬ 
less he has been served with written notice when furnished. Claims 
must be filed within thirty days, and suit begun in ninety. Bond with 
security to pay the claim dissolves the lien. Timely notice in writing 
from the owner to sub-contractors or journeymen that he will not be 
responsible, will bar a lien for their claims. 

WILLS. Testator must be of full age and sound mind. Three wit¬ 
nesses. Bequest to subscribing witness is void. Will of a married 
woman, unless by consent of husband, is subject to his rights by 
curtesy. Probate within thirty days after death becomes known. 

MICHIGAN. 


ASSIGNMENTS may be made either with or without preferences, 


providing no intent to defraud is 



evident. By insolvent law the 
debtor, with consent of two- 
thirds of his creditors, surrenders 
his property and is discharged. 

ATTACHMENTS issue when 
defendant is a non-resident or 
foreign corporation. Also when 
he is about to remove himself or 
his property with intent to de¬ 
fraud. Garnishment whenever 
requisite. Wages, less than twen¬ 
ty-five dollars, due the head of a 
family, are free from garnish¬ 
ment. Jurisdiction of justices of 
the peace, $300. 


CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded. Each mortgage 
must contain provisions for its own foreclosure. Mortgagee must file 
affidavit every year for continuance. 

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgment before judge 
of court of record, justice of the peace or notary public. When a mar¬ 
ried woman joins her husband in a deed, her acknowledgment is 
taken separately. Record in county where land is located. 

DIVORCE. Absolute divorce may be granted for incapacity at time 
of marriage, adultery, two years’continuous desertion, drunkenness 
or three years’ sentence to imprisonment. A life sentence dissolves 
the marriage without any proceedings in court. Divorce from bed 
and board for cruelty and neglect to provide. Separation of property, 
dower and alimony as per statute. 


EXEMPTIONS. Forty acres of land, with improvements, in the 
country, or house and lot worth $1,500 in town; furniture, $250; library, 
$150; two cows, five hogs, ten sheep, team, tools, provisions and fuel. 
No exemptions from execution for purchase-money. 

MARRIED WOMEN own and control property the same as if 
single. A wife may do business in her own name and make contracts, 
even with her husband. Her separate property is liable for wrongs 
committed by her. Widow has dower, but there is for the surviving 
husband no right of tenancy by curtesy. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Copy of contract or statement of agree¬ 
ment must be filed. Lien holds for six months, within which time 
suit must be begun. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one. Two witnesses. Witnesses 
may not be beneficiaries. Record in counties where lands lie. Nun¬ 
cupative wills for more than $300 not allowed. 


MINNESOTA. 



ASSIGNMENTS. Inventory of property must be filed within ten 
days after making an assignment. Order of payments: First, debts 
due the United States, or the 
State of Minnesota, in full; sec¬ 
ond, wages for labor and ser¬ 
vice within three months preced¬ 
ing the assignment, in full if 
there be sufficient, otherwise 
prorata; third, all other debts. 

No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS are issued 
on plaintiff giving bond in double 
amount, and making affidavit 
that he believes defendant is a 
non-resident, has absconded or 
is about to abscond, that he has 
removed or is about to remove 
his property; that he conceals himself to avoid summons; that he has 
fraudulently contracted the debt, or fraudulently evades payment. No 
arrest for debt. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $ico. 


CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be acknowledged and recorded 
where mortgageor resides, and also where the property is. They hold 
good for two years without renewal. If no special terms in the in¬ 
strument, there must be three weeks’ notice to foreclose. 

DEEDS require two witnesses. Acknowledgments are taken, 
within the State, by justice of the peace, notary public, register of 
deeds, court commissioner, county auditor or judge or clerk of courtof 
record. Outside of the State, by notary public, justice of the peace, 
judge of court of record or commisioncr for this State. Wife joins to 
release dower, but need not be questioned separately. 

DIVORCE. Absolute divorce for unfaithfulness, incapacity, three 
years’ abandonment, one year’s drunkenness, cruel treatment or sen¬ 
tence to State’s prison. Limited divorce for abuse, desertion or fail¬ 
ure to support. Plaintiff, except where breach of faith occurred in the 
State, must have been one year a resident. The court maycrdcrali 
mony and custody of children, and the wife regains possession of 
her real estate, unless decree has been obtained on account of her bad 
conduct. 

EXEMPTIONS. Eighty acres with improvements, in countrv, or 
lot with dwelling on it, in town. Household property, $500; wagon, 
plows and farming implements, $300; three cows, ten hogs, twenty 
sheep, yoke of cattle and a horse, or, instead, a pair of horses; one 
year’s provisions, fuel, feed for stock and seed grain. A miner’s or 
mechanic’s tools and stock in trade to $400; the library and instru¬ 
ments of a professional man. Wages under $50 of a laboring m n, 
earned within the last ninety days, and where the debtor is publisher 
of a newspaper, his complete outfit to value of $2,000, and stock $400. 


MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property in her 
own name. She may make contracts, and her property is liable only 
for her own debts. She cannot sell or convey real estate, further than 














































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


4Si 


a mortgage for purchase-money or a three years’ lease, without her 
husband joining her. Contracts between husband and wife are void. 
The surviving husband or wife keeps the homestead for life, and is 
entitled to one-third of all the lands possessed by the deceased after 
all debts have been paid. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Account must have been filed within one 
year, and lien holds good for two years. Sub-contractors and jour¬ 
neymen claiming a lien by service of the papers on the owner will 
have the amount of their claims retained from what is due the con¬ 
tractor. There is also'a lien for work done on personal property, 
which may be sold after three months if charges be not paid. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one for men, eighteen for women. 
Two witnesses. 


MISSISSIPPI. 



ASSIGNMENTS, even with preferences, but without reservations 
for the debtor’s benefit, may be made. Intent to defraud, being 

evident, will void any assign¬ 
ment. No insolvent law, and no 
provision for discharge of debtor. 


ATTACHMENTS issue after 
plaintiff furnishes bond and 
makes affidavit that the debtor is 
a non-resident or has absconded 
or is about to abscond, has con¬ 
cealed himself or his property, or 
in any manner, by conveyance or 
otherwise, put his property be¬ 
yond reach of his creditors, so as 
fraudulently to avoid payment of 
his debts. Resident and non-res¬ 
ident creditors have equal rights. The first attachment has priority 
over subsequent ones. No arrest or imprisonment for debt. 


CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must 
be taken into the possession of the mortgagee. Foreclosure and sale 
must be provided for in the mortgage. 

DEEDS. Two witnesses are needed if not acknowledged; other¬ 
wise one. Acknowledgments may be made before judges of any of 
the United States Courts, judges of the Supreme or Superior Courts 
of any of the States or Territories, justices of the peace, notaries 
public, or before commissioners appointed by the Governor of this 
State. In case of a justice or notary, his official character must be 
certified to under seal of some court of record. A married woman 
joins her husband in a conveyance to release dower, and, in making 
her acknowledgment, must be questioned separate and apart from 
him. 


DIVORCE. After one year’s residence in the State, divorce may be 
obtained for impotency, adultery, bigamy, cruelty, two years’ aban¬ 
donment or imprisonment in the penitentiary. Alimony is allowed 
when the wife is the injured party, and the court awards the custody 
of minor children. 

EXEMPTIONS. To the householding head of a family, eighty 
acres of land and improvements in country, or house and lot in town, 
either to value of $2,000. Tools and farming implements ; library and 
instruments of professional man to value of $250; one horse or mule 
or a yoke of oxen, two cows and calves, five hogs, five sheep; wagon 
$100; furniture $100; provisions and provender; wages of a laborer 
$100. 


MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property acquired 
in any manner, and the revenues therefrom, for her own use and free 
from control or liability of her husband. She may convey and en¬ 
cumber the same as if single, but husband joins in conveyance. She 
may devise and bequeath. Deed from husband to wife is void as to 
creditors at time of making it. A wife may not encumber her estate 


by mortgage or otherwise for her husband’s debts; she may do busi¬ 
ness on her own account the same as if single, and is then liable for 
her contracts, housekeeping and family expenses. She joins her 
husband in conveyance of homestead, but not in that of his other 
property. Dower in property of which the husband dies seized. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS must be enforced by suit within six 
months. Liens reach land, buildings and fixed machinery, boats and 
vessels. Bona fide purchasers cannot suffer unless they have been 
served with notice. 

WILLS. Testator must be twenty-one years of age. Three wit¬ 
nesses. 


MISSOURI. 

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences. Inventory of assets must 
be filed within fifteen days. Assignee gives three months’ notice of a 
day fixed for hearing all claims. 

No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS issue when 
defendant is a non-resident, or a 
foreign corporation, or conceals 
or absents himself, makes away 
with or attempts to place his 
property out of reach to defraud 
his creditors, or has fraudulently 
contracted the debt, or where the 
action is for damages arising from 
misconduct; or where debtor fa ils 
to pay for goods that were to be 
paid for on delivery. Garnishee 
process when there is occasion. 

No arrest for debt. Justices of the peace limited to $150. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Possession of property must pass into 
hands of mortgagee, or else the mortgage must be recorded. Fore¬ 
closure, if for less than $100, requires sixty' days’ notice. If for larger 
amount, a judgment in court is necessary. 

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before judge or clerk of a • 
court having a seal, a justice of the peace or notary public. In other 
States, before commissioner of Missouri, of court with seal, or notary 
public. Wife joins in deed and must be examined separately'. Rec¬ 
ord in county where land is located. 

DIVORCE. Grounds: Impotency at time of marriage, unfaithful¬ 
ness, bigamy, conviction of crime, drunkenness, cruelty, and one 
year’s desertion. Petitioner must have been one year a resident of the 
State. Trial without jury. 

EXEMPTIONS. To head of family one hundred and sixty acres in 
the country to the value of $1,500, a lot (thirty rods) in small town to 
same value, or lot (eighteen rods) in city having 40,000 inhabitants, to 
value of $3,000. Personal property, $300. One month’s wages. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman controls her own prop¬ 
erty, and holds it through a trustee free from liability for her husband’s 
debts. She may' make contracts, sign notes and do business in her 
own name. She may make a will. She joins her husband in his con¬ 
veyances to release dower. Her dower is one-third for life of all 
lands owned by husband. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS have priority over all other encumbrances 
that may be placed on property after the work has begun. Claims of 
original contractors must be filed within six months. Those of jour¬ 
neymen and laborers in thirty days. Of other persons in four months. 
Action within ninety days of claims being filed. 

WILLS. Testator’s age to devise real estate, twenty-one for male, 
eighteen for female; to dispose of personal property, eighteen, either 
sex. Two witnesses. Must be recorded thirty days after probate. 
Copy of will must be recorded in each county where devised lands 
may be situated. 


PSESESHSESZSH53S2SHSH52SESZS2S 


































































45 2 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


MONTANA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. No insolvent or assignment law. 

ATTACHMENTS are allowed in suits on contracts for payment of 
money. Plaintiff gives bond in double amount. An attachment may 
be had before a debt is due, if debtor fraudulently disposes of prop¬ 
erty to avoid payment. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Possession of property must pass to 
mortgagee, or the mortgage must be recorded, and must explictly 
state that possession is to be retained by mortgageor. Holds good for 
one year, during which any one selling said mortgaged goods forfeits 
double the value to the purchaser, is guilty of misdemeanor, and is 
liable to fine of from $50 to $500. 

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a judge or clerk of 
court of record, justice of the peace, mayor of a city, or a register of 
deeds. Officer taking acknowledgment must affix his official seal. A 
wife must be questioned separately. 

EXEMPTIONS. House and a quarter acre lot in town, or a farm 
of eighty acres, neither to exceed $2,500 in value. Personal property 
to the value of $1,400. No exemptions are good against a mortgage, 
a mechanics’ lien or a claim for purchase-money. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A list of a married woman’s property filed 
and recorded saves it from being liable for the husband’s debts, ex¬ 
cept necessaries for herself and children under eighteen. A married 
woman may become a sole trader by recording her intention. If she 
invests more than $10,000 in business she must make oath that the 
surplus did not come from her husband. The husband is not liable 
for debts contracted by her in business. She is also responsible for 
the maintenance of her children. A surviving husband or wife takes 
one-half of deceased’s property,if no children; one-third if there are. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Claim of an original contractor must be 
filed within ninety days; that of a sub-contractor within thirty davs. 
All liens filed within thirty days of the filing of the first one share 
alike. Sub-contractor’s suit must begin within ninety days. That 
of original contractors in one year. 

WILLS. Testator’s age for either sex, eighteen years. Two wit¬ 
nesses. 

NEBRASKA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. Preferences, except for amounts under $100 that 
may be due for labor, are not allowed. Nor is an assignment clogged 

with conditions for release of 
debtor of any value. Assignee 
files sworn schedule within thirty 
days and gives bond in double 
amount. Recording within the 
thirty days is a positive feature 
in the validity of an assignment. 
No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS. When de¬ 
fendant is a non-resident, affida¬ 
vit and bond in double amount 
must be furnished. Attachments 
are allowed when defendant is a 
non-resident or foreign corpor¬ 
ation, removes or conceals his property, or absconds, or when the 
claim has already been allowed by a decree in court. On appearance 
of fraud the debtor may be attached in person. Garnishment in aid. 
No insolvent law. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded (mortgagee renewing 
annually) and holds good for five years. Foreclosure, twenty days’ 
notice and public sale. If provided for in the instrument, no court 
proceedings are needed for foreclosure. 

DEEDS must have one witness. Acknowledgments within the State 
are taken by judges, clerks of courts, justices of the peace or notaries 
public. In other States, by commissioners of deeds for Nebraska or 
by the legally authorized local officers. In foreign countries, by no¬ 


taries public or United States ministers or consuls. To bar dower or 
curtesy a wife or husband must join in deed. No separate examin¬ 
ation required. 

DIVORCE. Unless the marriage took place in the State, and the 
plaintiff has since continuously resided therein, a residence in the 
county of six months next preceding the application is necessary. 
Divorce is granted on the grounds of impotency at the time of mar¬ 
riage, adultery, two years’ desertion, drunkenness, cruelty, three 
years’ sentence to imprisonment, or failure on the part of husband to 
support wife. The court may order alimony, and where a decree is 
granted on account of the husband’s bad conduct the wife takes 
j dower. 

EXEMPTIONS. Dwelling and 160 acres of land in country, or two 
adjoining lots in town, value $2,000. If he has no real property, the 
debtor may retain personal property to value $500. Clothing, furni¬ 
ture, provisions, animals, tools and other things as per statute, and 
sixty days’ wages of laborer. Exemptions are not good against 
mechanics’ lien, mortgage or purchase-money. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds her separate prop¬ 
erty free from the disposal of her husband and from liability for his 
debts. She may bargain, sell, make contracts, do business, sue and 
be sued, all so far as her separate estate may warrant; but she cannot 
become surety for another, not even being allowed to bind hergelf for 
her husband’s debts. Property coming to the wife from the husband 
is not privileged as her separate property. Dower, use for life of 
one-third of real estate owned by husband during coverture. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. A sworn itemized account must be filed 
within four months of the performance of work or the furnishing of 
material. Lien holds two years. 

WILLS. Two witnesses. 

NEVADA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. Insolvent law provides for discharge of the 
debtor without any certain percentage or consent being requisite. 
Discharge is only from debts 
entered on the filed schedule. 

Assignments, to be valid, must 
comply with the insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS. In an ac¬ 
tion on a contract for the pay¬ 
ment of money not secured by 
mortgages or lien on property 
within the State, an attachment 
may be issued, plaintiff making 
affidavit and giving bond. Also 
when defendant is a non-resident. 

A fraudulent or absconding 
debtor maybe arrested, plaintiff 
giving at least $500 security. 

Jurisdiction of justices of the peace is limited to $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. With the exception of a mortgage on 
growing crops, no chattel mortgage is valid unless possession passes 
to mortgagee. 

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made within the State before a 
judge or clerk of a court having a seal, a justice of the peace or no¬ 
tary public. In other States, by judge or clerk of court having a seal, 
a justice of the peace, notary public or commissioner for the State. 
Acknowledgments taken by a justice of the peace must be accompa¬ 
nied by sealed certificate from court of record declaring his official 
character. Wife joins husband in a deed and is separately examined. 
Signature and deed, not having been acknowledged, maybe approved 
by competent evidence. 

DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have resided six months in the county. 
Grounds of divorce are physical incompetency at time of marriage, 
adultery, one year’s desertion, drunkenness, cruelty, conviction of 
crime and failure on part of husband to support. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $5,000; tools, implements and other 
| personal property, as per statute; miner’s cabin, $500. 

















































MARRIED WOMEN. The separate property of a married woman 
which is controlled by herself is such as she may have owned before 
marriage or acquired afterwards by gift, devise or descent. All prop¬ 
erty acquired otherwise, by either husband or wife, is common property, 
and under the absolute control of the husband. On the death of the 
husband the widow receives one-half of the common property. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Claim must exceed $25, must be recorded 
within sixty davs, and suit must be begun within six months. A sub¬ 
contractor must file within thirty day's. Railroads, canals, mines, 
tunnels, ditches and buildings subject to lien. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, eighteen y r ears. Two witnesses. A mar¬ 
ried woman disposes of her separate estate, and, with the consent of 
her husband, of her interest in the common property. A child whose 
name nas been unintentionally omitted in the provisions of a will 
takes a share the same as if a parent had died intestate. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

ASSIGNMENTS. Without preferences. Assignee files schedule 
within ten days. Claims must be proved up within six months. Dis¬ 
senting creditors must give no- 
F ' 5ESESSSasas2sa5asasasH5asH5asHS=SH ’' 3 tice inside of thirty days after the 

assignment. They receive no 
benefit, but continue their claims 
and hold any liens they'may'have 
obtained. No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS are taken 
out on original writ, and are a 
lien for thirty days after judg¬ 
ment, during which time execu¬ 
tion must be levied. Mechanics’ 
lien has precedence over attach¬ 
ments. Trustee process to attach 
debtors’ money or other property. 
Wages, to $20, exempt. On plain¬ 
tiff’s oath, the debt being over $13.33, debtor ma y be arrested if he has 
concealed his property or is about to leave the State to avoid payment. 
Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Mortgagee mu«t take immediate pos¬ 
session, or mortgage must be recorded with the affidavits of both the 
mortgageor and mortgagee that it is bona fide and for a real debt. 
Foreclosed after thirty days from breach of condition, and sale held 
after four days’ notice. Mortgageor has a right to redeem until sale. 

DEEDS. Every conveyance of real estate requires a seal, and must 
have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be taken by notaries 
public, justices of the peace or commissioner of deeds. Wife joins to 
release dower. No separate examination. 

DIVORCES are granted by the Supreme Court for physical incom¬ 
petency, adultery, drunkenness, cruelty', three years’ desertion, one 
year’s sentence to prison or adherence to a religious sect that con¬ 
demns marriage. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $500; $100 furniture; $100 tools; $200 
books; $500 fuel and provisions; sewing machine, cook stove, bedding 
and clothing, one hog, six sheep, one yoke of oxen or one horse, and 
four tons of hay'. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds property owned 
before marriage or acquired afterwards, except what may come 
from the husband, for her own use. She may sell, convey and 
encumber, devise and bequeath, do business, give notes, sue and be 
sued. Her contracts are binding, excepting that there can be no con¬ 
tracts or convevances between husband and wife, nor can the wife 
become security for her husband. Wife is entitled to dower. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS take precedence of all attachments, and 
hold on stationary property' for ninety days ; on lumber, logs and bark 
for sixty days, and on vessels for four days. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one. Three witnesses. Nuncu¬ 
pative wills must be reduced to writing within six days. Probate 
within six months. 


NEW JERSEY. 



ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are void. Sworn inventory must 
accompany' assignment. An insolvent debtor is discharged on sur¬ 
render of all his property. Wages p=saSESHSaSHSBSHSHSHSHSH5HS2S2SZSHSS,'5 
due for service or labor to the 
amount of $300 have precedence 
over other claims. 

ATTACHMENTS issue when 
defendant is a non-resident or a 
foreign corporation, or absconds 
or assigns or conceals his prop¬ 
erty to defraud his creditors. If 
fraud be evident, the defendant 
may be arrested. Limit of juris¬ 
diction of justices of the peace, 

$100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must either be recorded or the property 
must pass into possession of mortgagee. To continue claim mort¬ 
gagee must renew record thirty days before the expiration of one 
y'ear. Foreclosure by suit in court. No redemption. 

DEEDS must be under seal, and have one witness. The word 
“heirs” must appear in an instrument to convey in fee simple. Ac¬ 
knowledgments are taken by' the chancellor or justice of the Superior 
Court, master in chancery', judge of the Court of Common Pleas, or 
commissioner of deeds. In other States, by commissioners of deeds 
for this State or by legally authorized local officers. Husband and 
wife join in a deed conveying the estate of either, he to give his con¬ 
sent, she to release dower. 

DIVORCE. Absolute for adultery,bigamy or three years’ abandon¬ 
ment. Partial for cruelty'. Applicant must reside in the State, unless 
the marriage or the alleged misconduct occurred here. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead $1,500, and $200 household property. 
MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage, and 
such as she may acquire afterwards by' gift, descent or bequest, is the 
sole property of a married woman and is not liable for the husband’s 
debts. She may make contracts, but cannot sell or encumber her real 
estate without consent of husband. She cannot endorse notes or be¬ 
come security. She joins husband in his conveyances and mortgages. 
Dower and curtesy'. 

MECHANICS' LIENS. Claims must be filed and suit brought 
within one year. On a structure erected by contract which has been 
filed and recorded only the contractor may claim a lien. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one y'ears. Two witnesses. Wit¬ 
ness cannot be a beneficiary. A married woman making a will can¬ 
not impair her husband’s rights by curtesy. 

NEW MEXICO. 

ASSIGNMENTS. No assignment or insolvent laws. 
ATTACHMENTS when defendant is non-resident, absconds, con¬ 
ceals propertv or shows intent to defraud. Jurisdiction of justices of 
the peace, $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Growing crop is the only sort of per¬ 
sonal property that may not be mortgaged. Possession of property' 
must pass into hands of mortgagee, or the mortgage must be re¬ 
corded. Mortgage holds for one y'ear. For continuance, mortgagee 
must file renewal thirty days before each year expires. 

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a judge or clerk of a 
court of record, notary public, justice of the peace, mayor of a city' or 
register of deed;. A married woman’s separate property is conveyed 
by deed signed by’ both husband and wife. Her acknowledgment 
must be taken apart, and she must be questioned as to her freedom of 
action in the transfer. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $100; $10 furniture; $20 tools; $25 
provisions. 


K 


\ 




<s 













































454 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


MARRIED WOMEN. The separate property of a married woman 
is what she owned previous to marriage, or what she may inherit. 
All that she acquires afterwards, and the revenues of her separate 
estate, go into the common property. The husband has control and 
management of her separate estate and the common property. There 
is no dower, but on decease of a husband the wife’s private property 
is first deducted ; then she receives one-half of the common property, 
after all debts are paid. If there be no children she has a right to all 
the common property. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Must file claim within sixty days, and 
bring suit within one year. A lien may be had on movables repaired 
by mechanics. Landlords may have lien on property of tenants, and 
inn-keepers on the baggage of their guests. 

WILLS. Testators’ age, fourteen for males, twelve for females. 
Written wills require three witnesses; verbal wills five. Probate judge 
may disapprove of a will, but appeal can be carried to District Court. 

NEW YORK. 

ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. A debtor who 
has been imprisoned on an execution for a sum less than $500, on 

making an assignment of his 
property, barring fraud, may be 
discharged immediately ; and for 
a larger sum, after three months’ 
imprisonment. Consent of two- 
thirds of creditors may hasten 
discharge. 

ATTACHMENTS. When de¬ 
fendant is a non-resident or has 
absconded, conceals himself or 
is about to place his property be¬ 
yond reach to defraud creditors, 
or in an action for damages, at¬ 
tachments may be issued. An 
unsatisfied execution being re¬ 
turned after a judgment, the defendant or any other persons may be 
examined as to property of debtor in their hands, and be forced to use 
what is not exempted towards payment of the debtor. Jurisdiction 
of justices of the peace, $200. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or property must 
change hands. Good for only one year unless record be renewed. 
Foreclosure, unless by terms of mortgage, by seizure and sale after 
three days’ notice. 

DEEDS must be under seal. Within the State, acknowledgments 
are made before notary public, justice of the peace, surrogate, judge 
of court of record, recorder or commissioner of deeds. In any other 
State, before commissioner for this State, judge of United States 
Court, judge of Supreme, Circuit or Superior Court, or the mayor of a 
<jity, or before any legally authorized officer. 

DIVORCE. Only for adultery will an absolute divorce be granted. 
Partial divorce is ordered for cruelty, desertion and neglect. Mar¬ 
riages are annulled for fraud or force, idiocy, lunacy or impotency at 
the time of marriage, or for bigamy. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; $250 furniture, tools, team and 
other personal property; sixty days’ wages. 

MARRIED WOMEN may have real and personal property, buy 
and sell and do business in their own names. A married woman is 
liable for debts contracted in her own trade or business, or when an 
agreement or contract has been made for the benefit of her separate 
property, when, by the terms of such instrument, her separate prop¬ 
erty is to be charged with the liability. Dower. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Time for filing notice varies in different 
counties from thirty days to three months. Suit must be brought with¬ 
in one year. 

WILLS. Testator’s age to dispose of real estate, twenty-one years; 
of personal property, eighteen for males, sixteen for females. Two 
witnesses. The address of a witness acompanies his signature. 


NORTH CAROLINA. 

ASSIGNMENTS with preferences are allowed. An insolvent 
debtor, by filing petition and assigning his property to trustee for 
benefit of all creditors, is dis¬ 
charged. But property that he 
may afterwards acquire is liable 
for the same old debts. If con¬ 
cealment or fraud is proved the 
debtor may be imprisoned until 
he discloses all his property. 

ATTACHMENTS. The cred¬ 
itor must give bond and security 
for costs and damages, and must 
file affidavits. An attachment is 
issued against the property of a 
debtor who is non-resident or a 
foreign corporation, who has left 
the State or conceals himself to avoid summons, or has removed or is 
about to dispose of his propeny to defraud his creditors. Personal 
service of summons or publication within thirty days after obtaining 
order for attachment is required. Publication must be continued four 
weeks. Justices of the peace limited to $200. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded; may only be for 
property to value of $300. Foreclosure by seizure and sale after 
twenty days’ public notice. 

DEEDS must have one or more witnesses. Acknowledgments 
within the State are made before a justice of the peace, notary public 
or judge or clerk of a court of record. In other States, before a clerk 
of court of record or a commissioner of deeds for North Carolina. 
In foreign countries, before a mayor or chief magistrate of a city', or 
before a United States consular officer. Wife joins husband to bar 
dower and must make her acknowledgment separate and apart. 

DIVORCE. Only for impotency or adultery can absolute divorce be 
obtained. Partial divorce is granted for cruelty, desertion or drunk¬ 
enness. 

EXEMPTIONS. A homestead to value of $1,000, and personal 
property worth $500. No exemption is good against taxes, purchase- 
money or mechanics’ liens. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman’s separate property is 
not liable for her husband’s debts. She may devise and bequeath, 
but must have husband’s consent to convey. Unless she be a free 
trader, she can make no contract other than for personal or family 
necessities or for payment of ante-nuptial debts, without the consent 
of her husband. She becomes a free trader, the husband assenting, 
by filing her intention. Common law dower and one year’s subsist¬ 
ence out of husband’s personal property. 

MECHANICS’ LIEN holds building and lot. Notice in thirty days; 
suit in ninety days. A lien for making or mending may be had on 
movables. Farm laborers or persons making advances for raising 
crop may have a lien. 

WILLS require two witnesses, not beneficiaries. If an unwit¬ 
nessed will be offered for probate it must be satisfactorily proved by 
three witnesses to be wholly in testator’s handwriting. 

OHIO. 

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences, except wages to amount 
of $100 and individual taxes, are allowed. Assignment is filed in ten 
days, and schedule in thirty. Creditors must bring in their claims 
within six months. First dividends in eight months. Debtor is 
always liable. 

ATTACHMENTS are issued when defendant is a non-resident, or 
a foreign corporation, has absconded or has removed or concealed 
his property, or in any other manner placed it or attempted to place 
it beyond reach to defraud his creditors. Plaintiff giving bond with 
suretv to cover damages, and making affidavit of fraud, the defend- 


















































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


455 


ant will be arrested. Garnishee 
except forunmatured notes. Ju¬ 
risdiction of justices of the peace 
? 3 °°- 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES 

must be recorded ; good for only 
twelve months unless renewed by 
again recording within thirty 
days before the expiration of the 
year. Same for each succeeding 
year. 

DEEDS mustbe acknowledged 
in presence of two witnesses, 
before some officer in the State 
who is authorized to take depositions. In other States or countries, 
deeds may be executed and acknowledged in accordance with the 
local laws. Wife joins husband in a deed, and is questioned apart. 

DIVORCE is granted for unfaithfulness, bigamy, incapacity, 
cruelty, drunkenness, deception, three years’neglect and abandon¬ 
ment, or imprisonment in a penitentiary. Alimony may be granted ; 
and if the decree is obtained on account of the husband’s ill conduct, 
the wife has her separate property and her maiden name restored. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead is exempt to value of $1,000; if ap¬ 
praised to a higher value a partition is made, or an appropriate rental 
is charged. Clothing and necessary furniture are exempted; tools 
and farming implements to value $100; $5° worth of provisions and 
three months’ wages ; one horse or yoke of cattle, harness and wagon ; 
one cow, two hogs,six sheep, and sixty days’ provender, or instead, $65 
in household property. A professional man’s books, $ 100. When res¬ 
ident debtor, being head of a family, has no homestead, he may retain 
personal property to value of $500, besides other exempted property. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is not 
liable for her husband’s debts; beyond a three years’ lease, or a con¬ 
tract forthe improvement of her real estate,she cannot sell or encum¬ 
ber it without the consent of her husband. If a married woman 
engages in trade, her separate property is liable for the debts she 
may then contract, and she may sue and be sued the same as if sin¬ 
gle. A deserted wife must procure an order from court, by which 
she shall have all property rights as a feme sole. Dower in all real 
estate owned by husband during coverture. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Within four months after the perform¬ 
ance of labor or furnishing of material, a detailed statement of the 
claim must be sworn to and recorded, to procure a mechanic’s lien. 
The lien holds a building and the ground on which it stands, or a 
bridge or any kind of water craft. A lien is good for one year, or 
until the lawsuit begun within the year is finally settled. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one years for men, eighteen for 
women.- Two witnesses. Unless the will had been made at least one 
year before the death of testator, a bequest for religious, benevo¬ 
lent, educational or charitable purpose would be void against the 
claims of children. 

OREGON. 

ASSIGNMENTS. A general assignment for the benefit of all 
creditors must be without preferences. It dissolves all attachments 

on which judgments have been 
rendered. Creditors must receive 
notice to present their claims, or 
their objections to claim. Debts 
to become due will be taken into 
account, as well as those already 
due. Payments are pro rata. 
The debtor is still liable. No 
insolvent law, but an imprisoned 
debtor is discharged after ten 
days by complying with pre¬ 
scribed conditions. He cannot 
be again arrested for the same 
debt. 




ATTACHMENTS. Defendantbeing anon resident or a foreign cor- 
1 poration, or where the action is on a contract for the payment of 
j money which was not secured by mortgage or otherwise, or if so se¬ 
cured, where such security has been vitiated by defendant, an attach- 
j ment may be issued. The plaintiff gives bond in double amount. 
Where the debt was fraudulently contracted, or property has been 
removed with intent to defraud, or where personal property is un¬ 
justly withheld, or the defendant is a non-resident, he maybe ar- 
J rested. Limit of justices of the peace, $250. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be recorded at once, and is good 
for only one year, unless renewed by mortgagee making and record¬ 
ing affidavit within the thirty days before the end of the year that the 
debt is still due. Renewal each year in the same way. 

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgment may be taken 
[ before a commissioner of deeds for this State or before any duly 
authorized officer in any State or Territory, providing that the legal 
i status of the officer taking the acknowledgment and the compliance 
of the deed with the laws of such State or Territory are properly cer- 
! tified to under seal by the clerk of a court of record in the county or 
district where such officer has performed such service. Married 
women examined separately. 

DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident for one year before 
■ bringing suit. Grounds are impotency, adultery, two years’ drunken¬ 
ness, three years’ abandonment, cruelty, conviction of felony. Plain¬ 
tiff gaining the suit has a right to one-third of the real estate belonging 
to defendant; and if a successful plaintiff be the wife, she may have a 
maintenance awarded her. 

EXEMPTIONS. Musical instruments, books and pictures, $75; 
household effects, $300; clothing, $100, and clothing to each member 
of the family, $50; team, tools, instruments, library or whatever is 
needed in the trade or profession of debtor, $400; ten sheep, two cows, 
five hogs, three months’ provisions and six months’ provender. No 
exemption is good against a claim for purchase-money. No home¬ 
stead. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds her property free 
from the control or debts of her husband. She may make contracts, 
buy and sell, and give notes, and her own property will be liable. 
The husband joins in her conveyances. She may make a will, but it 
must not interfere with her husband’s rights of curtesy. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Claims must be filed within three months. 
Suit begun within one year. Sub-contractors and workmen, to obtain 
a lien, must serve written notice on the owner before payments be¬ 
come due. Payments to contractors before they are due are no 
offset against lien of sub-contractors and workmen. 

WILLS. Age, twenty-one to dispose of real estate, eighteen for 
, personal property. Two witnesses. Children unprovided for in a 
! will share as if the parent had died intestate. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS must be without preferences. Sometimes a 
debtor prefers a creditor by confessing judgment, or making a specific 
assignment of certain property. 

No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS issue where 
debtor removes, conceals or dis¬ 
poses of his property, or is about 
to do so, to defraud his creditors, 
or has fraudulently contracted 
the debt. Also when debtor is a 
| non-resident. On proof of fraud 
i a defendant may be arrested, and 
he will be imprisoned unless he 
pays or gives security. Justices 
of the peace limited to $300. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES 
1 cannot be for less than $500, and must be recorded. Must be renewed 
within thirty days of expiration of the year,and the same for each 


























































45 6 


SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


succeeding- year, to maintain mortgagee’s right. Thirty days’ notice, 
or four weeks’ publication before sale by public auction. 

DEEDS. Acknowledgments may he taken by the mayor of a city 
or incorporated town, judge of a court of record, commissioner for 
this State, or by any officer appointed by the laws of the State where 
taken, providing such officer be certified to under seal by the clerk of 
a court of record. Wife joins to bar dower; examination separate. 

DIVORCE. Plaintiff must have been a resident of the State for one 
year next preceding the application. Grounds: deception or force in 
procuring the marriage, impotency, adultery, bigamy, cruelty and two 
years’ abandonment, and two years’ sentence to imprisonment. Di¬ 
vorce will not be granted on the ground of adultery if proved to have 
been condoned. Even after a divorce, defendant is not allowed to 
marry a co-respondent. A wife may obtain partial divorce and ali¬ 
mony for ill-treatment. 

EXEMPTIONS. Clothing, books, sewing-machine and $300 worth 
of other property. Right may be waived. No homestead. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held 
as her separate estate, but is chargeable for family necessaries ordered 
by her. A wife cannot make a contract or conveyance without her 
husband joining her. By obtaining leave from the court she may 
have the benefit of her own earnings. She may make a will, saving 
the husband’s right by curtesy. She may deposit money in bank and 
write checks against it in her own name. Dower, one-third of all 
real estate owned by husband during coverture. 

MECHANICS’ LIEN takes precedence of every other lien or en¬ 
cumbrance. Claims must be filed within six months, and liens hold 
good for five years. There may also be a lien held for wages up to 
the amount of $200 by the employes on any manufactory, mine or 
similar establishment. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses are 
required, but they need not attach their signatures. A husband can¬ 
not serve as witness to wife’s will. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

ASSIGNMENTS without preferences allowed. No provision for 
the discharge of the debtor. 

ATTACHMENTS issue when 
debtor is a non-resident or a for¬ 
eign corporation, has absconded 
or fraudulently contracted the 
debt, or retains property and re¬ 
fuses to pay. Garnishment for 
personal property of debtor in 
other people’s hands. Jurisdic¬ 
tion of justices of the peace, $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES 

must be recorded, or the mortga¬ 
gee must take possession. Fore¬ 
closure by seizure and sale. 

DEEDS require a seal. Ac¬ 
knowledgments may be taken by a senator, judge, justice cf the 
peace, notary public or town clerk. In other States, by the author¬ 
ized officers in such States, or by commissioner of deeds for Rhode 
Inland. The wife joins in deed to release dower; only the husband 
need make the acknowledgment. 

DIVORCE is granted for impotency, adultery, cruelty, drunken¬ 
ness, neglect to support, five years’ abandonment, conviction of mur¬ 
der or arson, presumption of death from long absence, or for defect 
in marriage rendering it void. Divorces may only be decreed by Su¬ 
preme Court. Alimony may be ordered, and restoration of wife’s sep¬ 
arate property. 

EXEMPTIONS. Furniture and supplies for family, $300; tools, 
.$200; library, $300; wages, $10; clothing; one cow and one hog; debts 
secured by negotiable paper. No homestead. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman’s property is held bv 
trustees for her separate use free from her husband’s debts. She 



cannot make contracts or do business. She may make a will subject 
to husband’s right by curtesy. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Claim must be filed and suit begun within 
four months. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one years for disposal of real 
estate; eighteen for personal property. Two witnesses. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

ASSIGNMENTS. An assignment maybe made, and one or more 
agents appointed by the creditors to act with the assignees. 
Creditors who do not take part 
in the proceedings, or accept div¬ 
idends, retain their claims against 
the debtor. An imprisoned debt¬ 
or may be discharged on making 
an assignment of all his prop¬ 
erty. 

ATTACHMENTS are issued 
where debtor is a non-resident or 
a foreign corporation, or has ab¬ 
sconded or concealed himself, or 
has removed or is about to re¬ 
move his property, or has se¬ 
creted or disposed of or assigned 
his property, or is about to do 
so, with fraudulent intent. Garnishment in aid. J urisdiction of jus¬ 
tices of the peace, $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded within sixty days. 

Foreclosure by seizure and sale. 

DEEDS must be under seal, and have two witnesses, and be 
recorded within thirty-three days in county where the land lies. In¬ 
side the State, acknowledgments are made only before notaries 
public and trial justices. In other States, before commissioners of 
deeds for this State. Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000; this right cannot be waived. 
Furniture, wagons, live stock and tools, to value of $500. Homestead 
exemption cannot hold against an execution for the purchase-money, 
a lien for improvements or for taxes. Any person not the head of a 
family may have one-third of his annual earnings exempted. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman cannot 
be seized for her husband’s debts. A married woman can bequeath, 
devise and encumber her separate property. She can buy in her own 
name and have conveyances made to her, and make contracts, the 
same as if she were single. A gift from husband to wife is not good 
against a creditor’s claim. Dower rights. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Account must be filed in ninety days and 
suit begun in six months. The owner, by giving timely notice that he 
will not be responsible for the contractor’s debts, may avoid the im¬ 
position of a lien by sub-contractors and journeymen. 

WILLS. Three witnesses. 

TENNESSEE. 

ASSIGNMENTS with preferences allowed. The debtor is not dis¬ 
charged from his liabilities. No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS are issued 
when debtor is a non-resident, or 
is about to remove himself or his 
property from the State, or con¬ 
ceals himself or his property, or 
absconds, or has fraudulently 
disposed of his property, or dies 
out of the State. Garnishee pro¬ 
cess will reach debts due the de¬ 
fendant, and that are to become 
due, as well as property of de¬ 
fendant in other people’s hands. 

No imprisonment for debt. Juris¬ 
diction of justices, $500. 



























































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


457 


CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be registered. Foreclosure by 
proceedings in court unless the instrument contains power of sale. 

DEEDS require two witnesses. Acknowledgments within the 
State are made before judge or clerk of a County Court or a notary 
public. In other States, before any court of record or clerk thereof, 
notary public or commissioner of deeds for this Stale. Wife need not 
join in deeds conveying in fee simple, but must join in trust deed. 
Separate examination. 

DIVORCE. The applicant must have been a resident of the State 
for two years next preceding the petition. Grounds: physical inca¬ 
pacity at time of marriage, bigamy, adultery, two years’ abandon¬ 
ment, conviction of crime, imprisonment in penitentiary, drunkenness, 
ante-nuptial immorality of wife, attempt of either party upon the life 
of the other. Limited divorce may be granted for cruelty, desertion 
or failure to provide. 

EXEMPTIONS. Only the head of a familv can have the benefit of 
exemptions; $1,000 homestead and a variety of personal property 
designated by statute, prominent items being horses, mules, oxen, 
cows, calves, wagon, tools, lumber, grain, provisions, beds, bedding, 
furniture and $30 wages. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has her separate prop¬ 
erty free from the husband’s control and from liability for his debts. 
She may encumber, convey or devise her separate property without 
being joined by her husband in the deed. Widow has dower in one- 
third of husband’s real estate, and a child’s share in his personalty. 
The husband dying intestate, leaving no heirs, the wife inherits all his 
property. 

MECHANICS’ LIEN lies on buildings and fixed machinery, and 
the ground on which they are erected; also on watercraft. Land¬ 
lords have lien on crops, growing and garnered, for advances of sup¬ 
plies and clothing, and for their rent. 

WILLS. Two witnesses. If for only personal property, witnesses 
need not subscribe their names. The handwriting of an unattested 
will maybe proved by three witnesses. Nuncupative wills have no 
force for amounts over $250. 

TEXAS. 

ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent debtor making an assignment must 
have it recorded, accompanied by a sworn inventory of debts, assets, 

creditors, collaterals held by them 
and all evidences of debts to or 
against debtor, with complete 
statement of his estate, with val¬ 
ues. The assignment may be 
made for the benefit of assenting 
creditors only; and accepting a 
J>ro rata will be equivalent to 
discharge of debtor from liabil¬ 
ity. A creditor believing debtor 
has concealed his property may 
have him summoned and exam¬ 
ined under oath. Any fraudulent 
action on part of debtor is felony. 

ATTACHMENTS. The plaintiff making affidavit and giving bond 
in double amount, an attachment is issued where defendant is a 
non-resident or a foreign corporation, is about to remove from the 
State, or secretes himself to avoid summons, conceals his property or 
is about to conceal it, or is about to remove it from the State, or from 
the countv, has disposed of his property, or is about to dispose of it, 
is about turning his property into money, so that it cannot be reached, 
or has obtained property bv deception. Intent to defraud is surmised 
in any of the allegations. Limit of justices of the peace, $200. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or the property must 
change hands at once. Foreclosed by suit; sheriff s sale sixty days 
notice. i 


DEEDS. Acknowledgments anywhere within the United States are 
made before the clerk of a court of record having a seal, a notary 
public or a commissioner of deeds for this State. Where a deed is 
not acknowledged it must be proved by two witnesses. Married 
women, separate examination. 

DIVORCE. Applicant must be really an inhabitant of the State and 
a resident of the county for six months previous to filing petition; 
grounds, adultery, three years’ desertion, unendurable cruelty. 

EXEMPTIONS. Two hundred acres of land with improvements in 
the country, or city property to value at time of being designated as 
homestead (regardless of the value of after improvements) of .$5,000. 
Furniture, farming implements, tools, books, five cows and calves, 
two yoke of cattle, two horses and wagon, a carriage or buggy, 
twenty hogs, twenty sheep, provisions, provender and many other 
articles. The exemption of the homestead is not good against taxes, 
purchase-money or mechanics’ lien ; but in this last case the contract 
must have been signed by both husband and wife. On the death of a 
husband, the widow and children may have one year’s support out of 
the estate, and if the property be not in such shape as to he exempted by 
law, enough may be sold to raise an allowance for homestead to value 
of $5,000 and other property $500. Any person n<-t the head of a fam¬ 
ily may have exempted clothing, books, horse, bridle and saddle. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned by husband or wife 
before marriage, and what either may acquire afterwards, by gift, 
devise or descent, is community property. The husband controls the 
common property and the wife’s separate estate. The common prop¬ 
erty is liable for the debts of either, and the husband may dispose of 
it. At the death of either the survivor takes one-half and the children 
the other half of the common property. The husband joins wife in 
conveyance of her separate property. She joins him in conveyance 
of homestead. A married woman cannot do business in her own 
name, but she may become security for her husband by mortgaging 
her separate estate. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS must be on a written contract and recorded 
within six months. Sub-contractors and journeymen may furnish the 
owner with their accounts, and he must retain the amount of their 
claims. Landlords have lien for rent and for supplies advanced. 

WILLS. Age, twentv-one years. Two witnesses. Only written 
wills can devise real estate. 

UTAH. 

ASSIGNMENTS. Common law. 

ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff holding no security gives bond and 
takes out an attachment where there is an appearance of the debtor’s 
probable failure to pay the debt. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. No statutes. Mortgagee must take 
immediate possession. 

DEEDS must have one witness. Acknowledgments before notary' 
public, justice of the peace, mayor of a city or judge or clerk of court 
of record. A married woman conveys the same as if single. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $t,ooo; personal property to head 
of the family, $700, and to each member $250. Not good against pur¬ 
chase-money, mechanics’ lien or a mortgage. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman’s separate property is 
held, managed, controlled and disposed of by herself. A wife may 
carry on business, sue and be sued, give notes and make contracts the 
same as if single. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Claim must be filed within three months; 
suit brought within one year. Sub-contractors and journeymen must 
serve the owner with timely written notice. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, eighteen years. Two witnesses. Married 
women make wills the same as if single. 



£T 















































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


458 


VERMONT. 

ASSIGNMENTS must be without preferences. Insolvent law by 
which involuntary proceedings may be entered by one creditor having 

claim to$25o. If assets pay thirty 
per cent of debts, or if majority 
of creditors consent, the debtor 
is discharged. 

ATTACHMENTS on mesne 
process. Trustee process for 
property in hands of third per¬ 
sons. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. 

All property, except fixed ma¬ 
chinery, must be taken into the 
possession of the mortgagee. 
Foreclosed by bill in equity. 
Court orders sale. 

DEEDS must be under seal 
and htive two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made before a mas¬ 
ter in chancery, justice of the peace or notary public. No separate 
examination for married women. 

DIVORCE is granted for adultery, cruelty, three years’ abandon¬ 
ment, three }'ears’ imprisonment in penitentiary or seven years’ ab¬ 
sence without being heard of. The wife may obtain divorce where 
the husband, being able, fails to support. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, ?5oo; growing crop, clothing, furni¬ 
ture, sewing-machine, tools, one cow, ten sheep, one hog, three hives 
of bees, poultry, one yoke of oxen or two horses, fuel, provisions and 
provender; also the instruments and library of a professional man, 
$200. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman is held 
separate, and is not liable for her husband’s debts. In conveyance of 
the wife’s real estate, the husband must join in deed. A married 
woman may make a will. Widow has dower in one-third the real 
estate of which the husband died seized. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. On buildings suit must be brought within 
three months ; on vessels in eight months. 

WILLS. Three witnesses. 

VIRGINIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS may be made with preferences. The debtor is 

ATTACHMENTS are issued 
against a non-resident debtor or 
a defendant who is removing or 
about to remove his property out 
of the State pendente lite, or a 
tenant removing his property be¬ 
fore the rent becomes due, or a 
debtor taking his property out of 
the State before a debt is due. 
Garnishment will reach debts due 
the defendant. Plaintiff must 
give bond and file affidavit. Also, 
an arrest will be made on plain¬ 
tiff’s affidavit that he believes de¬ 
fendant is about to abscond. 
The defendant will then have to give a bail-bond or be imprisoned. 

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary, justice, com¬ 
missioner in chancery, or before the judge or clerk of any county or 
corporation court. In other States, before any court or clerk of a 
court, or justice, or notary, or commissioner in chancery, or commis¬ 
sioner of deeds for Virginia. Record must be made within sixty days. 
Wife joins to bar dower. Separate examination. The acknowledg¬ 
ment of a married woman must be made before two justices of the 
peace, or before an officer having a seal. 


DIVORCE. Grounds: impotency, adultery, sentence to penitentiary, 
guilt of either of infamous crime before marriage, the other being ig¬ 
norant, notorious immorality of wife before marriage, five years’ 
abandonment. Partial divorce for cruelty or desertion. Alimony and 
maintenance of children are decreed, and the care of the children is 
given to either party at the discretion of the court. 

EXEMPTIONS. The head of a family who is a householder has a 
homestead exemption to value of $2,000, which maybe in real or per¬ 
sonal property, both or either. Also clothing, sewing-machine, fur¬ 
niture and animals ; books, $100; tools, $100. The value of the exemp¬ 
tions outside of the homestead is varied according to the number in 
family, and ranges from $50 to $500. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman holds the property owned 
by her previous to marriage, and what she may afterwards acquire, as 
sole trader, free from the control of her husband, and from liability 
for his debts. She may make a will subject to husband’s rights by 
curtesy. Common law dower. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Claim must be filed within thirty days; 
suit brought within six months. Sub-contractors and journeymen 
must notify owner within ten days. 

WILLS. Age, over twenty-one to dispose of realty; eighteen, per¬ 
sonalty. Two witnesses. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

ASSIGNMENTS are made by deed, acknowledged and recorded 
as are all such instruments. If real estate is assigned, the wife must 
join in the deed. Therebeingno 
insolvent law, an assignment 
does not cancel the liability of 
the debtor. A defendant under 
arrest for debt, on making a con¬ 
veyance of his property, will be 
discharged from such arrest. 

ATTACHMENTS. The cred¬ 
itor first making affidavit, attach¬ 
ments are issued, where debtor 
is a non-resident, or is about 
leaving the State, or conceals 
himself to avoid summons, is re¬ 
moving his property out of the 
State, or is in any manner trying to put it out of reach to defraud his 
creditors. Bond and security being furnished by creditor, the sheriff 
takes complete possession of the attached property. Garnishment on 
third parties. No imprisonment for debt. But defendant may be 
arrested if about removing himself or his property with intent to 
defraud. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES. Common law. Form, deed of trust. 

DEEDS. Acknowledgments are made before a notary public, re¬ 
corder, or judge or clerk of any court of record in United States, or 
before a commissioner of deedsfor West Virginia. A married woman 
must be examined separate and apart from her husband. 

DIVORCE is granted for mental or physical defect at time of mar¬ 
riage, unfaithfulness, three years’ abandonment, sentence to peni¬ 
tentiary, conviction of crime before marriage, or notorious immorality 
of either before marriage, the other party being ignorant. Partial 
divorce may be obtained for cruelty or desertion. Alimony and cus¬ 
tody of children is decreed by the court. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead, $1,000, where the property has been 
granted or devised for the purpose, to the head of a family, or where 
he has devoted such property to that purpose by having it so recorded. 
Also personal property to value of $200. Tools to mechanic, $50. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property of a married woman, however 
acquired, except from the husband, is held for her sole and separate 
use. Husband must join in conveyances of real estate. Dower. 

MECHANCS’ LIENS. Must file claim within thirty days and bring 
suit within six months. 

WILLS. Testator’s age, twenty-one years. Two witnesses. 



still liable. No insolvent law. 



a'HSHSBSESUSESHSBSHSaSHSaSHSHSasaSHsS 























































SPECIAL LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 


459 


WASHINGTON. 


ASSIGNMENTS. Unless fraud or preference is evident, the insolv¬ 
ent law allows the discharge of debtor whose assets equal thirty-three 
per cent of debts. Wages to amount of $100 are preferred claims. 

ATTACHMENTS issue where debtor is non-resident or a foreign 
corporation, absconds, removes his property or attempts to place it 
out of reach of his creditors. Plaintiff gives bond. Jurisdiction of 
justices of the peace, $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGE must be accompanied by the affidavit 
of both parties that it is bona fide , and made with no fraudulent de¬ 
sign. When for exempted property, wife must join. A chattel mort¬ 
gage must be acknowledged and recorded the same as a deed of con¬ 
veyance. 

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments are taken by 
notary public, justice of the peace, judge or clerk of court of record, 
mayor of a city or register of deeds. In any other State or Territory, 
according to the laws of such State or Territory. For conve5’ance of 
separate real estate of a wife, she must be joined in the deed by her 
husband, and she must be questioned apart from him. No dower or 
curtesy' rights. 

EXEMPTIONS. Homestead (must be actually occupied) to the 
value of $1,000; clothing, books, bedding and household goods, to 
value of §1,500; one small boat, to value of §50; two cows, five hogs, 
bees, poultry, fuel and provisions. To a farmer, two horses, or two 
yoke of oxen, and farming implements to value of §200. To profes¬ 
sional man, library worth $500, office furniture and fuel. To lighter¬ 
man, his boats, to value of §250. To drayman, his team. 

MARRIED WOMEN. The property owned before marriage by 
husband or wife, and all acquired afterwards by gift, devise or descent, 
to either, is separate property. All otherwise acquired is common 
property, subject to control of the husband. He also controls the 
separate property of the wife, but cannot sell or convey it without her ] 
joining in the deed. To save the separate property of the wife from ] 
attachment for husband’s debts, there must be an inventory of it on I 
record. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Notice must be filed within sixty days, and I 
suit begun in four months. Every kind of structure, and the land 
thereunder, is covered by lien. There may also be a lien on logs, j 
timber and lumber for work; and by the owner of land where such 
timber is cut. Farm laborers have lien on crops, but where crop is 
raised on shares, the landlord’s portion cannot be touched. 

WILLS. Age, twenty-one for men, eighteen for women. Two wit- ; 
nesses. 


WISCONSIN. 



ASSIGNMENTS. An insolvent law, whereby debtor may file peti¬ 
tion, list of assets and liabilities with his affidavit, and make an assign¬ 
ment for the benefit of all credit¬ 
ors. After publication a jury' 
trial may be exacted by the cred¬ 
itors. If the decision is in favor 
of the debtor, the assignment is 
decreed, and debtor is discharged 
from all his debts. Proof of 
fraudulent practice on part of 
debtor would void the discharge. 

ATTACHMENTS issue when 
the debt is over fifty' dollars in 
amount, on affidavit being made 
and bond given that the defend¬ 
ant has gone away or concealed 
himself, is a non-resident or for¬ 
eign corporation, or is about removing his property. On affidavit and 
bond of creditor, defendant may be arrested if he is about to leave 
the State, or conceals property. Garnishment in aid. 




CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded, or possession of 
property'pass into hands of mortgagee. Foreclosure by seizure and 
sale. 

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments are made 
before notaries public, justices of the peace, judges and clerks of 
courts, commissioners of deeds; and in other States, according to the 
laws of such States. A married woman must join in a deed to bar 
dower. 

DIVORCE. Unless the parties had been married and since remained 
in the State, the applicant must have been for one year a resident be¬ 
fore filing petition. Absolute divorce is granted for impotency, adul¬ 
tery, one year’s abandonment, five years’ separation, three years’ 
sentence to penitentiary, cruelty and drunkenness. Partial divorce 
for desertion, cruelty, drunkenness or failure to provide. The court 
may decree alimony, and the wife regain her separate property. 

EXEMPTIONS. Forty acres in the country, or one-quarter of an 
acre in town, with the dwelling thereon. Clothing, household furni¬ 
ture, $200; books, two cows, ten hogs, ten sheep, one horse and yoke 
of cattle, or a pair of horses and mules, farming tools, one y'ear’s pro¬ 
visions and provender. To a mechanic, tools, $200; professional man, 
his library, §200 ; a publisher or printer, his outfit to $1,500. To any 
head of a family, sixty days’ earnings. No exemption good against 
a mechanic’s lien or claim for purchase-money. 

MARRIED WOMEN. A married woman has all property rights 
the same as if single. She may buy and sell, lend and borrow, make 
conveyances, and have real estate conveyed to her, and all such busi¬ 
ness may be transacted between her and her husband as between 
strangers. She may sue alone, but in being sued she must be joined 
to husband. Dower, life interest in one-third of all husband’s realty 
held during the marriage. Husband has wife’s realty for life. 

MECHANICS’ LIEN. Must file petition in six months and bring 
suit in one year. Sub-contractors and journeymen must notify owner 
within thirty days of the furnishing of material or labor. 

WILLS. Two witnesses. 


WYOMING. 

ASSIGNMENTS. Must be without preferences, without reserv¬ 
ations for benefit of assignor and without provisions forcing creditor 
into a compromise or release of his claims. No insolvent law. 

ATTACHMENTS. Plaintiff must make affidavit and give security 
before an attachment is issued. A non-resident or absconding debtor, 
or one who conceals his property to avoid payment, is liable to the 
process. Jurisdiction of justices of the peace, $100. 

CHATTEL MORTGAGES must be recorded or the property must 
pass into possession of mortgagee. Sale without consent of mort¬ 
gaged property by the mortgageor is a felony and may be punished 
by imprisonment in the penitentiary for a term less than ten years. 

DEEDS must have two witnesses. Acknowledgments may be 
taken before justices of the peace, notaries public, judges and clerks of 
courts of record, registers of deeds and mayors of cities. In the 
States and other Territories, before commissioners of deeds for 
Wyoming or before officers authorized by the laws of such States or 
Territories. Married women join in conveying common property. 
Separate property they convey alone. 

EXEMPTIONS. House and lot in town or one hundred and sixty 
acres of land in the country, either to value of $1,500. Tools, team 
and stock in trade of mechanic, miner or other person, $300. Benefit 
of exemption can only be claimed by a bona fide resident householder. 

A MARRIED WOMAN may carry on business, make contracts, 
keep her own earnings, hold property, real or personal, receive the 
rents in her own name, sue and be sued, make a will, free from any 
control or interference of her husband, the same as if she were single. 
Her property is not liable for the debts of her husband. Women in 
this Territory have the right to vote and hold office. 

MECHANICS’ LIENS. Claim must be filed within sixty days, and 
suit begun within one year. 

WILLS. No statutes. Common law. 



















































460 


DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE. 




TABLES OF DURATION AND EXPECTATION OF LIFE. 

Constructed by Dr. Farr, F. R. S. 


AGE. 

PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN¬ 
NING OF YEAR. 

, 2 < 

5 

< u 5 

% < c 

NO. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

0 td 

H n U 

M < 
a 

0 

1,000,000 

850,507 

511,745 

428,026 

4 SS, 25 S 

149,493 

I 

422,4S1 

53,680 

2 

3 

796,827 
76 S,5S9 

400,50s 

386,290 

396,322 

382,299 

2S43S 

1S456 

4 

750,133 

377.077 

373,056 

13,315 

5 

736 ,SiS 

37 o, 35 S 

366,460 

9, s 99 

6 

726,919 

365,325 

36 i ,594 

7,76s 

7 

7 i 9 ,' 5 i 

361,372 

358,062 

357,779 

6,559 

$ 

712,592 

354.530 

5,458 

9 

707434 

355,328 

35i,8o6 

4,625 

10 

702,509 

353,031 

349 , 47 s 

4,02s 

11 

698,4s i 

35 i, 04 S 

347,433 

3,637 

12 

13 

694,844 

691,413 

349,272 

347,606 

345,572 

343,807 

3 , 43 i 

3 . 3 S 2 

14 

6SS,03i 

345,969 

342,062 

3 , 46 S 

15 

684,563 

344,290 

340473 

3,669 

16 

680,894 

342,509 

33 S, 3 S 5 

3,957 

*7 

676,937 

340 , 5 Si 

336,356 

4 , 3 i 7 

IS 

672,620 

338,469 

334451 

4,720 

19 

667,900 

336,149 

336751 

S,i 50 | 

20 

662,750 

333,60S 

329,142 

5 , 58.3 

21 

657,167 

330 ,S44 

326,323 

5,668 

22 

651,499 

328,043 

32 . 3,456 

5,748 

23 

645,751 

325,207 

320,544 

5,820 

24 

639,931 

322,339 

317,592 

5.SS6 

25 

634,045 

319,422 

314,603 

5,950 

26 

628,095 

316,516 

3 'i ,579 

6,009 

27 

622,086 

313,562 

308,524 

6,065 

2S 

616,021 

609,900 

310,5Si 

305,440 

6,121 

6,176 

29 

307,572 

302,32s 

30 

603,724 

304.534 

301466 

299,190 

6,231 

31 

597,493 

296,027 

6,287 

32 

591,206 

298,366 

202 ,S40 

6,343 

33 

584,863 

29 S, 23 2 
292,001 

289,621 

6,404 

34 

57 S ,459 

2 S 6 . 39 S 

6,466 

35 

571,993 

2SS,S5o 

2S3443 

6,533 

36 

565,460 

285,596 

279,S64 

6,601 


37 

3 s 

39 


40 

4 ' 

42 

43 

44 


45 

46 

47 
4 s 
49 


50 

5 ' 

52 

53 

54 


55 

56 

57 
5 S 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 


65 

66 
67 
OS 
69 


70 

7 1 


PERSONS alive at begin¬ 
ning OF YEAR. 


NO. 


55 s , s 59 
552 ,1S1 

545,425 


53 S, 5 S 4 
53 ‘>653 
524,626 
5 i 7>499 
5 >0,263 


502,9 >5 

495 , 44 S 

4S 7 ,S56 

4 So,i 34 

472,277 


464,280 

456,>39 

447,725 

439,135 

430,374 


42 i,iiS 
4 >>, 53 2 
401,623 

39 1 , 37 S 
380,785 


369,S27 
35 s ,4S9 
346,752 
334,603 
322,031 


309,029 
295,599 
2S1 ,753 
267,509 
252,902 


237,977 

222,793 

207,424 


MALE. 


282,296 


272,073 

26 S .544 
264,94s 
26)1,280 

257,534 


253,70s 

249,796 

245,795 

241,700 
237,50s 


233,216 

22 S.S2I 

224 ,>95 
219,437 
214-552 


209,539 

204,395 

> 99 , "4 
193 ,6S6 
lSS,I02 


>S2,3S0 

176,421 

> 70,303 

163,981) 

> 57,474 


150,754 

143.S.33 

136.718 

129,421 

121,963 


H 4,370 

106,675 

9 S, 9>9 


276,563 
273,237 
269, SS7 


266,511 
263,109 
259,67s 
256,219 

252,729 


249,207 

245,652 

242,061 

23 S ,434 

234,769 


231,064 

227,31* 
223,530 
219,69s 
215,S22 


211,576 

207,137 

202,509 
197,692 
192,6S3 


187,477 

182,068 

176,449 

170,614 

i 64 ,S 57 


iSS,275 

151,766 

145,035 

138,088 

130,939 


123,607 

I l6,I l8 

ioS,5o5 


< 


* < 
E a 
h <« 



6,678 

6,756 

6,841 


6,931 

7,027 

7,127 

7,236 

7,34s 


7,467 

7,592 

7,722 

7,857 

7,997 


S,H> 

S, 4>4 

S, 59 ° 

S, 76 i 

9,259 


9 . 5 S 3 

9,909 

10,245 

10,593 

10,95s 


n,33S 

ii ,737 

12,149 

12,572 

13,002 


13,430 

13,846 

14,244 

14,607 

14,925 


15,>S4 
15.369 

i 5 , 46 S 


u 

PERSONS ALIVE AT BEGIN¬ 
NING OF YEAR. 

W < 

"■ S id 

< 

NO. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

hgo 

— 

73 

191,956 

91,149 

mo.^07 

15.469 

74 

176,487 

S3,416 

93,071 

15,363 

75 

161,124 

75.777 

85,347 

15,136 

76 

145,98s 

68,294 

77,694 

14,78.) 

77 

78 

131,199 

n 6,880 

61,026 

70,173 

14,319 

54,036 

62,844 

13,726 

79 

'03,154 

47.381 

55,773 

13.021 

So 

90,133 

4 ',u 5 

49,o iS 

12,214 

81 

77,919 

35.2S3 

42,636 

11,320 

S2 

66,599 

29,922 

36,677 

10,358 

S3 

50,241 

25,060 

3' ,181 

9,352 

84 

40,889 

20,711 

26,I7S 

8,324 

Ss 

3 s ,565 

16,877 

21,6SS 

7,300 

86 

31,265 

1.3,549 

17,716 

6,29s 

s 7 

24,967 

10,709 

14,258 

5,346 

SS 

19,621 

8,325 

11,296 

4,459 

S9 

15,162 

6,360 

S,S02 

3,653 

90 

11,509 

4,770 

6,739 

2,933 

91 

S,57^ 

3,5'° 

5,066 

2,310 

1,781 

92 

6,266 

4,4 s 5 

2,531 

3,735 

93 

1,787 

2,698 

■,343 

989 

94 

3,142 

1,234 

1,908 

95 

2,i53 

S33 

1,320 

7'3 

96 

i,440 

548 

S92 

500 

97 

98 

940 

352 

5S8 

342 

59 S 

220 

378 

22S 

99 

370 

134 

236 

i47 

I 100 

223 

79 

144 

92 

101 

131 

46 

S5 

57 

102 

74 

25 

49 

33 

103 

41 

h 

27 

19 

104 

22 

7 

IS 

10 

! 105 

12 

4 

s 

6 

106 

6 

2 

4 

3 

rvy) 

0 0 

3 

1 

I 

2 

I 

2 


Note.—T he annual rate of mortality of males of all ages is 1 in 39.91, and of females, 1 in 41.S5. 




AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

, AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

AGE. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

0 

39-91 

4i- s 5 

20 

39.4s 

4O.29 

40 

26.06 

27-34 

60 

13-53 

14-34 

So 

4-93 

5.26 

I 

46.65 

47-3' 

21 

3S.S0 

39.63 

41 

25-39 

26.69 

6l 

12.96 

13-75 

Si 

4.66 

4.98 

2 

4S.S3 

49-4° 

22 

3S.13 

38.98 

42 

24-73 

26.03 

6 2 

12.4I 

13.17 

S 2 

4.41 

4.71 

3 

49.61 

50.20 

23 

37-46 

3 s -33 

43 

24.07 

25-38 

63 

11.87 

12.60 

S3 

4.17 

4-45 

4 

49. Si 

50-43 

24 

36 79 

37-6S 

44 

23.41 

24.72 

64 

n-34 

12.05 

S4 

3-95 

4.21 

5 

49.71 

50.33 

25 

36.12 

37-04 

45 

22.76 

24.06 

65 

10.S2 

11.51 

85 

3-73 

3-98 

6 

49-39 

50.00 

26 

35.44 

36.39 

46 

22. II 

23.40 

66 

10.32 

10.98 

S6 

3-53 

3-76 

7 

4S.92 

49-53 

27 

34-77 

35-75 

47 

21.46 

22.7a 

22.08 

67 

9-83 

10.47 

S7 

3-34 

3-56 

S 

4S.37 

4S.9S 

2S 

34.10 

35-io 

48 

20. §2 

68 

§•36 

9-97 

SS 

3.16 

3-36 

9 

47-74 

48 • 35 

29 

33-43 

34-46 

49 

20. 17 

21 .42 

69 

S.90 

9.4S 

S9 

3-00 

3.18 

IO 

47-05 

47.67 

30 

32.76 

33-Si 

50 

19-54 

20.75 

70 

S-45 

9.02 

90 

2.S4 

3.01 

I I 

46.31 

46-95 

31 

32.09 

33-i7 

5i 

1S.90 

20.09 

7i 

S.03 

8-57 

9' 

2.69 

2.S5 

12 

45-54 

46.20 

32 

3'.42 

32-53 

52 

1S.2S 

19.42 

72 

7.62 

S.13 

92 

2-55 

2.70 

■ 3 

44.76 

45-44 

33 

30-74 

31-ss 

S3 

17.67 

1S.7S 

73 

7.22 

7.71 

93 

2.41 

2-55 

14 

43-97 

44.66 

34 

30.07 

31-23 

54 

17.06 

1S.0S 

74 

6.S5 

7-3i 

94 

2.29 

2.42 

is 

43. iS 

43-9° 

35 

29.40 

30-59 

55 

16.45 

17-43 

75 

6.49 

6-93 

95 

2.17 

2.29 

l6 

42.40 

43-14 

36 

2S.73 

29.94 

56 

1S.S6 

16.79 

76 

6.15 

6.56 

96 

2.06 

2.17 

17 

41.64 

42.40 

37 

28.06 

2Q.29 

57 

15.26 

16.17 

77 

5.S2 

6.21 

97 

i-9S 

2.06 

iS 

4O.9O 

41.67 

3s 

27-39 

2S.64 

58 

14.6S 

iS-55 

78 

5-51 

5-SS 

98 

i.Ss 

1 

19 

40.17 

40.97 

39 

26.72 

27.99 

59 

I4.IO 

14.94 

79 

5-21 

5-56 

99 

100 

1.76 
1.6S 

1.76 


The mean lifetime of males is 39.91 years, and of females, 41.Ss> 





































































































































































































































































r\ 


/ 


-»s*THE religions of the world.** 


(from the very latest estimates.) 

-- 


PARSEES, 

1 , 000,000 


JEWS, 

7 , 700,000 



BRAHMINTCAL 

HINDOOS, 

120 , 000,000 


Mohammedans, 

122 , 400,000 


BUDDHISTS, 

482 , 600,000 


CHRISTIANS, 

388 , 250,000 








N- 


6 


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461 

























































<2 


£ 


* DISTRIBUTION *■ 


CHRISTIANS 


Throughout the 
World. 


Outer Ring—Roman Catholics. 
2d “ —Protestants. 

3d “ —Greek Christians. 
Centre — 

Eastern Christians. 



a. Africa. 

Rom. Cath. 

1,106,200. 

Prot., 719,000. 

b. Australia 
and Polynesia. 

Rom. Cath., 434,000. 

Prot., 1,000,000. 

c. Archipelago, Arabia 

and Persia. 

Rom. Cath., 1,000,000. Prot., 89,000, 


d. India, 
Ceylon. 

Rom. Cath., 
1,600,000. 
Prot., 300,000. 

e. Switzerland. 

Rom. Cath., 1,084.400. 
Prot., 1,558,000. 

f. China and Japan. 

Rom. Cath., 800,000. 
g. Luxemburg Rom. Cath., 204,000. 


K- 


Q 

\ 




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462 


C) 








































A 




K 


Gornparative Showing of Religions in the United States. 






United Evangelical, 144,000 


Meth. Epis., Colored, 74,195 



Mormon, 110,379 


Free Will Baptists, 76,706 


■■ 1—M-r.a 


Anti-Mission Baptists, 40,000 


Church of God, 20,224 


Second Adventists, 63,500 
Universalists, 37,945 


□ Unitarian Congregational, 17,960 
|~] Moravian, 16,112 

Free Methodists, 12,120 


PKO. EPISCOPAL, 

323,876 


Q Reformed Episcopal, 10,459 P 
P] Ref’d Presbyterian, 6,020 


CONGREGATIONAL, 
383,685 


Cumberland Presbyterians, 
Friends, 67,643 


PRESBYTERIAN. 


573.377 


111,855 


United Brethren in Christ, 155,437 


□ Primitive Methodists, 3,370 

□ New Menncnites, 2,990 

□ American Communities, 2,838 


CHRISTIAN, 

567,448 


LUTHERAN, 

684,570 


METHODIST 

EPISCOPAL 

SOUTH, 

828,013 


United 

Presbyterians, 

80,236 


Presbyterian 
South, 
119,970 




99,607 


90,000 


Wesleyan Methodists, 17,847 £ 
7th Day Adventists, 14,733 [j 
Adventists, 11,100 Q 
7th Day Baptists, 8,606 [] 
New Jerusalem, 4,734 [] 


Evangelical Association. 
Dunkards. 



Reformed Church in 
United States, 


Shakers, 2.400 o 
Independent Methodists, 2,100 □ 

Six-Principle Baptists, 2,075 n 


METHODIST EPISCOPAL, 
1 , 680,779 



Reformed Church 
in America, 
78,917 


BAPTISTS, 

2 , 132,044 



Protestant 
Methodists, 
118,170 




ROMAN CATHOLIC, 
6 , 832,954 






V 


Vj 




403 




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•V 


/ 


-# EcdacaHonal Statistics of the dijited -Stated and other Countries 





Percentage of school population in daily attendance. 
Percentage of school population enrolled in public schools. 
Average monthly pay of female teachers. 

Average monthly pay of male teachers. 


Year 1878 . 




_ 






42522 * 


V^/VV 


vav: 




SSSff’nH.Yii 


SmKufiiw 


sew® 


HI 


PfMpjM 




Daily 

Att'nce. 

Enrol’d 

Pupils. 

Female 

Pay. 

Male 

Pay. 

States 

and Territories. 

School 

Age. 

77 

104 

$33.00 

$76.00 

Massachusetts. 

5-20 

66 

89 

24.00 

37.OO 

New Hampshire. 

4-21 

20 

80 

74.00 

01.00 

Arizona . 


53 

87 

37.00 

61.00 

Connecticut. 

4-16 

54 

86 

46.00 

75.00 

Rhode Island. 

5-15 

52 

79 

20.00 

30.00 

Vermont. 

5 -io 

50 

78 

31.00 

36.00 

Pennsylvania. 

6-21 

47 

77 

84.00 

106.00 

Nevada. 

6-18 


76 

S 3 -°o 

53 -°° 

Texas. 

8-14 

46 

75 

68.00 

84.00 

California. 

5 -i 7 


75 

26.00 

33 -oo 

Delaware. 

5 -i 8 

44 

75 

26.00 

41.00 

Michigan. 

5 -i 5 

45 ' 

74 

28.00 

34.00 

Iowa. 

6-21 

45 

73 

46.00 

81.00 

Indiana. 

6-21 

5 i 

72 

16.00 

33.00 

Maine. 

6-21 

45 

72 

41.00 

59.00 

Ohio'. 

6-18 

42 

7 i 

31.00 

54.00 

Illinois. 

5-18 


69 



Idaho. 

6-18 

40 

6 7 

27.00 

34.00 

Kansas. 

5 - 2 i 

26 

65 

28.00 

36.00 

Missouri. 

5 - 2 i 

45 

65 

22.00 

35-00 

Utah. 

6-20 

3 6 

64 

43.00 

43.00 

New York. 

. 5-21 

37 

6 3 

47.00 

50.00 

Colorado. 

6-21 

35 

63 

35.00 

61.00 

New Jersey. 

5-18 


62 

28.00 

38.00 

Minnesota. 

5-20 

41 

62 

20.00 

30.00 

West Virginia. 

6-21 


62 

37.00 

106.00 

Wisconsin. 

4-21 


62 

60.00 

60.00 

Montana. 

6-20 


60 

26.00 

35-00 

Nebraska. 

5-21 

33 

59 

27.OO 

27.00 

Mississippi. 

5-21 

I I 

59 

27.OO 

47.00 

Dakota. 


47 

59 

64.00 

87.00 

Dist. Columbia. 

5-21 

38 

58 

28.00 

28.00 

Tennessee. 

6-18 

30 

57 

40.00 

40.00 

Maryland. 

4-21 

3 i 

54 

23.OO 

23.00 

North Carolina. 

6-21 

33 

51 



Florida. 

6-17 

40 

51 

35 -oo 

45.00 

Oregon. 

4-20 


51 

25.00 

28.00 

South Carolina. 

6-16 

30 

48 



Georgia,. 

4-21 

3 i 

48 

35 -oo 

40.00 

Kentucky. 

5-21 

27 

43 

17.00 

17.00 

Alabama'.. 

7-21 

24 

42 

27.00 

32.00 

Virginia. 

5-21 


41 

30.00 

40.00 

Washington Ter. 

4-21 

20 

30 

37.00 

40.00 

Louisiana. 

6-20 


18 



New Mexico. 

7-18 


16 

40.00 

50.00 

Arkansas. 

6-21 



72,00 

72.00 

Wyoming. 

7-21 


Percentage of school popu- | 
lation of various coun¬ 
tries, attending elementary schools. 


From Reports of Commissioner Eaton, 
Year 1883. 


School age under 
each country. 

Bavaria, 

6-14 

Denmark, 

6-14 

Scotland, 

5 - 13 

Switzerland, 

6- 14 

Wurtemberg, 

6-14 


20 40 60 80 100 

1 1 . i f nn., 1 


112 


96 


95 


93 


92 


Netherlands, 

6-13 

Belgium, 

6-13 

Prussia, 

6-14 

Norway, 

6-14 

Germany, 

6-14 

Sweden, 

6-14 

France, 

6-13 

Hungary, 

6-14 

Austria, 

6-14 

Engl, and Wales, 
3 _I S 

United States, 

5 - 19 
Spain, 

6- 13 
Italy, 

6-12 

Japan, 

6-14 

Greece, 

5 - 12 

Portugal, 

6- 13 

Argent. Rep., 
6-14 

Roumania, 

6-13 

Russia, 

6-14 



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464 





















































































































































































































































































































































































































































. 




*8 


Public Debts ef Various Countries. 


V 


(IN DOLLARS.) 



Turkey, 


ilndia, 765.673.425 
532,186,170 


23.64 _ 

J Egypt. - 

529,383,150 

Kansas, 

- - 1,181,975 

I.IO 

1 33-5Q - 

JJ Australasia, 

449,551.245 

Florida, 

1,276,500 

4-73 



409,866,550 

376.523.38o 

341,917,662 



83.27 Peru, 

45-77 Canada, - 
15.43 Mexico, 

21.24 Roumania, 

.77 Argentine Rep., 107,681,639 
97,231,480 


241,650,000 

199,861,537 

144.953.785 

125,727,822 


- 85,762,664 

67.309.99° 

- 63,373,292 
51,100,000 


.91 Greece, 

.35 Chili, - 

.72 Venezuela, 

.72 Sweden, 

.14 China, - 

.07 Uruguay, - - 47,861,042 

.52 Denmark, 43.33 I > 6 57 

.67 Norway, - - 27,384,000 

.73 Servia, - - 20,248,090 

6.76 Colombia, - - 19,971,219 

] 14.42 Bolivia, 

p 16.01 Ecuador, - 

0 

] 2.16 Switzerland, - 


D 


Rhode Island, 


New Jersey, 
Wisconsin, - 


Mississippi, 


1,622,500 
r,796,300 
2,250,000 
2,685,867 


5-84 

1.58 


r-70- 


2-37 


I 

Japan, 

311.294.347 

New Hampshire, 

3.387,357 

9.76 | 


I.1.17 Paraguay, 

251,000,000 

California, 

3.396.500 

f 3'9° j 


Minnesota, 

Texas, 

Indiana, - 
Ohio, 

Arkansas, 

South Carolina, 6,642,322 
Maine, - 8,403,557 

New York, - 9,109,055 

Alabama, - 9,164,600 
Georgia, - - 9,624,135 
Maryland, - 11,257,561 


4,080,600 

4 . 343.251 

4,491,100 

4,876,608 



4,901,665 


































































































































































•8 


The Yearly Wheat Grop in Principal Countries.^ 



(IN bushels.) 


Egypt, 

19,800,00c 


Canada, 

22,720,000 

Algeria, 

25,500,000 

Belgium, 

25,5bo,ooo_ 

Australia, 

36,500,000 

Rnnm ania 



Great Britain and Ireland, 


105,000,000 


Austria-Hungary, 
105,080,000 

Italy, 

107,920,000 

Spain, 

116,440,000 


Florida, - - 422 

Louisiana, - 5,034 

Massachusetts, 15,768 
Nevada, - - 69,298 

N. Hampshire, 169,316_^ 

Vermont, - 337,257 Q 

Idaho, - 54 0 ,589 _ 0 . 

New Mexico, 706,641 
Utah, - 1,169,199 —0 
Arkansas, 1,269,730 (0 

Alabama, 1,529,657 
Washing’n, 1,921,322* 
Dakota, - 2,830,289 

N.Carol’a, 3,397,393 
W. Va., 4,001,711 
Va., 7,822,504 


a 


Q— 


240 R. Island, 
4,674 Wyoming, 
6,402 Dist. Col. 
38,742 Conn. 
136,427 Arizona, 
218,890 Miss. 
469,688 Montana, 
Q 665,714 Maine, 
CL 962,358 S. Carol’a, 
1,175,272 Delaware, 
0 ) 1,425,014 Colorado, 

D 1,901,739 N. Jersey, 
| 2,567,760 Texas, 


Maryland, 

8,004,864 

Nebraska, 

13,847,007 



^Georgia, 3,159,771 
Tenn., 7,331,353 
Oreg., 7,480,000 

Kentucky, 
11,356,1:3 
New York, 
”,587,766 


Germany, 

120,700,000 


Russia, 

227,200,000 


Kansas, 



Pennsylvania, 


Wisconsin, 24,884,689 


Missouri, 


India, 


240,000,000 


France, 

289,680,000 


California, 


Iowa, 


29,017,707 


31,154,205 



United States, 

459,479,505 



Illinois, 

51,110,000 






Designed and Engraved expressly for Peale's Popular Educator. 


466 






































































































































































The World’s 

Year 

TOBACCO. 

NO. OF 

ACRES. 

NO. OF LBS. 
PER ACRE. 

States not named, 

26 

344 

Washington, - 

- 8 

1 866 

Oregon, 

43 

170 

Florida, ... 

- 90 

235 

South Carolina, - 

169 

1 270 

Louisiana, 

- 253 

221 


NO. OP LBS. 
PRODUCED. 


COTTON. 


Kentucky, 0 

1.367 

Virginia, 

11,000 

Indian Ter., 11 

17,000 

Missouri, |J 

19.733 

Florida, 

1 54.997 


Brazil and other 


countries, 161,490 



Nebraska, 

Minnesota, 

California, 

Michigan 

Vermont, 

New Hampshire, 
New Jersey, 
Kansas, 

Texas, - 
Georgia, - 
Mississippi, - 
Iowa, 

Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

West Virginia, - 
Illinois, 
Massachusetts, 
New York, 
Indiana, 
Wisconsin, 
Missouri, 
Connecticut, 


574 

429 

872 


Tennessee, 330,644 
North Carolina, 380,598 


Louisiana, - - 508,569 

South Carolina, 522,548 


i- 5 % 
1. 94 1 


Arkansas, 
Alabama, 
India, - - 


608,256 

699.654 

751.552 


1 133 


Georgia, 


814,441 


575 

323 

235 

281 

607 

206 

470 

564 

701 


m§u 

1,312 


Egypt. 


931,677 


j 414,663 
420,477 
il 452,426 
970,220 

2,296,146 
3.935823 
5,369,436 
6,481,431 


Texas, 


United States, 


1,500,000 


6 , 433,615 


11 -955 


8,810 1.204 


74 2 | 8,872,842 
10,608,423 



15.521 


774 1 12.015,657 


8,666 1.620 14,044,652 


Maryland. 38,174 


North Carolina, 57,208 


H 683 



Tennessee, 41,532 


Ohio, 34,626 


Pennsylvania, 27,566 


Virginia, 140,791 


■ 

471 



707 


1.003 






■ 

1 568 


26,082,147 

26,986,213 

29.365 


34 . 735.235 


36,943,272 


79,988,865 


Kentucky, 226,120 


171.120,784 


/ 


Designed and Engraued expressly for Peale's Popular Educator. 


467 



































































































































































































































£. 


K 


^Tbe World’s Y 

early Production of the P 

(IN DOLLARS .1 

recious Metals. *- 


GOLD. 

SILVER. 


A 


United States, 

All other countries, 


Total, world, 


/ 


(0 





GOLD. 

33 . 379. 66 3 

67,376,643 


SILVER. 

41 , 110,957 

40,225,088 


TOTAL BULLION. 
74 , 490,620 
107 , 601,731 


100,756,306 


81,336,045 


182,092,351 


Note. —The total bullion yield of United 
States in 1882 was 79,300,000. The census 
report for 1880 is used for comparison, no 
later foreign estimates being obtainable. 


\J 


ir Designed and Engraved expressly for Peale’s Popular Educator. 


408 



















































































































































































Maryland. 

48,756 


Michigan 

187,043 


Kentucky, 45,973 


Wisconsin, 

102,029 


Pennsylvania 


World’s Production of Pig Iron 
in 1879. 

TONS OF 2,240 LBS. 


United 


Germany, 


Belgium 


Austria-Hungary, 


Other countries 


->RIG IRON<* 


In tons of 2,000 lbs., produced in the United States in the year 1881. From the statistics of the 

American Iron and Steel Association. 


Connecticut, 28,483 


Massachusetts, 18,318 


Minnesota, 7,442 


Colorado, 6,396 
| California, 4,414 


Indiana, 7,300 

Oregon, 6,100 
Maine, 4,400 ^ 
Vermont, 2,796 


North Carolina, pt 
800 


West 

Virginia, 

66,409 


Texas, 


3,000 


Washington, 

1,200 


New Jersey, 
171,672 


Alabama, 

98,081 


Virginia, 

83-7I 1 


Illinois, 

251,781 


Missouri, 

IP9.799 


Ohio, 

710,5,6 


New York, 
359.519 


Designed and Engraved expressly for Peale's Popular Educator. 





































































































































































V 


Annual Praduetien of' Goal in the United States. 


(in tons.) 


Maryland, - 2,228,917 


West Virginia, 1,839,845 

Iowa, - - 1,461,116 


Illinois, 

6,115.377 


□ 


Indiana, - -1,454,327 

Kentucky, - 946,288 

Kansas, - - 771,142 

Wyoming, - 589-595 


□ 


Missouri, 


556,304 


Pennsylvania, 

47,065,982 


Tennessee, - 


□ 

□ 


Colorado, 


495,i3i 

462,747 


Alabama, 



3 2 3,972 


IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 


Great Britain, 
158,000,000 




United States, 1882, 
88,100,000 


France, 

20,800,000 


Russia, 

3,245,000 


Australia, 

2,200,000 


Canada, 

1,437,000 


Spain, 

1,171,000 


India, 

1,030,000 


Chili, 

800,000 


Japan, 

530,000 

□ 


Sweden, 

120,000 

□ 


California, - 236,950 □ 

Georgia, - - 154,644 0 

Washington, - 145,015 fj 

Michigan, - - 108,000 Q 

Oregon, - - 43,205 O 

Virginia, - - 43,079 § 

Arkansas, - - 14,778 0 


Rhode Island, - 6,176 rc 


North Carolina, 350 • 


Montana, 


224 


Nebraska, 


Belgium, 


I 7,5oo,ooo 


Germany, 


65,400,000 


Austria-Hungary, 

18,000,000 


China, 

3,000,000 







-d 


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470 

















































































































































G\ 


l^R O U UGTI OX. - 


Number of Barrels in various Countries in 1880. 


Number of barrels brewed in U 
year ending May 1,1883, 

17,349,424 

31 gallons to the barrel. 


Great Britain, 
33,870,967 



United States 
14,865,548 

Austria, 

8,709,677 

- On 

O O 


£ ^ 

5 00 

C co 

CO 






Holland, | j 


1,064,516 


Denmark, I .1 

967,741 


Germany, 

29,032,253 


Belgium, 

5,806,451 


Switzerland, j j 


580,645 

Norway, 


ay. pi 
532,258 LJ 


Arizona, . 3,173 

New Mexico, 2,379 

Texas, . 2,239 

Nevada, . . 10,533 

Dakota, . 28,881 



Dist. Columbia, 46,188 

C 

W. Virginia, 50,410 i / 

xj 

cfifj 

Nebraska, . 55,714 4 / 



1 o 


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471 









































































































































































































^■EURinSITIES flF THE CENSUS.-* 


—THE CENTRE OF POPULATION.^— 

The centre of population is defined as “ the point at which equilibrium would be reached were the country taken as a plane 
surface itself, without weight, but capable of sustaining weight, and loaded with its inhabitants in number and position as they are 
found at the period under consideration, each individual being assumed to be of the same gravity as every other, and consequently to 
exert pressure on the pivotal point directly proportioned to his distance therefrom.” In brief, it is the centre of gravity of the popula¬ 
tion of the country. It is located eight miles west-by-south from the heart of the city of Cincinnati, which places it in Kentucky, one 
mile from the south bank of the Ohio River. 

The change of centre of population each 
ten years in the United States is shown in the 
following table. The very rapid settlement of 
the Northwest of late would indicate that the 
line will move considerably northward in the 
next ten years. 


Year. 


miles e. 


790—23 


800—18 


miles 


miles n 


1820—16 


miles n 


1830—19 


miles s 


miles s 


1840—16 


miles s. 


1850—23 


lt>0O—20 


miles s 


miles e 


1870—48 


18S0— 8 


miles \v 


Centre 0/ Population . 


Move westward^ 
Miles. 


of Baltimore. 

. of Baltimore. 41 

-w.by w. of Washington ... 36! 

of Woodstock, Va. 

-w. of Moorefield.W.Va.... 39 

of Clarksburg, W. Va. 55 

of Parkersburg, W. Va.... 65 

of Chillicothe, 0 . 81 

-by-n. of Cincinnati, 0 . 42 

,-by-s. of Cincinnati, O. 58 

Total . 467 

Note. —For the exact figures and further detailed information, the reader is referred to the table headed “ Population of the United States 


Designed and Engraued expressly for Peale's Popular Educator . 


Proportions of Native and Foreign Population, Male and Female, White and Black; Centre of Population, etc. 


Louisiana 


11 1 V ® f rame this diagram required the study of hun 
dreds of pages of census returns, and 
-^Sj) a fine sense of discrimination in 
fixing the proportions of popula 
tion in each State. The space 
each State takes up in the 
diagram accurately defines 
its position in regard to 
the population. New 
York covers an inch 
of space, and Texas, 
which is about five 
times as large, oc¬ 
cupies hardly a 
quarter of an 
inch. How slim 
Delaware, Colo¬ 
rado, Nebraska, 

Nevada, Ore¬ 
gon and Rhode 
Island appear! 

New York, Ohio 
and Pennsylvania 
are given generous 
proportions, as they 
deserve and are justly 
entitled to. North Caro¬ 
lina, Kentucky, Illinois, In¬ 
diana, Virginia, Missouri and 
Tennessee are States holding re¬ 
spectably large populations. A sin 
gle glance will suffice to show that the 
number of Chinese resident in this country and 


the residents of Nebraska are nearly equal; 
and that the natives of Germany resi¬ 
dent in the United States are more 
than equal to the residents of the 
combined States of California, 
Colorado, Delaware, Flor¬ 
ida, Kansas, Minnesota, 
Nebraska, Nevada, Ore¬ 
gon and Rhode Island 
—ten States in all out 
of thirty-eight. As 
a quick method of 
reference to the 
proportions of the 
population, these 
diagrams are un¬ 
excelled. While 
the whole number 
of foreign - bom 
persons living in 
the United States 
in 1880 was 6,679,- 
943, the number of 
those having one or 
both parents foreign- 
born (including those 
foreign-born themselves, 
as above given), was 14,955,- 
996, or, in round numbers, 
15,000,000. It is within bounds 
to say that 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 
of the residents of the United States are 
foreign-born or have both parents foreign-born. 






















































































































































































































































































































































































































474 


GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 


^STATISTICS OF POPULATION.)- 

A TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE 

COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 

SHOWING THEIR RANK ACCORDING TO POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS 

FROM 1790 TO 1880. 


STATES AND 

TERRITORIES. 

1790. 

1800. 

1810. 

1830. 

1830. 

I 

1840. 

1850. 

1860. 


3,929,214 

5,308,483 

7> 2 39>SSi 

9.633,S22 

I2,S66,020 

17,069,453 

23.191.S76 

3',443,321 







19 

127,901 

'5 

309,527 

12 

590,756 

12 

771,623 

'3 

964,201 














26 

14,255 

2S 

3o,38S 

25 

97,574 

26 

29 

1209,897 

92,597 

25 

126 

38 

24 

42 

32 

35 

3' 

11 

43S,45° 

379,994 

34,277 

460,147 

4.S37 

112,216 

75,080 

140,424 

1,057,286 





















Connecticut. 

8 

237,946 

8 

251,002 

9 

261,942 

'4 

275,14s 

16 

297,675 

20 

309,978 

21 

370,792 


16 

59,096 

17 

19 

64,273 

14,093 

*9 

22 

72,647 

24,023 

22 

25 

•72,749 

33,039 

24 

25 

26 

10 

76,748 

39,834 

34,730 

516,S23 

26 
2S 

27 

9 

78,085 

43,712 

54,477 

691,392 

30 
33 

31 

9 

91,532 

51,687 

87,445 

906,185 

Dist. of Columbia 
Florida. 




13 

82,548 

12 

162,680 

11 

252,433 

11 

340,985 







24 

21 

12,2S2 

24,520 

3 

55,162 

147,178 

20 

13 

157,445 

343,031 

14 

10 

29 

476,183 

6Ss,S66 

43,ii2 

7 

27 

851,470 

988,416 

192,214 

4 
6 

20 

33 

9 

'7 

22 

'9 

7 

16 

3° 

'4 

5 

i,7ii,95i 

1,350,428 

674,913 

107,206 

1,155,684 

708,002 

628,279 

687,049 

1,231,066 

749,H3 

172,023 

791,305 

1,182,012 




21 

5,641 
















14 

73,677 

9 

220,955 

1? 

■4 

8 

5 

25 

406,511 

76,556 

228,705 

380,546 

472,040 

4,762 

6 

17 

12 

10 

7 

27 

564,135 

152,923 

298,269 

407,350 

523,159 

8,765 

6 

19 

12 

11 

8 

27 

687,917 

215,739 

399,455 

447,040 

610,40s 

31,639 

6 

19 

13 

15 

8 

23 

779,S2S 

5S2,4 h 

5oi,793 

470,019 

737,699 

212,267 

s 

15 

16 

17 

6 

20 

36 

'5 

13 

982,405 

517,762 

583,169 

583,034 

994,514 

97,654 

6,077 

606,526 

682,044 



11 

6 

4 

96,540 

319,72s 

378,787 

14 

7 

5 

151,719 

341,54s 

422,845 


Massachusetts... 









20 

S,S5o 

20 

23 

40,352 

2o,S 4 5 

21 

23 

75,448 

66,557 

22 

21 

136,621 

140,455 

17 

l6 

375,651 

383,702 




Montana. 




















39 

4' 

27 
21 

34 

1 

12 

.5 

36 

2 

29 

IO 

23 

37 

28 

5 

4° 

28,841 

6.S57 

326,073 

672,035 

93,5i6 

3 ,SSo ,735 

992,622 

2,339,5" 

52,465 

2,906,215 

174,620 

703,70s 

1,109,801 

604,215 

40,273 
3 '5,098 
i,S 96,3'S 

ii,594 










I" 






New Hampshire. 

IO 

9 

141,885 

184,139 

10 

183,858 

211,149 

16 

12 

214,460 

245,562 

■5 

13 

244,022 

277,426 

18 

14 

269,32s 

320,823 

22 

IS 

284,574 

373,306 

22 

19 

32 

10 

3 

34 

2 

2S 

14 

5 

25 

35 

23 

4 

317,976 

489,555 

6 i ,547 

3,097,394 

869,039 

1,980,329 

13,294 

2,311,786 

147,545 

668,507 

1,002,717 

212,592 

11,380 
314,120 
1,421,661 



5 

3 

340,120 

393,75i 

3 

5S9,o5i 

478,103 

45,365 

2 

4 

'3 

959,049 

55S,5oo 

230,760 

1 

4 

5 

1,372,111 

63S.S29 

581,295 

1 

5 

4 

i,9iS,6oS 
737,9S7 
937,90.3 

7 

3 

2,42s,921 
753,419 
1,519,467 

North Carolina.. 




Pennsylvania_ 

Rhode Island.... 
South Carolina.. 

2 

15 

7 

'7 

434,373 

6S,S25 

249,073 

35,691 

2 

l6 

6 

IS 

602,365 

69,122 

345,59' 

105,602 

3 

17 

6 

10 

810,091 

76,93' 

4 I 5>"5 

261,727 

3 

20 

S 

9 

1,047,507 

S3,015 
502,741 

422,771 

2 

23 

9 

7 

1,348,233 

97,i99 

5 S',i 85 

681,904 

2 
24 
I I 

5 

1,724,033 

108,830 

594,398 

829,210 

Texas.,. 

Utah. 














12 

I 

S5,4 2 5 

747,610 

13 

1 

154,465 

SSo,200 

15 

I 

2I7.S95 

974,6oo 

l6 

2 

235,966 

1,065,116 

17 

3 

280,652 

1,211,405 

21 

4 

291,948 

1,239,797 



West Virginia... 























| 



30 

30,945 

24 

305,391 

'5 

775,8S1 

Wyoming. 





















1 








1870. 


3s, 558.371 


996.992 

9.65s 

4S4.47 

560,247 

39.S64 

537.454 

14,1s 

125,015 

i3i,7°o 

iS 7 ,7 4 S 

i,iS4,io9 
H,999 
2,539,S9 
1,680,637 
1,194,020 

2 64,399 

1,321,01 

726.915 

626.915 
7So,S94 

1,457,35' 

1,184.059 

439,706 

527,922 

1,721,295 

20,595 

122.993 
42,491 

3'S,3°o 

906,096 

9i,S74 

4.3S2.759 

1,071,361 

2,665,260 

9°,923 

3,521,95 
2'7,353 
705,606 
1,258,520 
SiS,579 

S6.7S6 

330,55' 

1,225,163 

23,955 

442,014 

1,054,670 

9,u8 


1880. 


5 o,i 55 . 7 S 3 


1,262,505 

40,440 

802,525 

864,694 

194,327 

622,700 

135,177 

146,608 

177,624 

269,493 

i,54 z ,iSo 

32,610 

3,077,871 

1,978,301 
1,624,615 

996,096 

1,648,690 

939,946 

648,936 

934,943 

i,7S3,oS5 

1,636,937 

78o,773 

i,i3i,S97 

2,i6S,3So 

39,159 

4C2,402 

62,266 

346,991 

1,131,116 

119,565 

5,oS2,S7i 

i,399,75o 

3,198,062 

i74,76S 

4.282,891 

276,53' 

995,577 

1,542,359 

i,59‘,749 

143,963 

332.2S6 

1,512,565 

75,i'6 

61S, 457 

1,315,497 

20,789 


Note. — The figures in the first column under each year show the rank of the respective States and Territories according to population. 










































































































































































POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 


475 




opu fa l'lcHT o| I lie ^fnileb S-fcaW. 


ACCORDING TO THEIR RANK IN 1880, BY SEN, NATIVITY 

AND RACE. 


STATES 

AND TERRITORIES. 


The United States. 


New York .... 
Pennsylvania 

Ohio. 

Illinois. 

Missouri. 


Indiana. 

Massachusetts 

Kentucky . 

Michigan. 

Iowa. 


T exas .... 
Tennessee. 
Georgia... 
Virginia .. 


North Carolina . 


Wisconsin .. 
Alabama . .. 
Mississippi.. 
New Jersey. 
Kansas. 


South Carolina. 

Louisiana. 

Maryland.. 

California. 

Arkansas.. 


Minnesota. 

Maine. 

Connecticut.... 
West Virginia . 
Nebraska. 


New Hampshire. 

Vermont. 

It bode Island.... 

Florida. 

Colorado. 


Oregon . . 
Delaware. 
Nevada . 




The Territories. 


District of Columbia. 


Utah. 

Dakota. 

New Mexico. 
Washington. 

Arizona. 

Montana. 

Idaho. 

Wyoming .... 


TOTAL. 

MALE. 

FEMALE. 

native. 

FOREIGN. 

WHITE. 

COLORED. 

30,135,784 

25,518,820 

24,636,963 

43,475.540 

— 

6,679,943 

43,402,970 

6»5$°>793 

49,371,340 

23,075,619 

24.293,721 

42.S71.556 

6499,784 

4^,7*4.479 

6,513,772 

5,oS2,7Si 

2,505,322 

2,377,349 

3,S7i,492 

i,2ii,379 

5,016,022 

65,104 

4,282,091 

2,136,655 

2,146,236 

3,695,002 

587,829 

4,197,016 


3,19s,062 

1,613,936 

1,584,126 

2 ,So 3 ,i 19 

394,943 

3,117,920 

79,900 

3,077,871 

1,586,523 

1.491,34 s 

2,494.295 

383,576 

3,031.151 

46,36s 

2,168,380 

1 , 127,187 

1,041,193 

1,956,802 

2II.57S 

2,022,S26 

145,350 

i,978,3oi 

1,010,361 

967,940 

1,834,123 

144.17S 

1,938,79S 

39,22s 

i,78.3,oS? 

S5S.440 

924,64s 

1,339,594 

443491 

I,763,7S2 

18,697 

1,648,690 

832,590 

Si 6 ,ioo 

1,589,173 

59,517 

1.377479 

271,451 

1,636,937 

S 62 . 3 SS 

774.5S2 

1,248,429 

3SS,5oS 

1,614,560 

15,100 

1,624,615 

84S1I36 

776,479 

1,362,965 

261,650 

1,614,600 

9,516 

1,591,749 

823,840 

753,909 

M77.133 

114,616 

1,197437 

393,384 

1,542,359 

769,277 

773,oS2 

1,525,657 

16,702 

1,138,831 

403,151 

i, 542 ,i 8 o 

762,981 

779.199 

i,53i,6i6 

10,564 

816,906 

725,133 

1 , 512,565 

1,399,750 


766,976 

711,842 

1 497,869 
1,396,008 

14,696 

3.742 

SSo.SsS 

867,242 

631,616 

531,277 

1,313,497 

680,069 

633,428 

910,072 

405.425 

1,309,61s 

2,702 

1,262,505 

622,629 

639,876 

i.252,77‘ 

9,734 

662,1S5 

600,103 

i,i3i,597 

567.'77 

564,420 

I,I22,3SS 

9,209 

479,39S 

650,291 

1,131,116 

559,922 

57'.'94 

909,416 

221,700 

1,092,017 

3S.S53 

996,096 

536,667 

439,429 

SS6,oio 

1 io,oS6 

952,153 

43,107 

995,577 

490,40s 

305,169 

9S7.S91 

7,6S6 

39M05 

601,332 

939,946 

468,754 

471.192 

SS5,Soo 

54446 

454,954 

483,655 

934.943 

462,187 

472,756 

852,137 

S2,So6 

724,693 

210,230 

£>64,604 

5'S,i76 

346,5iS 

571,820 

292,874 

767,181 

6,01 S 

802,525 

416,279 

386,246 

792475 

10,350 

59',53l 

210,666 

780,773 

419.149 

361.624 

S13.097 

267,676 

776,SS4 

1,564 

648,936 

324.05S 

324,878 

590,053 

SS.SS.t 

646,852 

i,45i 

622,700 

305,7S2 

316,91s 

492,70s 

129,992 

610,769 

11,547 

618,457 

3'4,495 

303,962 

600,192 

18,265 

592,537 

2S.SS6 

452,402 

249,241 

203,161 

354,988 

97.4'4 

449,764 

2,3S5 

346,991 

170,526 

176,465 

300,697 

46,294 

346,229 

6S5 

332,2S6 

166,SS7 

165,399 

291,327 

40,959 

33i,2iS 

',057 

276,531 

133,030 

i»3,5oi 

202,53s 

73,993 

269,939 

6,48s 

269,493 

136,444 

133,049 

259,584 

9,909 

142.605 

126,690 

194,327 

129.131 

65,196 

154,537 

39,790 

191,126 

2,435 

174,768 

103,381 

7L3S7 

144,265 

30,503 

163,075 

4S7 

146,608 

74,ioS 

72,500 

137,14° 

946S 

120,160 

26,442 

62,266 

42,019 

i 

20,247 

36,613 

25,653 

53,556 

4SS 

784,443 

443.201 

341,242 

604,284 

180,159 

6SS,49i 

62,421 

177,624 

83,578 

94,046 

160,502 

17,122 

nS,oo6 

59,596 

143,963 

74,509 

69454 

S3,382 

43,994 

142,423 

232 

135,177 

82,296 

5 2 ,S8i 

m,5i4 

5i,795 

133,'47 

401 

119,565 

64,496 

55,069 

59,313 

S,05i 

108,721 

1,015 

75,ii6 

45,973 

29,143 

36,613 

i5,So3 

67,199 

3 2 S 

40,440 

28,202 

12,238 

24,391 

16,049 

35 ,' 6 o 

i55 

39.139 

2S,i77 

10,982 

27,63s 

11,521 

35.3^5 

346 

32,610 

2I,SlS 

10,792 

22,636 

9,974 

29,013 

53 

20,789 

14,152 

6,637 

14,939 

5,850 

19,437 

29S 


CHINESE. 

■ ESE. 


i°5,4 6 5 


93 . 7 S 2 


14S 


141 


INDIANS. 


44 . 3 ^ 


909 

I4S 

109 

200 

91 

29 

229 

IO ' 

27 

33 

136 ! 
25 
17 
6 . 


17 

S 

3 

3 


16 

4 

5 > 

170 

*9 

4&9 

3 

73.132 

i 33 


123 

3 

iS 

14 


S6 


27 

iS 

612 

9.510 

1 

5 . 4 i 6 


S19 

1S4 

130 

140 

113 

246 

369 

So 

7.249 

466 

992 

352 

124 

S5 

1,230 

3.161 

213 

i.S57 

74 

S15 

131 

S4S 

>3 

16,277 

■93 

2,300 

625 

255 

29 

235 

63 

11 

77 

1S0 

154 

1,694 

2,So3 


ii,6 S3 


13 

Soi 

238 


3,186 

1,630 

1.763 

3.379 

914 


21,841 


S 07 

1,391 

9,772 

4,403 

3.493 

1,663 

163 

140 


66,407 









































































































































































































































7T 


V 


476 


THE GREAT CITIES OF THE WORLD. 


GREAT CITIES OF THE WORLD HAVING 100,000 INHABITANTS. 


Cities. 


Countries. 


Popula¬ 

tion. 


Census. 


/ 


Abeokuta.Africa. 130,000... .Est. 

Alexandria.Egypt. 165,752... .1878 

Agra.India. 149,008... .1871 

Ahmedabad ....India. 113,876... .1871 

Allahabad.India .. 143,693... .1871 

Amritour.India. 142,381... .1876 

Antwerp.Belgium. 159,579... .1878 

Aberdeen.Scotland. 105,818... .1881 

Amsterdam.Holland. 308,948... .1878 

Baltimore.United States.. 332,190... .1880 

Boston... .United States .. 362,535... .1880 

Brooklyn.United States .. 566,689... .1880 

Buffalo.United States .. 155,137... .1880 

Bahia.South America. 128,929... .1872 

Buenos Ayres.. .South America. 248,110._1881 

Bongalore.India. 142,513... .1871 

Bangkok.India. 600,000... .Est. 

Bareilly.India. 102,982... .1871 

Baroda.India. 112,057... .1871 

Benares.India. 175,188... .1871 

Bombay.India. 644,405... .1872 

Brussels.Belgium. 399,936... .1878 

Bordeaux.France. 215,140... .1876 

Barmen.Germany ......1,122,385....1880 

Bremen.Germany. 112,158... .1880 

Breslau.Germany. 272,390... .1880 

Belfast.Ireland. 207,671... .1881 

Birmingham ... .England. 400,757... .1881 

Blackburn.England. 104,012... .18S1 

Bolton.England. . 105,422... .1881 

Bradford.England. 183,032... .1881 

Brighton.England. 107,528.... 1881 

Bristol.England. 206,503... .1881 

Bucharest.Roumania. 177,646... .1878 

Bologna.Italy. 111,969... .1878 

Barcelona.Spain. 249,106. ...1877 

Budapesth.Austria-Hungary 347,536... .1880 

Chicago.United States.. 503,304... .1880 

Cincinnati.United States.. 255,708... .1880 

Cleveland.United States .. 160,142... .1880 

Cairo.Egypt. 327,462-1877 

Canton.China.1,500,000.... Est. 

Calcutta.India. 683,458... .1881 

Cawnpore.India. 122,770... .1871 

Columbo.Ceylon. 111,942... .1881 

Copenhagen . .. .Denmark. 273,727... .1880 

Cologne.Germany. 144,751... .1880 

Constantinople...Turkey. 600,000.1879 

Christiana.Sweden. 119,407.. ..1880 

Detroit.United States.. 116,342... .1880 

Delhi.India. 160,553.... 1876 

Dhar.India. 100,000... .Est. 

Damascus.Turkey-in-Asia. 150,000... .Est. 

Dantzig.Qermany. 108,549... .2880 

Dresden.Germany. 220,216... .1880 

Dublin.Ireland. 249,486... .1881 

Dundee ........Scotland. 140,463.... 1881 

Edinburgh.Scotland. 228,075.... 1881 

Fez.Africa. 100,000... .Est. 

Frankfort.Germany. 137,600... .1880 

Florence.Italy. 168,423... .1878 

Fatschan.China. 400,000.... Est. 

Foo Chow.China. 600,000... .Est. 

Glasgow.Scotland. 555,289... .1881 

Gwalior.India. 200,000... .Est. 

Ghent.Belgium. 130,671... .1878 


Cities. 

1 Countries. 

1 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Census. 

Genoa. 

• Italy. 

163,234. 

...1878 

Hangtscheu-fu 

.China. 

400,000. 

.. .Est. 

Hangjang .... 

..China. 

100,000. 

... Est. 

Hankow. 

• China. 

600,000. 

.. .Est. 

Hutscheu. 

..China. 

200,000. 

... Est. 

Hutscheu-fu .. 

.China. 

100,000. 

.. .Est. 

Hwangjuer .. . 

.China. 

j 20,000. 

.. .Est. 

Hyderabad ... 

.India. 

200,000. 

...Est. 

Hakodate .... 

.Japan . . 

112,494. 

...1877 

Hamburg. 

.Germany. 

290,055. 

. . .1880 

Hanover. 

. Germany. 

122,860. 

.. .1880 

Hague. 

.. Holland. 

117,856. 

...1880 

Jersey City ... 

.United States .. 

120,728. 

...1880 

Jangtschau ... 

.China. 

360,000. 

.. .Est. 

Jongpin. 

.China. 

200,000. 

... Est. 

Jondpore. 

.India. 

150,000. 

.. .Est. 

Kesho. 

.India. 

150,000. 

... Est. 

Kagoshima ... 

•Japan . 

200,000. 

...1877 

Kanagawa.... 

.Japan . 

108,263. 

...1877 

Kiota. 

.Japan . 

229,810. 

...1877 

Konigsberg. .. 

.Germany. 

150,396. 

...1880 

Kingston. 

• England. 

154,250. 

...1881 

Kijew. 

.Russia. 

127,250. 

...1874 

Kischenew.... 

.Russia. 

102,427. 


Louisville. 

.United States.. 

123,645- 

...1880 

Lima. 

.South America. 

101,488. 

. . .1876 

Leinkong. 

• China. 

250,000. 

.. .Est. 

Lahore. 

.India. 

128,441. 

.. .1876 

Lucknow. 

.India. 

284,779. 

. . .187I 

I.ille. 

• France. 

162,775. 

.. .1876 

Lyons. 

.France. 

342,815. 

.. .1876 

Leipzig. 

.Germany. 

148,760. 

.. .1880 

Leeds . 

.England. 

309,126. 

...1881 

Leicester. 

• England. 

122,351. 

.. .1881 

Liverpool. 

.England .. 

522,425. 

...1881 

London. 

. England. 


...l88l 

Lisbon. 

.Portugal. 

253,496. 

.. .1878 

Lemberg. 

.Austria-Hungary 

110,250. 

. . .1880 

Liege. 

• Belgium. 

119,942. 

...1878 

Milwaukee ... 

.United States .. 

ii 5 , 57 8 - 

.. .1880 

Marseilles .... 

.France. 

318,868. 

.. .1876 

Manchester. .. 

• England. 

34 USo 8 . 

...1881 

Messina. 

■ Italy. 

120,917. 

...1878 

Munich. 

.Bavaria. 

230,023. 

...1880 

Milan. 

.Italy. 

262,283. 

.. .1878 

Madrid. 

• Spain. 

397,690. 

w 

00 

v| 

VI 

Malaga. 

• Spain. 

115,882. 

...1877 

Moscow. 

. Russia. 

6oi,q6q. 

...1871 

Madras. 

.India. 

397 , 552 . 

.. .1871 

Mandalah .... 

.India.. 

100,000. 

. .Est. 

Manila. 

• Ind. Archipelago 160,000. 

.. Est. 

Melbourne. 

.Australia. 

252.000. 

...1881 

Montreal. 

.Canada. 

107,225. 

. . .187I 

Mexico. 

.Mexico. 

236,500. 

...1879 

Mukden. 

.China. 

170,000. 

.. .Est. 

New York .... 

.United States .. 

,2o6,SQO. 

...1880 

New Orleans.. 

.United States .. 

216,140. 

...1880 

Newark. 

.United States . . 

156,400. 

...1880 

Nangkin. 

• China. 

450,000. 

...Est. 

Nantes. 

.France . 

122,247. 

_1876 

Newcastle .... 

.England. 

145,228. 

...1881 

Nottingham .. 

.England. 

186,656. 

...1881 

Naples. 

■ Italy. 

450,804. 

...1878 

Nagoya. 

.Japan . 

135,715. 

...1877 

Odessa. 

. Russia. 

184,819. 

...1873 


Cities. 


Osaka 


Philadelphia. 


St. 


Tengtschau-fu 


Countries. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Census. 

.England. 

iii, 343 - 

...1881 

•Japan . 

284,105. 

...1877 

.United States .. 

156,381. 

.. .1880 

.United States.. 

104,850. 

.. .1880 

.United States .. 

846,984. 

...1880 

.India. 

158,900. 

...1871 

.India. 

118,886. 

...1871 

.South America. 

116,671. 

...1872 

.Austria-Hungary 

162,318. 

...1880 

.France.2 

,225,900. 

.. .1876 

• England. 

127 , 953 - 

...1881 

• Italy. 

231,836. 

...1878 

• Portugal. 

108,346. 

...1878 

.Africa. 

100,000. 

... Est. 

China.1 

,648,800. 

... Est. 

• South America. 

274,972. 

.. .1872 

.India. 

132,004. 

...1881 

• France. 

104,902. 

...1876 

.Italy. 

303,383 • 

...1880 

.Holland. 

147,082. 

...1878 

.Russia. 

103,000. 

...1878 

United States.. 

350,522. 

...1880 

United States.. 

232,956. 

...1880 

.South America. 

129,807. 

...1875 

.China. 

500,000. 

. .Est. 

.China. 

278,000. 

.. Est. 

.China. 1 

000,000. 

.. .Est. 

.China.1 

000,000. 

.. Est. 

.China. 

500,000. 

.. Est. 

.Corea. 

100,000. 

...Est. 

.India. 

132.681. 

—1873 

India. 

107,149. 

..1871 

Turkey-in-Asia. 

150,000. 

..Est. 

Australia. 

220,427. 

...1881 

.France. 

126,019. 

. .1876 

Germany. 

104,501. 

. .1880 

Germany. 

117,303- 

..1880 

England. 

176,233- 

..1881 

England. 

284,410. 

..1881 

England. 

116,262. 

..1881 

Russia. 

861,900. 

. .1869 

Spain. 

133,938- 

..1877 

Sweden. 

169,429. 

..1880 

Africa. 

125,000. 

..Est. 

China. 

255,000. 

.. Est. 

China. 

250,000. 

.. Est. 

China. 

950,000. 

.. Est. 

.China.1 

000 ,000. 

. .Est. 

China. 

200 ,000. 

.. Est. 

China. 

800,000. 

.. Est. 

China. 

600,000. 

. .Est. 

Japan. 

811,510. 

••1877 

Persia. 

120 ,000. 

.. Est. 

Persia. 

200 ,000. 

.. Est. 

Russia-in-Asia . 

104,024. 

..1876 

Austria-Hungary 

144 , 437 - 

..1880 

France.. 

131,642.. 

. .1876 

Italy. 

214,200.. 

..1878 

Spain. 

143,856.. 

..1877 

China. 

102,000 . . 

.. Est. 

Austria-Hungary 

726,105.. 

..1880 

Italy. 

125,276.. 

. .1878 

Russia. 

308,548.. 

..1877 

China. 

250,000.. 

..Est. 

England. 

128,692.. 

..1881. 































































































































































































































































































































































































POPULATION AND RANK OF AMERICAN CITIES. 


477 


POPULATION OP CITIES OP THE UNITED STATES 

Having 10,000 Inhabitants and Over, by the Census of 1880. and Showing their Rank According to Population. 


Name of Citr. 


Population 

18 c 0 . 


Name of City. 


Population , = 
ISsO. 3 


Name of Citr. 


Population 

1880 .. 







Akron, Ohio. 

16,512.. 

133 

Albany, N. Y. 

9 ° > 9 ° 3 • • 

21 

Alleghany, Pa. 

78,681.. 

2 3 

Allentown, Pa. 

18,063.. 

119 

Alexandria, Va. 

13,658.. 

l6o 

Altoona, Pa. 

19,716.. 

IO4 

Amsterdam, N. Y. 

11,711.. 

198 

Atchison, Kan. 

15,106.. 

147 

Atlanta, Ga. 

34,398-■ 

51 

Attleboro, Mass. 

. ix,iii.. 

.215 

Auburn, N. Y.. 

. 22,924.. 

. 81 

Augusta, Ga. 

. 23,023.. 

. 80 

Aurora, Ill. 

. 11,825., 

.195 

Austin, Tex. 

. 10,960., 

.2l8 

Baltimore, Md.. 

■ 33 2 , 1 9 °- ■ 

• 7 

Bangor, Maine.. 

. 16,827., 

. 128 

Bay City, Mich. 

. 20,693.. 

• 97 

Belleville, Ill. 

. 10,682. 

.225 

Biddeford, Maine. 

. 12,652. 

■179 

Binghamton, N. Y. 

• 17,315- 

.123 

Bloomington, Ill. 

• I 7 , i8 4 - 

.124 

Boston, Mass. 

-362,535- 

• 5 

Bridgeport, Conn. 

• 29,145. 

• 69 

Brockton, Mass. 

. 13,608. 

.l6l 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 

.566,689. 

• 3 

Buffalo, N. Y. 

•155,137- 

• 13 

Burlington, Vt. 

• 11,364- 

.208 

Burlington, Iowa. 

. I 9 , 450 . 

.105 

Brookhaven, N. Y. 

. u, 544 - 

.204 

Cambridge, Mass. 

• 52 , 740 - 

• 31 

Camden, N. J. 

. 41,658. 

• 44 

Canton, Ohio. 

. 12,258. 

.183 

Castleton, N. Y. 

• i 2 , 679 - 

•177 

Cedar Rapids, Iowa.... 

. 10,104. 

.242 

Charleston, S. C. 

• 49 - 999 - 

• 36 

Chattanooga, Tenn. 

. 12,892. 

•174 

Chelsea, Mass. 

- 21,785. 

. 89 

Chester, Pa. 

• 14,996. 

.148 

Chicago, Ill. 

•503.304. 

. 4 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 

.255,708. 

. 8 

Cleveland, Ohio. 

.160,142. 

. 1 I 

Columbia, S. C. 

. 10,040. 

•244 

Columbus, Ohio. 

. 51,665. 

• 33 

Covington, Ky . 

. 29 , 720 . 

. 66 

Cohoes, N. Y. 

• i 9 , 4 > 7 . 

.106 

Council Bluffs, Iowa ... 

- 18,059. 

.120 

Concord, N. H. 

. 13,838- 

-155 

Cortland, N. Y. 


.178 

Chicopee, Mass. 

. II , 3 Z 5 - 

.209 

Chillicothe, Ohio. 

• 10,938. 

.219 

Detroit, Mich. 

.116,342. 

. 18 

Dayton, Ohio. 

• 38,677- 

• 47 

Denver, Colo. 

■ 35,630. 

• 49 

Des Moines, Iowa. 

. 22,408. 

. 82 

Dubuque, Iowa. 

• 22,254. 

• 83 

Dover, N. H. 

. 11,687. 

.200 

Danbury, Conn. 

. 11,669. 

.201 

Derby, Conn. 


.203 

Dallas, Tex. 


.232 

Davenport, Iowa. 


. 88 

Evansville, Ind. 


. 68 

Elizabeth, N. J. 

. 28,229. 

■ 7 ° 

y*Erie, Pa. 


. 7 1 


Elmira, N. Y.20,541.. 99 

East Saginaw, Mich. 19,016. .110 

Easton, Pa. 11,924.-193 

Eau Claire, Wis. 10,118. .241 

Fall River, Mass.49,006.. 37 j 

Fort Wayne, Ind.26,SSo.. 74 ; 

Flushing, N. Y. 15,919..140 

Fond du Lac,'Wis. 13,091. .171 

Fitchburg, Mass. 12,405.-182 

Fishkill, N. Y. .10,732. .223 

Georgetown, D. C. 12,578.-180 I 

Grand Rapids, Mich_32,015.. 58 

Galveston, Tex. 22,253.. 84 

Gloucester, Mass. 19,329.-107 

Galesburg, Ill. 11,446. .206 

Hempstead, N. Y. 18,160. .117 

Hartford, Conn. 42,553.. 42 

Hoboken, N. J.30,999.. 61 

Harrisburg, Pa. 30,762.. 62 

Holyoke, Mass.21,851.. 87 

Houston, Tex. 18,646..113 

Haverhill, Mass . 18,475. .114 

Hyde Park, Ill. 15,716. .143 

Hamilton, Ohio. 12,122..187 

Hannibal, Mo. 11,074..216 

Indianapolis, Ind. 75,074.. 24 

Jersey City, N. J.120,728.. 17 | 

Johnstown, N. Y. 16,626..131 ; 

Joliet, Ill. 16,145. .135 

Jackson, Mich.16,105..136 

Jacksonville, Ill. 10,927..221 

Jeffersonville, Ind.10,422.-230 

Jamaica, N. Y. 10,089..243 , 

Kansas City, Mo. 55.813.. 3 ° 

Kingston, N. Y. 18,342.-115 

Keokuk, Iowa.12,117.-188 

Kalamazoo, Mich. 11,937.-194 

Louisville, Ky.123,645.. 16 

Lowell, Mass. 59,485.. 27 

Lawrence, Mass. 39,187.. 46 

Lynn, Mass. 38,284.. 48 

Lancaster, Pa. 25,769.. 77 

Lewiston, Maine. 19,083. .108 

Long Island City, N.Y... 17,117.-126 

Lexington, Ky. 16,656. .130 

Leavenworth, Kan.16,550.. 132 

Lynchburg,Ya. I 5 , 959-- I 39 

Lafayette, Ind. 14,860.-149 

Leadville, Colo. 14,820. .150 

La Crosse, Wis. 14.505. .151 

Lincoln, R. I. 13,765- 156 

Lockport, N. Y. 13,522.-163 

Little Rock, Ark. 13,185..169 

Lincoln, Neb. 13,004.-173 

Los Angeles, Cal.11,311.-211 

Logansport, Ind. 11,198..214 

Lennox, N.Y. 10,249.-236 

Milwaukee, Wis.115,578.. 19 

Minneapolis, Minn.46,887.. 38 

Memphis, Tenn. 33 , 593 -• 54 


Manchester, N. H.32,630., 

Mobile, Ala. 31,205. . 

Meriden, Conn. 18,340.. 

Montgomery, Ala. 16,714., 

Macon, Ga. 12,748. 

Malden, Mass. 12,017.. 

Middletown, Conn.11,731. 

Muskegon, Mich. 11,262. 

Madison, Wis. 10,325. 

Marlboro, Mass. 10,126. 

Newburyport, Mass. 13,537. 

New York, N. Y.1,206,590. 

New Orleans, La.216,140. 

Newark, N. J.136,400. 

New Haven, Conn.62,882. 

New Bedford, Mass.26,875. 

I Norfolk, Ya.21,966. 

Norwich, Conn.21,141. 

Newport, Ky. 20,433. 

Newburg, N. Y. 18,050. 

New Brunswick, N. J_17,167. 

Newton, Mass. 16,995. 

New Albany, Ind. 16,422. 

Newport, R. I. 15,693. 

New Britain, Conn. 13,978. 

Norwalk, Conn . 13,956. 

i New Lots, N. Y. 13,681. 

Nashua, N. H. 13,397- 

Norristown, Pa. 13,064. 

Northampton, Mass. 12,172. 

New London, Conn.10,529. 

North Adams, Mass.10,192. 

1 Nashville, Tenn.43,461. 

Oakland, Cal. 34,556. 

1 Omaha, Neb.30,518. 

Oswego, N. Y.21,117. 

Oshkosh, Wis. 15,749. 

| Orange, N. J. 13,206. 

Oyster Bay, N. Y. 11,923. 

Ogdensburg, N. Y.10,340. 

Pittsburg, Pa.156,381. 

Providence, R. I.104,850. 

; Paterson, N. J. 50,887. 

Portland, Maine.33,810. 

i Peoria, Ill.29,315. 

Petersburg, Ya.21,656. 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y.20,207. 

Pawtucket, R. 1 . 19,030. 

Pittsfield, Mass. 13,367. 

Pottsville, Pa. 13,253. 

Portsmouth, Va. 11,388. 

Portsmouth, Ohio. 11,314. 

Philadelphia, Pa.846,984. 

Quincy, Ill.27,275. 

; Quincy, Mass. 10,529. 

Rochester, N. Y.89,363. 

Richmond, Va.63,803. 

Reading, Pa.43,280. 

Racine, Wis.16,031. 

Rockford, Ill. I 3 ,t 36 . 

Richmond, Ind. 12,743. 


56 

60 

.116 

,129 

175 

,191 

.197 

.213 

2 34 

240 

,162 

1 

. 10 

• 15 
. 26 

■ 75 
. 86 

■ 93 
. 100 
.121 
.125 
.127 
•134 
.144 
.152 
•153 
.158 
.164 
.172 
.184 
.227 
.238 
. 40 

• 5 ° 

• 64 

• 94 
.142 
.168 
.194 
• 2 33 

. 12 
. 20 

• 34 

• 53 

• 67 
. 90 
. 102 
.109 
.165 
.167 
.207 
.210 


■ 73 
.228 


■ 41 

.138 

.170 

.176 


Name of City. 

Population 

l&O. 

1 -* 
j S 

Rutland, Vt.. 

— 12,149. 

. 186 

Rome, N. Y.. 

— 12,045. 

.190 

Rock Island, Ill.... 


.202 

St. Louis, Mo. 


. 6 

San Francisco, Cal... 


- 9 

Syracuse, N.Y. 

.... 51, 79 1 - 

32 

Scranton, Pa.. 


• 39 

St. Paul, Minn. 


• 45 

Springfield, Mass.... 

- 33 , 340 . 

• 55 

St. Joseph, Mo. 


• 57 

Savannah, Ga. 


• 63 

Salem, Mass ... 


• 72 

Somerville, Mass.... 

- 24,985. 

- 78 

Sacramento, Cal. 


• 9 1 

Salt Lake City, Utah 

.... 20,768. 

• 95 

Springfield, Ohio_ 

- 20,729. 

. 96 

San Antonio, Tex..., 

- 20,561. 

■ 98 

Springfield, Ill. 

- 19,749. 

.103 

Sandusky, Ohio. 

.... 15,838. 

.141 

Schenectady, N. Y.. 

- 13,675. 

-159 

South Bend, Ind .... 

-13,279. 

.l66 

San Jose, Cal. 

- 12,567. 

.l8l 

Steubenville, Ohio... 

- 12,093. 

.189 

Stamford, Conn. 

.... ii ,298. 

.212 

Shreveport, La. 


.217 

Saratoga Springs, N. 

Y.. 10,822. 

.222 

Saugerties, N. Y_ 

— 10,375. 

. 23 1 

Saginaw, Mich. 

— 10,525. 

.229 

Stockton, Cal . 

__10,287. 

■ 235 

Shenandoah, Pa .... 

.... 10,148. 

.239 

Troy, N. Y. 

— 56,747 

• 2 9 

Toledo, Ohio. 

— 50,143. 

• 35 

Trenton, N. J. 

— 29,910. 

• 65 

Terre Haute, Ind.... 

__26,040. 

• 76 

Taunton, Mass. 

.... 21,213. 

• 9 2 

Topeka, Kan. 

—15,451. 

■ 145 

Utica, N. Y. 

— 33,913- 

• 52 

Virginia City, Nev.. 

— 13,705. 

•i 57 

Vicksburg, Miss .... 

.... 11,814. 

.196 

Washington, D. C .. 

—147,307- 

. 14 

Warwick, R. I. 

—12,163. 

.185 

Worcester, Mass .... 

— 58,295. 

. 28 

Wilmington, Del.... 

— 42,499- 

• 43 

Wheeling, W. Va ... 


• 59 

Wilkesbarre, Pa. 

.... 23,339. 

• 79 

Watervliet, X. Y.... 


- 85 

Waterbury, Conn ... 


. IOI 

Williamsport, Pa_ 

—18,934. 

.III 

Wilmington, N. C... 

— 17,361. 

. 122 

Woonsocket, R. I... 

— 16,053. 

• 137 

Wallkill, N. Y. 

— 11,483- 

.205 

Woburn, Mass. 

— 10,938. 

. 220 

Watertown, N. Y ... 

—10,697. 

, .224 

Weymouth, Mass ... 

— 10,571. 

.226 

Winona, Minn. 


-237 

Waltham, Mass. 


• 199 

Yonkers, N. Y. 


, .112 

Youngstown, Ohio .. 

— 15,431. 

.146 

York, Pa. 

— 13,940. 

• 154 

Zanesville, Ohio. 


.n8s 


M. 


& 






































































































































































































































478 


FAST TIME. 


'A 


♦FAST 

THE FASTEST STEAMSHIP, STEAMBOAT AND RAILROAD 

TIME. 

The fastest Steamship time across the Atlantic is the run of the Alaska, 
from New York to Queenstown, in 1883. The time was 6 days, 18 hours, 
37 minutes. 

The fastest Locomotive time was made on the New York Central—in 
miles in 1 hour, 49 minutes, or 109 minutes. 

The fastest Steamboat time for the distance is the Mary Powell’s, from 
New York to Poughkeepsie, 76 miles, in 3 hours, 13 minutes. 


MILES, 

t 

H- 

%■ 

h- 

I. 

I 1-16 

154. 

114. 


FASTEST RUNNING RECORDS. 

name. place. year. time. 

Belle. Galveston (Tex.).1880. 0:21)4 

Olitipa. Saratoga.1874. 0:47)4 

Rosary. Louisville.1883 . 1 : 01 % 

Pearl Jennings. Louisville.1883. 

Little Phil. Monmouth Park.1882. 

Ten Broeck. 

Creosote 


1.28)4 

.Louisville.1877. 1:39)4 

.Louisville.1882. 


1:48 K 

Rosalie .Brighton Beach.1881. i: 53)4 


Getaway .Saratoga. .1881. 

1 m. 500yds. Bend Or .Saratoga.1882. 

iji. Uncas .Sheepshead Bay.1880. 

1 \ 4 . Luke Blackburn .Monmouth Park.1880. 


1 k - 

Bend Or. 



1)4. 

Glidelia. 


.1882.. 

2. 

Ten Broeck. 


.1877.. 

2 / 4 . 

Monitor. 

... .Baltimore. 


2 ) 4 - 

j Springbok. 

( Preakness. 

J- Saratoga. 

.1875., 

2 ) 4 . 

Aristides. 



2 ) 4 . 

Ten Broeck. 



2)4. 

Hubbard . 



-v 

Lida Stanhope. ... 


. 1882., 

4 - 

Ten Broeck. 




2:07)4 

2:10)4 

2:21)4 

2:34 

2:49 

3:01 

3:27^4 
3:44)4 
3:5 6)4 
4:27)4 
4:58)4 
4:58 y x 
5:25 
7:15)4 


) 4 - 

X- 


1 1-16. 


HEAT RACES. 

Red Oak .Carson City (Nev.)..i879 .0:48)4—0:49 

Joe Howell .San Francisco.1882 .1:14)4—1:15 

3 heats, Premium winning 1st in. 1:14)4 

Bounce .Sheepshead Bay .... 1881 .. .1:42—1:41)4 

3 in 5. L’Argentine. . .St. Louis, 1879, won the 1st, 3d and 

4th heats...1:43—1:44—1:47)4 

Bend Or .Louisville.1882... 1:49 — i: 5 i )4 

3 heats, Bootjack winning 1st in 1:49)4. 

Gabriel .Sheepshead Bay ....1880 ...1:56—1:56 

Glenmore .Sheepshead Bay.1880.2:10—2:14 

3 heats, Mary Anderson winning 1st in. 2:09 

( Keno .Toledo, 1880. .(1st and 3d heats) 2:43)4—2:45 

1 (Belle of Nelson won 2d heat in 2:45.) 

(*Bradamante .Jackson (Miss.).1877 .3:32)4—3:39 

Willie I).Prospect Park. 1879 .3:34)4—3:35 

( *Bradamante’s record doubtful. 

Norfolk .Sacramento.1865 .5:27)4—5:29)4 

Ferida .Sheepshead Bay.1880 .7:23)4—7:41 

HURDLE RACES. 

Swannanoe .Brighton Beach.1881. 1:50 

Raven .Saratoga.1882. 2:06 

Jim McGowan .Brighton Beach.1882. 2:16 

Speculation .Jerome Park.1881. 2:40 

(Kitty Clark .I Brighton Beach.1881. 2:47 

(Speculation.J & ' 

Judith .Monmouth Park.1880. 3:17)4 

Tom Leathers .New Orleans.1875. 3:47)4 

Cariboo. .Monmouth Park.1875. 4:33 

Mile Heats. Joe Rhodes .St. Louis.1878.1:50)4 —i: 5°)4 


i) 4 - 

i) 4 - 

i) 4 . 


3 - 

4- 


iJ 4 - 

D/ 4 . 

1$. 

1 Vi- 

1 ) 4 - 

2. 

2 ) 4 , 


FASTEST TROTTING RECORDS. 


One Mile in Harness—M aud S. 2:10)4 

One Mile to Wagon— Hopeful . 2:16)4 

One Mile to Saddle— Great Eastern . 2:15)4 

One Mile with Running Mate— Yellow Dock . 2:11 

OneMile—Double Team— Maud S. and Aldine (1883). 2:15)4 

One Mile—Pacing— Little Brown Jug . 2:11)4 

OneMile—Pacing— Richball (Chicago, 1883). 2:11)4 

Two Miles in Harness— Maud Chief . 4:46 

Three Miles in Harness— Huntress . 7:21/ 

Four Miles in Harness— Trustee . 11:06 

Five Miles in Harness— Lady Mack . 13:00 

Ten Miles in Harness— Controller . 27:23)4 


TIME4- 


FAST TROTTERS AND THEIR RECORDS. 


NAME. 

Maud S. 

St. Julien. 

Rarus. 

Goldsmith Maid.... 

Jay-Eye-See. 

Clingstone. 

Trinket. 

Hopeful. 

Lula. 

Smuggler. 

Hattie Woodward. . 
Lucille Golddust. . 

American Girl. 

Darby. 

Edwin Thorne. 

Jerome Eddy. 

Charlie Ford. 

Occident. 

Gloster. 

Dexter. 

Black Cloud . 

Piedmont. 

So So. 

Santa Claus. 

Hannis. 

Edwin Forrest. 

Dick Swiveller. 

Great Eastern. 

Kate Sprague. 

Judge Fullerton.... 

Proteine. 

Nettie. 

Rf.d Cloud. 

Robert McGregor.. 

Lady Thorne. 

Fanny Witherspoon 

Lady Maud. 

Lucy. 

Midnight. 

Pickard. 

Rosa Wilkes. 

Slow Go. 

Monroe Chief. 

Col. Lewis. 

J. B. Thomas. 

William. 

Patchen. 

Cleora . 

Nutwood. 

Adele Gould. 

Albemarle . 

Alexander . 

Alley . 

Bonesetter.:... 

Cozette . 

Edward.. 

Graves .. 

1 Kitty Bates. 

Minnie R. 

I Wedgewood. 

Aldine. 

Bodine. 

Comee. 

Croxie. 

George Palmer. 

Jim Keene. 

Parana. 

Driver. 

Moose. 

Romero . 

Thos. L. Young. 

Von Arnim. 

Will Cody. 

Adelaide. 

Camors. 

Daisydale. 

Deck Wright. 

Doctor Norman. 

Flora Temple. 

John S. Clarke. 

Josephus. 


PLACE. 

YEAR. 

TIME. 

.Rochester. 


.. 2:10)4 

.Hartford. 


.. 2:11)4 

.Buffalo. 


•• 2:13)4 

.Boston. 


.. 2:14 

. Rochester. 

.1883. 

.. 2:14 

.Cleveland. 


.. 2:14 

.New York. 


.. 2:14 

Minneapolis .... 

.1878. 

.. 2:14)4 

Buffalo. 

.1875. 

.. 2:15 

. Hartford. 


.. 2:15)4 

.Rochester. 


.. 2:15)4 

.Rochester. 

.1877. 

.. 2:16)4 

.Albany. 

.1874. 

.. 2:16)4 

.Utica. 

.1879. 

.. 2:16)4 

.Chicago. 

.1882. 


. Buffalo. 


.. 2:16)4 

.Chicago. 


.. 2:16)4 




.Rochester. 

.1874. 


. Buffalo. 


.. 2:17)4 

.Chicago. 

.1882. 

.. 2:1714 

.Chicago. 


.. 2:1714 

. Hartford. 

.1881. 

.. 2:17)4 

.Chicago. 


.. 2:17)4 

Hartford. 



.Utica. 


.. 2:18 

.Utica. 

.1879. 


.Buffalo. 


.. 2:18 

. Rochester. 



.Cleveland. 



.Saginaw. 

.1879. 


.Boston. 



.Buffalo. 



.Chicago. 

.1881. 

.. 2:18 

.Providence. 


.. 2:18)4 

. Poughkeepsie.. 


.. 2:1814 

.Rochester. 


.. 2:18)4 

.Buffalo. 


.. 2:18)4 

Buffalo. 



.Hartford. 

.1882. 

.. 2:1854 

.Cleveland. 



.Cleveland. 

.1877. 

.. 2:18)4 

.Chicago. 


.. 2:18)4 

.San Francisco.. 


.. 2:18)4 

.Chicago. 

.1881. 


.Chicago. 


.. 2:18)4 

. Hartford. 



.Chicago. 

.1882. 


.Stockton (Cal.). 

.1879. 

.. 2:18)4 

.Buffalo. 

.1882. 


.Hartford. 



-Rochester. 

.1881. 


.Chicago. 

.1879. 


.Rochester. 

.1879. 


.Rochester. 



.Providence_ 



.Stockton . 

.1879. 


.Buffalo. 



.Chicago. 



.Hartford. 



.Hartford. 



.East Saginaw.. 

.1875. 

.. 2:1914 




.Buffalo. 


.. 2:19)4 

. Providence .... 


.. 2:19)4 

.Buffalo. 


.. 2:191/ 

.Beacon Park . . 


.. 2:19)4 

.Long Island ... 


.. 2:19)4 

. Rochester. 


.. 2:19)4 

.Stockton. 


.. 2:19)4 

.Fleetwood Park, 

N.Y.1875. 

.. 2:19)4 

.Rochester. 

.1882. 


.Chicago. 


.. 2 H 9 K 

.Buffalo. 

.1878. 

.. 2:19)4 

. Buffalo. 

.1874. 

.. 2:19/ 

.Cleveland. 


.. 2:19)4 

. Buffalo. 


.. 2:19/ 

.Cleveland. 


.. 2:19)4 

.Kalamazoo .... 



.Rochester. 

.1881. 

.. 2:19/ 

.Hartford. 

.1881. 

.. 2:19)4 





















































































































































































































































































































































































































<ETl]e ixtrious Eilments of tljc foumart Boby, anb 
11 )ow to {{Treat (ETfyem. 




f**3r**§ 


^HE mechanism to be studied in the body of a living 
animal—more particularly the highest of all animals, 
ij'xr man—is of such wonder and beauty, exquisite finish 
l 7 and perfection, that, could it all be comprehended 

ct^'J and long enough retained by the memory to afford 
one broad contemplation of its simplest facts, all the triumphs 
of art could bear no relation to its loveliness. 

Huxley so concisely and clearly begins his delightful little 
volume of Elementary Physiology, that for the purposes of 
this article we cannot do better than to quote his opening lines. 
“ The body of a living man,” he says, “ performs a great divers¬ 
ity of actions, some of which are quite obvious, others require 
more or less careful observation, and yet others can be detected 
only by the most delicate appliances of science. 

“ Thus some part of the body of a living man is plainly always 
in motion. Even in sleep, when the limbs, head and eyelids 
may be still, the incessant rise and fall of the chest continues to 
remind us that we are viewing slumber and not death. 

“ More careful observation is needed, however, to detect the 
motion of the heart, or the pulsation of the arteries, or the 
changes in the size of the pupil of the eye with varying light, 
or to ascertain that the air which is breathed out of the body 
is hotter and damper than that which is taken in by breathing. 

“ And lastly, when we try to ascertain what happens in the 
eye when that organ is adjusted to different distances, or what in 
a nerve when it is excited ; or of what materials flesh and blood 
are made; or in virtue of what mechanism it is that a sudden 
pain makes one start—we have to call into operation all the 
methods of inductive and deductive logic, all the resources of 
physics and chemistry, and all of the delicacies of the art of 
experiment. ” 

It is plainly obvious that man differs from the stones and 
earth, the flowers and trees, and all inanimate objects. He is 
warm, while these things are cold; he is able to move about at 


will while they must remain always in one place; he can exert 
power and force, while they must remain forever inactive; he is 
possessed of mind and purpose to guide him, while they are 
influenced only by the elements. 

Combustion and Heat. 

Now warmth is clearly due to the burning of something. 
The warmth of the day and the heat of the summer come to 
us from that great central fire, the sun, whose flames leap up 
from its surface tens of thousands of miles. The warm breezes 
at night, when the sun does not shine upon us, and the temper¬ 
ate winds which from time to time visit us in winter, all gain 
their warmth from some great tract of southern land or tropical 
body of water, which, previously heated by, the fires of the sun, 
now radiates the heat absorbed therefrom, warming the sur¬ 
rounding atmosphere, which, moving in currents, carries heat 
from the tropics even to the very poles. 

When the sun’s heat is not sufficient for our purpose, we make 
artificial fires of wood, coal, oil or gas. There is no heat or 
warmth, however slight, that is not produced by combustion, or 
oxidation, or, in other words, the burning of something. But 
all things do not oxidize or burn with a flame, as in the case 
of our furnace fires. You every day see objects burn with¬ 
out coming to a blaze, but only with the red glow of a live 
coal. Other things you see burn and crumble to ashes which 
never even come to a glow. If you hold over a lamp, and at 
a little distance from it, a piece of writing-paper, it will burn 
black and finally crumble in ashes without showing a single 
spark of fire or light, and yet it so rapidly burns that it crum¬ 
bles to pieces in the space of only a few moments. The char¬ 
acter or appearance of combustion or oxidation depends entirely 
upon the rapidity with which the article is burned. Thus, some 
objects burn with an explosion, some with a flame, some with a 
glow, while some show only a simple evolution of heat. Gun- 


\J 




V 

























































«*■ 


480 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


powder so quickly burns that great force is exerted, though we 
see but a single flash of light. Dry pine burns far more slowly ; 
the force of its heat is distributed over a greater length 
of time, and hence there is no disastrous explosion, though 
it burns with a roaring flame. Peat burns still more slowly, 
and with the glow of a live coal. In the slaking of fresh 
lime an oxidation or burning takes place, and great heat 
is given off, but there is no flame, no glow, no spark of light. 
A thousand things burn still more slowly, some of them requir¬ 
ing years or centuries, under certain conditions, in oxidation, 
and, while constantly giving off heat, the burning is so slow and 
the amount of heat given off therefore so exceedingly small, 
that it is not detectable except by the most delicate instruments 
of science. 

If combustion takes place almost instantly, as in the case of 
dynamite, or gunpowder, or certain gases, we call the result 
explosion. If it goes on more slowly, as with wood, coal or 
peat, we call the process burning. If combustion takes place 
still more slowly, as in slacking lime, or in a bin of wheat or 
barley, where heat is given off, but without a spark of fire 
or light visible, we commonly call the process oxidation. Thus, 
you see, the words explosion , combustion , burning and oxida¬ 
tion mean practically one and the same thing, and that all 
force, or heat, or warmth, comes from the oxidation or burning 
of something, either rapidly or slowly, visibly or invisibly. 

“ If a mass of seeds be laid together,” says Draper, “ as barley 
in the making of malt, the operation conducted at a gentle tem¬ 
perature, and with the access of atmospheric air, oxygen disap¬ 
pears, carbonic acid is set free, and the temperature rises forty 
or fifty degrees. A process of oxidation must, therefore, have 
been carried into effect, and to it we trace the heat disengaged ; 
for carbon cannot produce carbonic acid without a rise of tem¬ 
perature ensuing. The loss of weight which the seed exhibits 
is therefore due to its loss of carbon, and the whole effect is 
explained in the statement that atmospheric air has united with 
a portion of the carbon contained in the seed, producing car¬ 
bonic acid gas and an evolution of heat.” 

If we put a lighted candle into a glass jar and seal it up air¬ 
tight, it will continue to burn for a certain time, the duration of 
which will depend upon the size of the jar ; the flame will grow 
less and less, until finally it will go out, and the candle will 
cease to burn. As soon as the air in the jar has cooled a little, 
drops of moisture will collect on the inside of the jar, showing j 
that in burning the candle has given off water. If we now open j 
the jar and test the temperature with a thermometer, we find the 
air of the jar warmer than when the candle was put into it, showing 
that in burning heat was given off. If we now force some of 
the air of the jar through lime water, the water becomes milky 
from the precipitate of carbonate of lime, showing the presence 
of carbonic acid in the air of the jar, which was not present 
before the burning of the candle—showing that in the burning 
carbonic acid was given off. If a further analysis be made it 
will be discovered that the oxygen of the air in the jar has dis¬ 
appeared, and if the candle be weighed, it will be found to have 
lost weight. 

Such is the result of all combustion or oxidation —heat is 
given off, water and carbonic acid are evolved, oxygen is con¬ 
sumed, and the burning object loses substance. 


Oxidation and Animal Heat. 

If, in winter, we place a healthy living man in a cold, dry 
room with closed glass windows, having carefully noted the 
temperature of the room and the exact weight of the man, and 
shut him in as we did the burning candle in the glass jar, and 
then require him to walk up and down for an hour, the same 
important facts may be observed as in the case of the candle. 
In his exercise he will have obviously exerted a great amount of 
mechanical force—as much at least as would be required to lift his 
own weight as high and as often as he has raised himself at every 
step, which, in the aggregate, would be about a mile or more 
above the ground. At the end of an hour let the temperature 
of the room again be taken, and it will be found to be warmer 
than at the beginning. The man has, therefore, given off heat. 
If the windows of the room be observed, the glass will be found 
covered with the vapor of water, which, if the air outside be 
sufficiently cold, will be converted into ice or frost, such as is 
seen in the morning upon the window-panes of our sleeping- 
rooms in winter—showing that he has given off water. If some 
of the air in the room be now forced through lime water, the 
water will be found milky from the precipitate of carbonate of 
lime, showing the presence of carbonic acid in the air, which, 
like the heat and the water, has been given off by the man, just 
as we have seen that heat, water and carbonic acid are given off 
by a burning candle. 

And so, if the air of the room be further analyzed, a large 
amount of oxygen will be found to have disappeared. The 
flame of the candle died and the light went out when all the 
oxygen in the jar had been consumed ; so would the fires of life in 
the man likewise have died out had he not been released before 
all the oxygen in the closed room had been breathed into his lungs 
and consumed. Furthermore, if the man be now again weighed 
at the end of the hour, he will be found to have lost weight just 
as the candle lost weight in burning and the barley in oxida¬ 
tion. Thus, in the concise language of Huxley : “A living, 
active man constantly exerts mechanical force , gives off heat, 
evolves carbonic acid and water , and undergoes a loss of sub¬ 
stance . ” In other words, his tissues are constantly burning up, 
or oxidizing, and when this process ceases he grows cold and 
dies. Oxidation, of the candle is started by applying a flame to 
the wick. Once begun, it needs no further aid. The oxygen of 
the air unites with the carbon of the candle, and the evolution 
of heat, carbonic acid gas and water in the form of vapor is the 
result, and the process continues until the candle is consumed or 
the supply of oxygen shut off. 

As we have seen, a man, like the lighted candle, is con¬ 
stantly burning up, or oxidizing—giving off heat and water and 
carbonic acid, and the ashes of his burned tissues. He loses 
every day 300 grains of nitrogen (which is the ashes of his mus¬ 
cles), six and a half pounds of water, and burns ten and a half 
ounces of carbon. Altogether he loses from seven to ten pounds 
in weight daily. It is clear that this state of things could not 
continue very many days or the man would dwindle to nothing¬ 
ness. He would last but a few days longer than his candle. 
But long before this loss of substance can be noticed by another 
it is felt by the subject, who suffers from hunger and thirst. He 
takes food and drink, which being digested and made into 
blood, his wasted tissues are repaired, and the loss by oxidation 


[/ 


v* 









































V 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


48l 


/ 


is made good. A man may be likened to a lamp that is cease¬ 
lessly fed and as ceaselessly wastes away. Or he may be likened 
to a steam engine. The food which he takes, digests, assimi¬ 
lates and burns, corresponds to the coal which is burned in the 
furnace of the machine ; his warmth and life and strength cor¬ 
respond to the heat and power of the engine. The warmth and 
strength of the man and the heat and power of the engine are 
due to the fuel burned in the tissues of the one and the furnace 
of the other. 

Power and Life Due to Heat. 

All force, of whatever kind, is due to heat. A large part 
of the machinery of the world is run by steam power, which 
is produced by heat. The winds are caused by the heated 
tracts of land or bodies of water, where the atmosphere in 
consequence becomes rarified, and currents of colder air rush 
across the face of the earth with gentle, or sometimes terrific 
force, to fill the vacuum. All the force of the stream and the 
waterfall is due to heat, which evaporates the water of the sea, 
and, lifting it up in vapor, carries it in the warm breezes back 
to the high land, where, cooling, it falls in rain and rushes with 
force through gulleys and the river-beds back to the sea. In 
like manner heat is the cause of power in animals and men. 
Food is the fuel; the entire body is the furnace ; through the 
lungs is the draft of air. Oxidation and heat and life and 
power and force are the result. 

But the fuel proper for the steam engine is wholly unsuitable 
for this human engine. To enable the body to continue exert¬ 


ing force and giving out heat, water and carbonic acid at the 
same rate, for an indefinite period, it is absolutely necessary 
that the body should be supplied with three things, and with 
three only. These are fresh air, water and food. Mr. Huxley 
says: “ In a properly nourished man a stream of food is con¬ 
stantly entering the body in the shape of complex compounds 
containing comparatively little oxygen ; as constantly the ele¬ 
ments of the food (whether before or after they have formed a 
part of the living substance) are leaving the body combined 
with more oxygen. And the incessant breaking down and oxi¬ 
dation of the complex compounds which enter the body are 
definitely proportioned to the amount of force which the body 
exerts, whether in the shape of heat or otherwise. Let a man 
lift a heavy body from the ground, and the loss of weight 
which he would have undergone without that exertion will be 
immediately increased by a definite amount, which cannot be 
made good unless a proportionate amount of extra food be 
supplied him; just in the same way as the amount of work to 
be gotten out of a steam engine and the amount of heat it and 
its furnace give off bear a strict proportion to its consumption 
of fuel. ” 

In every instance the production of animal heat and force is 
due to oxidation taking place in the economy. This oxidation 
takes place in the blood, and in the tissues themselves in every 
part of the body. The food, which is the fuel of this human 
engine, before it can reach the tissues where it is burned, must 
undergo elaborate preparation. 


PrtTHE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.^ 


There are a large number of organs whose sole use is the 
preparation and elaboration of the food, rendering it suitable 
for cousumption by the economy. These organs, taken to¬ 
gether, are known as the digestive organs. They consist of 
machinery for dividing and grinding the food and testing its 
quality ; of glands for the manufacture of chemical fluids for 
dissolving it; of receptacles for holding and warming it while 
it is acted upon by the dissolving fluids ; of canals through 
which it is passed from one receptacle to another ; of absorb¬ 
ents which take up and carry the refined product into the 
current of the blood, and of a further tube to carry out of the 
body the insoluble and unsuitable constituents of the mass taken 
into the stomach. These organs are the month, tongue, palate, 
teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small 
intestines, large intestines, the liver , and the pancreas, or 
sweetbread. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

The Mouth. 

The mouth is the cavity into which food is first introduced. 
It is supplied with organs for testing the quality of the food ; 
with organs for dividing and grinding, and with a fluid for 
moistening and softening, and for converting the insoluble 
starch of the food into a soluble sugar. It has a fixed roof, 
formed by what is known as the hard palate (3), and with a 


movable floor made up of the tongue and the lower jaw. 
Around the sides and front of the mouth are two rows of sixteen 
teeth each, which spring from the upper and lower jaws, and out¬ 
side of these the cavity is closed at the sides by the cheeks, and 
in front by the lips. When the mouth is closed the tongue 
comes in close contact with the roof (3), and back of the hard 
palate the communication with the nasal cavity and the pharynx 
is further impeded by a curtain of flesh, the soft palate, in the 
middle of which, at the extreme back part of the cavity of the 
mouth, is a small prolongation or teat of flesh, the uvula (4). 
On each side are double muscular cords (5 and 6), which are 
known as pillars of the fauces, and between these on each 
side are the tonsils (7). At the back part of the base of the 
tongue is a lid, the epiglotis (9), made of cartilage, or gristle, 
which closes the entrance to the trachea (12). Behind the uvula 
and the epiglotis is the cavity of the pharynx (8 and 11), which 
has walls of muscles and covered with mucous membrane. It 
is larger at the top than at the bottom and has seven openings 
into it: two from the back part of the nasal cavity; two (one 
on each side) above and close to these—the openings of the 
eustachian tube (2), leading to the ears ; one from the back part 
of the cavity of the mouth (8); one from the trachea (12) or wind¬ 
pipe, and one leading into the oesophagus (11) or gullet. The 
whole cavity of the mouth and the pharynx (as well as the entire 
alimentary tract, which includes the gullet , stomach and intes- 


V, 


(T 






































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


tines ) is lined by a delicate membrane, known as the mucous mem¬ 
brane. It commences on the lips where it joins the skin ; it is red 
and moist and soft and tender ; its structure is like that of the 
skin, only more delicate and more easily wounded. It is full of 
minute little glands which secrete a fluid known as mucus, and 
which keep the membrane moist. Besides these little mucous 
glands there are three pairs of large glands which secrete 
three different kinds of fluid, known as saliva , and the glands 
as salivary glands. These glands are named according to 
their situation: the sub-lingual, under the tongue; the sub¬ 
maxillary, under and to the inside of the lower jaw. The 
saliva secreted by these two pairs of glands is emptied into the 
mouth through a small duct under the tip of the tongue. The 
parotid gland lies in front of the ear, and its duct opens into 
the mouth on the inside of the cheek opposite the second upper 
double tooth. 


The Teeth. 

Each of the thirty-two 
teeth has a crown, a pulp , 
and one or more roots or 
fangs , which are received 
into sockets in the jaw-bone. 
The teeth are composed of 
ivory, an enamel and a ce¬ 
ment which securely fastens 
them in their sockets. 

Every person who lives to 
adult life is given two sets 
of teeth. The first set, con¬ 
sisting of twenty teeth (ten 
above and ten below), are 
known as the temporary set, 
and the last, consisting of 
thirty-two (sixteen above 
and sixteen below), are 
known as the permanent 
set. 

After these, now-a-day, 
a person can have as many 
additional sets of teeth as 
he can pay for. 

The four teeth in each 
jaw which are directly in 
front have sharp, chisel-like 
edges, and are known as the 
incisors, or cutting teeth. 
Next these on each side is a 
long, round-cornered and 
sharp tooth, something like 
the tooth of the dog, and 
hence known as the canine 


Fig. 1 . 

Opening of the eustachian tube; 3, hard palate; 4, soft palate; 5 and 6, pillows 
7, tonsil; 8 and n, pharynx; 9, epiglotis; 12, larynx. 


of the fauces: 


or tearing tooth. The next two 
teeth on each side have two prominent points or cusps on 
the surface of the crown, and are therefore called bi-cuspids. 
All of these have generally but a single root or fang. The 
remaining twelve teeth have two or more roots ar.d broad, 
heavy crowns, and are known as molars or grinding teeth. 
(See Fig. 2.) 


Each tooth is supplied with blood-vessels and a nerve, which 
enter, to pass into the pulp, at the root of the tooth, as shown 
by the illustration. 

When solid food is first taken into the mouth, it is first 
submitted to division and grinding by the teeth. It is kept 
between the teeth by the muscles of the cheeks on the outside, 
and bv the tonnue from the inside. When the teeth are closed 

. o 

together the food is pressed out on either side, but is immedi¬ 
ately replaced by the action of these muscles, and this is con¬ 
tinued until the entire mass is thoroughly rubbed down. Dur¬ 
ing this process the salivary glands have been excited and have 
poured into the mouth their fluids, which have become incorpor¬ 
ated with the food, while the glairy mucus from the mouth 
coats the bolus of food thus prepared for the action of the 
stomach. By the action of the tongue the bolus is forced 
backward into the pharynx, the soft palate and valve prevent¬ 
ing its passage upwards into 
the back part of the nasal 
cavity, while the epiglotis 
closes down securely over 
the entrance into the wind¬ 
pipe, and, the muscles of 
the pharynx contracting 
upon the bolus, the move¬ 
ment or act of swallowing 
is performed. The bolus 
glides over the epiglotis 
and is then carried through 
the oesophagus, or gullet, 
into the stomach, where it 
is digested. 

The Stomach. 

The stomach (see Fig. 3) 
is the principal organ of 
digestion. It lies immedi¬ 
ately below the diaphragm 
in the cavity of the abdo¬ 
men, being separated from 
the heart and lungs above 
by the diaphragm, and lies 
more upon the right side of 
the body than the left. It 
is a muscular pouch, being, 
when moderately full, about 
twelve inches long by four 
inches deep. It is covered 
on the outside by a delicate, 
smooth membrane, which 
covers also the intestines 
and lines the entire cavity 
of the abdomen. This membrane secretes a small amount of 
fluid in health, sufficient to so lubricate its surfaces that the 
organs may glide over each other without injury. The stomach 
is lined by the mucous membrane, spoken of previously as lining 
the entire alimentary tract. This membrane in the stomach is 
thick, smooth, soft and velvety. When the stomach is empty it 
lies in folds, or ruga;. When the stomach is full these folds are 























































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


483 



Fig. 2 . 


The Intestines. 

The intestines form one long convoluted tube with muscular 
and mucous coats like the stomach, lie wholly within the 
abdominal cavity, and are enveloped by the peritoneum. They 
are divided into the small intestines and the large intestines , 
the latter having a far greater diameter than the former. The 
small intestine is about twenty feet long and divided into the 
duodenum , the jejunum and the ilium. The lining mucous 
membrane is thick, velvety, and full of blood vessels. It is 
thrown into transverse folds, which are about two inches long, 
and half an inch in depth in their broadest place, and are called 
valvulce conniventes. These folds are covered by a net-work 
or tufts of capillary and lacteal vessels known as villi. These 
are very numerous — the number in the whole length of the 
intestines being estimated at four millions. In the upper part 
of the duodenum empties the duct from the pancreas and the 
bile duct from the liver, both of which organs secrete a digest¬ 
ive fluid which, being poured into the duodenum, completes 
the solution of the food received from the stomach. 

The large intestine extends from the termination of the small 
intestine to the outlet. It is about five feet in length. It 
differs from the small intestine in its greater size, more fixed 
position and its sacculated form. It is divided into the ccccum , 


obliterated. When the mucous membrane of the stomach is 
examined by a magnifying-glass, it presents a peculiar honey¬ 
combed appearance, which is due to the opening of the ducts 
from little glands situated in and beneath the membrane. These 
glands secrete an acid fluid known as the gastric juice , and a 
certain substance known as pepsin , which, together, have the 
power to dissolve a certain class of foods known as proteids, 
presently to be described. The stomach has two openings, one 
by which food is received from the gullet, or (esophagus , and 
called the cardiac orifice ; the other by which the contents of 
the stomach are passed into the small intestine, and known as 
the pyloric orifice, which is guarded by a kind of valve—the 
pylorus. 


the colon and the rectum. The caecum is a dilated pouch, 
into which the ilium empties. It is situated on the right side 
of the body in the lower part of the abdominal cavity. Con¬ 
tinuous with this rises the colon. It passes upward on the right 
side of the body, until it reaches the under surface of the liver, 
when it crosses transversely to the left side of the body, and 
then descends. It is lined by mucous membrane, but its struc¬ 
ture is not of sufficient importance to demand attention here. 


Fig. 3 . 

1, 4, Liver; 2, ligament of liver:.3, gall-bladder: 5, diaphragm; 6, lower 
end ot the cesophagus; 7, stomach; 8, 10, omentum; 9, spleen; n, duo¬ 
denum: 12, 12, small intestine; 13, caecum; 14, ensiform appendix; 15, 
15, transverse colon; 16, descending colon; 17, urinary bladder. 


The Liver. 

The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing from 
three to four pounds. It belongs to the digestive apparatus, its 
function being chiefly the secretion of bile ; still it undoubtedly 
effects important changes in the blood during its passage through 
the gland. It is placed in the abdominal cavity, on the right 
side of the body, on a level with the lower ribs. Its upper 
surface is in contact with the diaphragm, which separates the 
liver from the right lung. It measures, from side to side, ten to 
eleven inches ; from before backwards, six to seven inches, and 
is about three inches thick in its thickest part. It is held in 
place by strong ligaments, and is covered by the same serous 
membrane, the peritoneum , which covers the stomach and other 
abdominal organs. The liver is made up of hepatic or liver 
cells, whose function it is to secrete the bile, and of a substance 
known as glycogen , which will be spoken of again. The bile 
or gall is a compound fluid of golden yellow color, and very 



















































s> 


484 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


bitter in taste, and the total quantity secreted in twenty-four 
hours is probably not less than two or three pounds. It is 
both a secretion, i.e., an essential digestive fluid, and an 
excretio?i, i.e ., contains elements of waste—the ashes, so to 
speak, of oxidized tissues, which, being emptied into the intes¬ 
tines, are carried out of the body. 

The Pancreas. 

The pancreas is very similar in structure to the salivary 
glands. It is placed in the abdominal cavity beneath the 
stomach, and extends from the duodenum on the right to 
the spleen on the left. The pancreas is oblong in shape, 
and larger at one end than the other. The larger end, known 
as the head, is in contact with the duodenum, gently tapering to 
the left as it approaches the spleen, into what is called the 
tail. The entire gland is about six or seven inches long, an 
inch and a half broad, and three-quarters of an inch thick, and 
averages three ounces in weight. The pancreas secretes a 
digestive fluid very similar to the saliva, which empties into the 
duodenum through an orifice in common with the bile from the 
gall-bladder. 

The Process of Digestion. 

When the stomach is empty the lining membrane is pale, 
the blood-vessels contracted, and the stomach glands secreting 
scarcely more than enough fluid to moisten the surface. As 
soon, however, as food is taken into the stomach, the nerves of 
the part are stimulated to activity, the blood-vessels dilate, the 
mucous membrane becomes red, and little drops of fluid begin 
to appear at the mouths of a thousand little glands and run 
down as gastric juice. The presence of food in the stomach 
sets up a contraction of its walls, which rolls the food- about, 
not unlike cream in a churn, until the digestive or dissolving 
fluid becomes thoroughly incorporated with the food. We 
have seen that saliva has the power of acting upon starchy 
foods, converting the starch into sugar, but has no power to 
dissolve that class of foods essential to life and known as vital 
food-stuffs— proteids. Among the proteids may be mentioned 
the gluten, albumen, fibrin, syntonin, casein, etc., which are 
the chief food constituents of bread, eggs, meat, cheese and 
milk. Now the gastric juice has the power of dissolving these 
articles of food at the temperature of about 100 degrees, or 
that to which the food is raised in the stomach. The motion 
of the food in the stomach has no other value than to thor¬ 
oughly mix it with the digestive fluid. When the proteids, 
whether from meat, or bread, or eggs, or cheese, are dissolved, 
we have a substance known as peptones. Peptones are readily 
absorbed and taken into the current of the blood. Still there 
are many articles of food that are not dissolved in the stomach. 
As soon as the starch-foods, or amyloids, become incorporated 
with acid fluid of the stomach, the solution which has begun 
by the alkaline saliva ceases, and these starchy foods pass out 
of the stomach unchanged. The fats, too, are not digested in 
the stomach ; neither is the solution of proteids —bread, meat, 
cheese, etc.—completed in the stomach. A large part of the 
peptones are absorbed by the stomach and taken into the cur¬ 
rent of the blood. The remaining contents, the starches, fats, 
and half-dissolved proteids, are permitted slowly to flow out of 
the stomach through the pyloric orifice into the duodenum. 


Here it mixes with the bile from the liver, which has been saved 
up in a little reservoir, the gall-bladder, for this purpose, and 
with the fluid from the pancreas, and with the juice from the 
intestinal glands, which together have the power of digesting 
the starchy foods, breaking up the fats into an emulsion (or 
held in suspension, as butter is in new milk before it is churned) 
and completing the solution of the proteids, so that here all 
the starch of the vegetables we eat is converted into a peculiar 
sugar known as grape sugar ; all the butter, fats and oils made 
into an emulsion ; all the gluten, and syntonin, and casein, and 
albumen of the bread, and meat, and milk, and cheese, and 
eggs which we eat is converted into peptones. Now this grape 
sugar, and the emulsions, and the peptones, are very readily 
absorbed by the millions of villi, or the velvety little tufts of 
blood-vessels and lacteals which cover the folds on the intes¬ 
tinal mucous membrane. Those parts of the food unfit for the 
use of the body, or which are not needed, are passed along into 
the large intestine, and finally carried out of the body. 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

We have seen how perfect is the machinery for the elabora¬ 
tion of our food, and the many processes through which it goes, 
by which it is rendered fit to be taken into the current of the 
blood to rebuild the wonderful organs of man’s mechanism and 
to restore the tissues which have been burned up in the produc¬ 
tion of power necessary in work, and in the production of animal 
heat, which is essential to life. More than this, man is supplied 
with every desirable means of testing the kind and quality of his 
food before it is introduced into this wonderful laboratory. To 
digest the stone of a peach would be impossible; such things, 
taken into the stomach, could not result otherwise than in death. 
The pit is taken into the hand, or tried between the teeth, and, 
perceiving its hardness, it is rejected, even by a starving idiot, as 
unfit for food. Two wonderful faculties is man possessed of 
necessary to the proper inspection of food—the sense of smell 
and the sense of taste. The aroma and flavor of substances fit 
for food he is made to like ; while the odor and taste of sub¬ 
stances unfit for food and harmful to the body are made disa¬ 
greeable, nauseous, or even disgusting to him. Tainted meat, 
or decomposing eggs, would be most harmful taken into the 
stomach. Hence, such articles are promptly rejected by the 
official inspectors— smell and taste. Certain harmful substances 
may fail of detection, either by sight, or smell, or taste, or any 
of the senses a part of whose function is to inspect the food, and 
therefore, as in the case of certain poisons, be taken into the 
stomach. But even in the stomach there seems to reside a 
sense of the fitness of things, and the poison is, by the act of 
vomiting, immediately rejected. If any part of an offending 
substance is carried into the duodenum, an action is there imme¬ 
diately set up to hurry it out of the body. Nothing could be 
more perfect than this system of inspection and elaboration of 
the food. Nothing further in this direction could be desired, so 
long as the apparatus of this wonderful laboratory continues in 
good repair—in other words, so long as the organs remain in 
health. Every organ and tissue in the body is liable to get out 
of repair. Whenever any organ fails to do its work or shows 
any defect, we say it is diseased. 


kl 


\ 






























PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


/I 


Mumps. 

Parotitis, or Mumps, is an inflammation of the parotid 
gland—that one of the salivary glands which is situated in 
front of and below the ear. While the swelling and soreness 
are local, the disease is evidently constitutional. The amount 
of swelling, soreness and pain varies in different cases. There 
is usually considerable pain, particularly upon moving the jaw. 
The swelling may be limited to one side, or both sides may be 
involved. When both sides are affected, usually one side is 
invaded a day or two in advance of the other. It is commonly 
believed to be contagious, although some high authorities deny 
this. Whether it may be communicated from one person to 
another or not, it is sometimes, at least, endemic. Persons 
between 18 and 30 years of age are most susceptible to the dis¬ 
ease. It never occurs but once in the same person. The 
disease is usually trivial and never dangerous. No physician 
is needed—the popular fear of taking cold is groundless. If 
the pain is severe, the patient will do well to lie down and 
keep quiet. Hot fomentations may be applied to the swelling, 
and twenty drops of laudanum may be taken once in three or 
four hours to relieve the pain. 

Acute Tonsilitis—Quinsy. 

Quinsy, or Tonsilitis, is an inflammation of the tonsil. 
One or both tonsils may be involved. It is a very distressing 
and painful disease, and swallowing is rendered very difficult by 
the great swelling of the tonsils, which often apparently quite 
closes the opening into the pharynx. The affection, however, 
is not dangerous. It usually ends in an abscess, which breaks 
upon the inside. There is a predisposition to the disease in 
some persons, who suffer from repeated attacks. An attack is 
sometimes caused by exposure to cold. Persons predisposed to the 
disease should have the tonsils removed, as should be done in all 
persons with permanently enlarged tonsils. A perfect instrument 
is made especially for this purpose. The removal of a tonsil 
is but the work of a moment on the part of the surgeon. The 
operation is attended with scarcely any pain, the wound is alto¬ 
gether trivial, and a permanent cure is effected and the patient 
relieved from a constant source of discomfort. During an 
acute case of tonsilitis, or quinsy, the patient should remain in 
bed ; poultices, or flannels wrung out of hot water, may be 
applied to the throat ; steam may be inhaled, and a gargle of a 
saturated solution of chlorate of potassium in water may be 
used. In addition, the following prescription will be found of 
great use: 

Quinine,.24 grains. 

Morphine, ------ I grain. 

Make six powders. Take one every four hours. 

Acute Pharyngitis—Sore Throat—Cold. 

Acute Pharyngitis is an acute inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the pharynx, and is one form of a cold. On 
looking into the throat the membrane is found to be red and 
inflamed. If it extends deep into the pharynx there will be a 
cough, which is not in any way husky, showing that the larynx 
is not affected. There is considerable soreness and pain when 
an attempt is made to swallow, and very often there is a 


485 


white exudation, both in the throat and on the tonsils, which 
are usually more or less inflamed. These white points often 
lead to mistaking the disease for diphtheria. The affection is 
often attended with considerable fever. The duration of the 
disease is from five to ten days. The treatment recommended 
for quinsy should be employed. 

Chronic Granular Pharyngitis—Clergyman’s Sore 

Throat. 

Chronic Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the pharynx of long standing. It frequently exists 
without the patient making any complaint. There is usually, 
however, a dry, hacking cough, which is increased by fatigue 
or mental depression, and the voice frequently becomes hoarse 
from speaking. It is a disease of middle life, is much more 
common in men than women, and from the annoyance it occas¬ 
ions clergymen it has received the name of clergyman's sore 
throat. It occurs no more frequently among clergymen than 
other persons, but, because of the necessity for using the 
voice, it occasions them more inconvenience. The disease is 
not dangerous and has no tendency to run into consumption or 
any other disease. Still it is apt to persist for many years, and 
is very difficult to cure. The following prescription will do 
good, and, with proper hygienic care, may produce a cure. 

Iodide of potassium, - - - 4 drams. 

Bromide of potassium, - - - 1 ounce. 

Compound tincture of gentian, - 6 ounces. 

Dose.—One teaspoonful in a wine-glass of water three times 
a day after meals. 

The above should be continued for a long time. Quinine in 
two-grain doses may be taken three times a day. Outdoor 
exercise should be taken ; relaxation from mental labor, together 
with recreation and good living, will be found of the greatest 
benefit. If the patient is dyspeptic, particularly, he should 
abandon the starvation brown-bread diet, and demonstrate his 
ability to live as other men do, upon a generous diet such as 
his appetite craves. Let the variety of food taken be as great 
as possible. 

Dyspepsia. 

Acute Dyspepsia —commonly called a bilious attack , or fit 
of indigestion —is a disorder of short duration. It begins by a 
sense of weight and fulness, and of pain in the region of the 
stomach ; nausea and vomiting often occur, and later there may 
be a diarrhoea. There is generally slight fever and considerable 
pain in the head. 

Sick Headache is an acute dyspepsia, differing from the 
above only in the more frequent occurrence of vomiting and 
severe headache. The vomited matters usually contain bile, 
and the patient is commonly described as bilious. The disease 
is commonly held by physicians to be an affection of the mucous 
membrane of the stomach, while it is by good authority also 
claimed to be of nervous origin. Whatever the original cause, 
acute indigestion is the result, and the evacuation of the 
stomach and bowels is the way of relief. One or two com¬ 
pound cathartic pills may be given after the first occurrence of 
vomiting. Strict rest in bed must be required. The writer has 









































486 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


found the following prescription, after vomiting has occurred, 
to be of the utmost service in numerous cases : 

Hydrate of chloral, - - - 15 grains. 

Sulphate of morphia, - - - grain. 

Dissolve in a wine-glass of water, and take at one dose. If 
the patient does not find rest and sleep in one hour, repeat 
the prescription. 

Sometimes it is better to give 20 grains of chloral at the first 
dose. Often such treatment will afford the patient from five to 
eight hours’ sleep ; he then awakes free from headache and 
nausea. The disease sometimes appears to be hereditary, 
several members of the same family being subject to frequent 
attacks. It is a disease of early adult and middle life, usually 
disappearing after 40 years of age. 

Dyspepsia —a chronic affection—is characterized by dis¬ 
tention of the stomach and bowels by gas, and consequent 
uneasiness and pain, with an oppressive sense of fulness ; fre¬ 
quent regurgitations of fluid from the stomach which has either 
a salty, insipid or acid taste. Sometimes it is acrid and 
intensely disagreeable. This regurgitation is commonly known 
as -water-brash. This condition is not unfrequently attended 
with a burning, painful sensation at a point where the oesopha¬ 
gus opens into the stomach, extending upward along the course 
of the oesophagus—a symptom commonly called heart-burn. 
Constipation is also generally present. Vomiting is rare. The 
gas in the stomach and bowels may be derived in large part from 
the fermentation of undigested food, but it is certain that in many 
cases it has its origin in a disordered state of the nervous 
system. Dyspepsia is attended with depression of spirits. 
This is greatest when the stomach and bowels are most dis¬ 
tended by gas, and is never seen, I believe, unless accompanied 
by more or less distention. This state of depression, carried 
beyond a certain point, eventuates in a form of mental aberration 
known as hypocondriasis (vulgarly called hypo), or even 
melancholia. We have in mind a night-watch in a public hos¬ 
pital, who was subject to attacks of rapid accumulation of gas in 
stomach and bowels, attended with consi lerable pain. Not¬ 
withstanding the frequency of the attacks and the always happy 
termination within an hour or two, his memory and experience 
seemed of little use. He always believed that he was within a 
few minutes of death, and that the Lord had made this special 
visitation upon him as a punishment for his sins (although he 
was not noted for this sort of religious faith at other times), 
which he would proceed to confess, and which were ridiculous 
trivialities : he had failed to be polite to some one, or he had 
reported some employe for neglect of duty, or some other 
equally trivial fault, or even a virtue, which at these times he 
would distort into a fault. He was no coward, but a brave, 
courageous and sensible young man. As soon as the pain and 
distention was relieved, these melancholy delusions appeared as 
ridiculous to him as to his physician, although the experience 
was of no possible aid to his reason on the next occasion. 

Prof. Austin Flint, of New York, is authority for the state¬ 
ment that “ in a large proportion of cases, dyspepsia originates 
and is perpetuated by mental causes. It is induced and kept up 
by anxiety and depression. In the first place it is produced by 
mental causes, and then the dyspepsia reacts upon the mind. 


increasing its morbid condition. Most cases show the affection 
to have been preceded by mental inquietude of some sort. Per¬ 
sons who are constantly anxious about something, such as 
acquiring success in life, getting out of debt, securing independ¬ 
ent positions, or imaginary troubles, are those who are prone to 
the disease. The disease is most frequent from early adult to 
middle life, during the time when anxieties are greatest. ” 

The Treatment .—The scope of this article will not permit 
more than to indicate the general character of the treatment to 
be employed. First, attention should be given to the mind. 
The patient should be made to understand that his gloomy fore¬ 
boding regarding his health has no foundation in fact; that his 
anxiety constitutes his dyspepsia, and that there is not another 
such a father of “ the blues ” as “ wind on the stomach. ” Exer¬ 
cise is a good thing, but if ordered to take it at stated times 
without any other purpose than treatment, it will fail of its best 
results by keeping the mind of the patient upon himself and 
his dyspepsia. He should have a change of scene—should go 
where new objects will engage his attention and take possession 
of his mind. Nothing is better than foreign travel. Objects 
of interest engage his mind, and he forgets nimself. He finds it 
impossible to stick to his brown bread and limited variety of foods 
(which he has had cooked in a particular way for years, perhaps, 
under the delusion that he could not live if he should dare to 
go beyond his self-imposed restrictions), for it is not to be 
obtained. By his exercise and cheerful interest in what is 
novel to him, he becomes hungry and indulges freely in the 
variety of table fares which he finds at the various hotels, and 
he soon learns that he suffers no inconvenience from whatever 
he chooses to eat, so that often a few months’ travel is sufficient 
to permanently dispel the delusions and cure the most chronic 
case of years’ standing. 

There is no more prevalent American fallacy than the notion 
that one should not sleep soon after eating—the notion that, 
no matter how hungry one may be, he must not eat before 
retiring. This notion is not held by any other nation in the 
world, and how it became so prevalent here, it is difficult to 
account for. Those people who eat the largest meal at from 
7 to 9 o’clock in the evening, and perhaps take a luncheon the 
last thing before retiring, and who require, consequently, a 
very light breakfast, are far less frequently attacked by dys¬ 
pepsia than those who exercise after eating. 

As regards diet, the patient should take in sufficient quantities 
and great variety all kinds of nutritious food. Milk and nice, 
tender meats of all sorts should particularly be largely eaten. 
Pastry, sweets and sugars had better be discarded. Ripe fruit 
is very useful, and generally any article which the appetite 
craves—roast pork, or oysters, or melons, or even the infamous 
cucumber, if called for by the appetite—will do good and not 
harm. 

Medicinal remedies are useful in relieving some of the symp¬ 
toms. The regurgitation of fluid from the stomach, water- 
brash, and the heart-burn, may be relieved by moderate doses 
of subnitrate of bismuth. 

The distention by gas and the constipation are best relieved 
by an enema, which should be retained for fifteen or twenty 
minutes. The patient should drink a great deal of fluid—milk 
and water. Water should be taken in large quantity between 
































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


48/ 


meals—not until an hour after or half an hour before meals. 
A movement of the bowels every morning should be sought 
directly after breakfast. Every effort should be made to induce 
this habit. A glass of cold water directly upon rising will be 
useful in this regard. A general tonic will be found most use¬ 
ful, and should be occasionally changed for another. Among 
the best may be mentioned quinine, in two-grain doses ; com¬ 
pound tincture of gentian, in teaspoonful doses, and tincture 
of mix vomica, in fifteen-drop doses. 

Polyphagia—Excessive Appetite—Gluttony. 

Polyphagia is characterized by a voracious appetite, and the 
ingestion of enormous quantities of food beyond the demands 
of the system. Sometimes the capacity of digestion is increased 
in these cases, which leads to excessive accumulations of fat, 
and to fatty degeneration of the heart and other organs. In 
the sense in which the term is used, it implies a disease. It is 
sometimes observed in cases of mental derangement. The 
excessive craving for food may be diminished by the use of 
opium in some form. Recovery is to be expected. 

Polydipsia—Excessive Thirst. 

Polydipsia is a very rare disease. It consists in an excessive 
craving for the imbibition of enormous quantities of water. 
The quantity of urine voided is proportionately great, is pale 
and limpid, with nearly the specific gravity of distilled water. 
It contains no sugar or other abnormal constituents. There is 
no other evidence of disease. The patient drinks several gal¬ 
lons of water daily. A young man, a patient in a public asylum, 
in excellent physical health, developed this curious affection. 
As soon as the fact was discovered, an investigation was made 
by confining him to his room, where he was permitted to have 
all the water he desired, all of which was carefully measured to 
him. The amount drunk during the day was fourteen quarts. 
The urine voided during the same time was also measured, and 
corresponded precisely to the water drunk— fourteen quarts. 
The next day he was permitted to have only a pint and a half 
of fluid—half a pint with each meal. The third day he was 
also restricted to a pint and a half of fluid, and the urine 
voided during the third day was precisely the same as the water 
taken— a pint and a half. Recovery in this case was com¬ 
plete, without other treatment than restriction in the amount 
of water drunk. The symptoms shown during the excessive 
water-drinking were indifference and excessive laziness. Now, 
after three years, there has been no recurrence of the symp¬ 
toms. 

Dipsomania. 

Dipsomania is the term used to express a morbid craving 
for alcoholic stimulants. The habit may be developed through 
dyspepsia or other disease of the digestive system. We have in 
mind a pitiable case of a lady who developed the habit through 
efforts to get relief from a distress which afterwards proved to 
have been caused by a tape-worm. The desire for drink in 
some of these cases assumes the nature of the delusions of 
insanity. In such cases it is useless to reason with the patient, 
and the only certain hope of relief is by placing the patient in 
some institution, where stimulants will be withheld and suitable 
medicinal and hygienic treatment can be enforced. I he patient 


should reside in such an institution long enough to have the 
physical health fully restored and the morbid appetite quite 
fully overcome. 

Inanition—Starvation. 

Inanition. —To preserve the health and strength it is abso¬ 
lutely necessary that food should be supplied in generous 
quantity and variety. There is no one article of food which 
contains all those principles which are necessary to the perfect 
nutrition of the body ; and among the first organs to suffer for 
lack of proper nutrition are the organs of digestion. Every 
one knows the pain and exhaustion produced by a single day’s 
abstinence from food. Especially is this excessive if work has 
been necessary in addition to the abstinence from food. Now, 
we have very little to do with cases of famine, or starvation by 
shipwreck. If our assistance could be made available in such 
cases, we should not need to seek the advice of a physician; 
but the first move of the best informed as well as the most 
obtuse person would be to supply proper food. How differently 
even the best informed often treat the sick of their own 
families, not knowing what is best to do. In a fever of what¬ 
ever kind, the tissues are being far more rapidly oxidized or 
burned up than in health, as evidenced by the great heat of the 
body and the rapid loss of weight. Under such circumstances, 
the patient, to keep up the loss, really requires more food than 
in health, and yet how often he is deprived of food entirely for 
days together, with the idea of “starving a fever.” It is the 
patient, and not the fever, that is being starved. The tissues of 
the body are being rapidly consumed, and if food is not 
furnished to rebuild these tissues, the patient must die from 
exhaustion. If a well person even were put to bed, and there 
kept practically without food, and scarcely permitted water, for 
three or four weeks, as many typhoid-fever patients are, a very 
large proportion of them would die, and it would be plain that 
such a person had been starved to death. Many a fever patient 
has been starved to death who is said to have died from fever. 
Many a dyspeptic continues ill for years because he restricts 
himself ignorantly to too small a quantity or to too small a 
variety of food. Patients with cancer of the stomach, or ulcer 
of the stomach, or chronic diarrhoea or dysentery, and many 
other diseases of the digestive organs, generally die of starva¬ 
tion. The prime object, then, in all such diseases, is to supply 
such food as can be digested and taken into the blood, in the 
greatest possible variety, and in such quantities as will repair 
the waste by disease. Either an insufficient quantity or variety 
of food is certain to be followed by disease. Disease and pesti¬ 
lence always follow famine. Certain diseases, as scorbutus 
(scurvy), are developed for want of variety of food. 

Gastritis—Inflammation of the Stomach. 

Acute Gastritis is a very rare affection. It seldom occurs 
except as the result of a wound or of some corrosive poison. 
Pain is intense ; thirst is excessive ; vomiting is frequent and 
very distressing. The vomited matters are at first of a greenish 
color ; but if life is prolonged, in fatal cases, the vomited matters 
are black, with the appearance of coffee grounds. The surface 
is cold, and prostration is extreme. Besides poisons, the taking 
of large quantities of alcoholic stimulants without food may act 
as the cause of an attack. Death, in fatal cases, takes place in 











































4 88 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


from a few hours to a few days. Cases of this disease are so 
grave that a physician is always promptly called. The treat¬ 
ment will therefore best be left to his advice. When the cause 
is by a corrosive poison, the proper treatment will be found 
under the head of poisons. 

Subacute Gastritis, or catarrhal inflammation of the 
stomach , is much more frequent in infants than in adults. When 
it occurs in adults, appetite is impaired or lost; nausea and 
vomiting are very likely to occur ; sometimes it is a very severe 
and persistent symptom. Thirst is very great, and cold water 
is craved. Headache is usually very great, and weakness and 
exhaustion keep the patient in bed. Many of the symptoms are 
identical with the disease already spoken of under the heads of 
acute dyspepsia and sick headache. The most prominent dis¬ 
tinction is found in the duration of the attack, subacute gastritis 
continuing for from one to three weeks. The termination is 
almost always favorable ; only very rarely, and in the most 
severe cases, when the symptoms approach those of acute 
gastritis, is there any cause for alarm concerning the termination 
of the case. The cause of the disease is not always clear. 
Among adults, those addicted to intoxicating beverages are 
especially liable to it. 

Treatment. —The patient may, for a few days, be restricted 
to a milk diet. If the stomach is intolerant of food, enemas of 
milk may be given, half a pint at a time, and as often as once 
in three or four hours, until the condition of the stomach has 
improved. Small pieces of ice may be swallowed to relieve the 
thirst and the nausea. The following prescription will perhaps 
prove the most useful of any that could be taken to relieve the 
pain and vomiting: 

Subnitrate of bismuth, - - - i dram. 

Sulphate of morphine, - - - i y 2 grains. 

Make eight powders. Give one powder as often as necessary 
to relieve pain. 

Neither emetics, cathartics nor laxatives should be used. If 
constipation exists, an e7iema or injection of warm water should 
be used to produce an evacuation. 

Chronic Gastritis is a chronic inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the stomach. It is sometimes very difficult to 
distinguish between chronic gastritis and the functional disease 
dyspepsia. If there is great thirst, tenderness and soreness at 
all times over the stomach, loss of weight, occasional vomiting, 
the symptoms point to gastritis rather than to dyspepsia , in 
which none of the above symptoms are prominent. 

Many causes lead to the disease. Insufficient food is perhaps 
the most frequent cause. 

Persons suffering from functional dyspepsia brought about by 
a nervous condition due to anxiety or depression, may, by limiting 
the quantity and variety of the food, bring about a real inflam¬ 
mation of the coats of the stomach. Remember that harm 
is always the result of severe so-called “ dieting,” that is, limit¬ 
ing the food taken to an insufficient quantity and small variety. 

Another and almost as frequent a cause is, as in the subacute 
variety, the use of alcoholic stimulants. It is also caused by 
the continued use of arsenic, taken sometimes as a medicine, 
but more often to improve the complexion. Disease of the 
liver, by causing congestion of the stomach, also acts as a cause. 


Treatment .—The food best adapted in cases of this sort is 
milk, bread, butter and eggs, beef extract, rice, corn-starch, etc. 
A change of scene, fair exercise, and recreation for the mind, 
are in the direction of the best results. As regards medicine, 
nothing can be better than the treatment recommended in 
dyspeysia. 

Ulcer of the Stomach. 

Gastric Ulcer is a tolerably frequent disease. It is also a 
disease of gravity and danger. The ulcer is of two kinds. One, 
known as the perforating ulcer, is small and deep, and affects 
chiefly young people — girls and young women with much 
greater frequency than young men. It is said that servant- 
girls are more often afflicted by this form of ulcer than others, 
although I can see no reason for this and doubt the fact. The 
other form is larger and not so deep. It may be as large as a 
silver dollar, or even larger, and people of middle age are more 
often the subjects. 

The prominent symptoms are pain directly after eating, local 
tenderness on pressure, vomiting after eating, and hemorrhage 
or bleeding into the stomach. If blood is poured out into the 
stomach it is very likely to be vomited. If it is not vomited 
immediately it is turned black by the action of the gastric juice. 
From the fact that the matter vomited is black , without further 
examination it can be almost certainly relied upon as being 
blood. If vomited immediately that hemorrhage takes place, 
it will have the red color of blood. If the above symptoms 
occur in a young person, it is almost certain that ulcer of the 
stomach is the cause. Hemorrhage may take place into the 
stomach, however, without causing vomiting. But even with¬ 
out this proof, the other symptoms are usually sufficiently clear 
to render an opinion upon. In case of ulcer, pain occurs im¬ 
mediately upon introducing food into the stomach. In other 
stomach diseases (with the exception of cancer) the pain does 
not occur until some time later. If any considerable bleeding 
takes place and is not vomited, the patient shows the fact by 
weakness, paleness, prostration, thirst, and a peculiar throb¬ 
bing of the arteries in the neck, caused by being only half 
filled with blood at each pulsation. If the patient is young 
we may be absolutely certain that the ulcer is not a cancer of 
the stomach (which, in many respects, has the same symp¬ 
toms), for cancer rarely happens in young people. If the 
patient is of middle age, then we may not be able to decide the 
case at once, although the peculiar symptoms as regards the 
appearance, in addition to peculiarities in the character of the 
pain in a patient suffering from cancer, are usually sufficient to 
render an opinion tolerably safe. 

In fatal cases death takes place by different ways. It some¬ 
times happens that the vomiting of blood is the first symptom 
pointing to the disease. Hemorrhage sometimes is so great as 
to cause death. By the ulceration af a blood-vessel of consid¬ 
erable size, the patient bleeds to death. Another cause of 
death is by the ulcer perforating the walls of the stomach, thus 
permitting some of the contents of the stomach to escape into 
the abdominal cavity, and thus setting up an inflammation of 
the lining membrane of the abdomen (peritonitis, a very pain¬ 
ful fever), which, when produced by this cause, speedily results 
in death. The other way in which gastric or stomach ulcer 
causes death is by inanition, or starvation. When food is 
































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


489 


vomited as soon as taken, day after day and week after week, 
the patient rapidly loses weight, and if nutrition is not sup¬ 
plied in some other way, soon dies for want of food. 

Treatment. —To stop hemorrhage, pieces of ice may be given 
to the patient to swallow, and cold may be applied over the 
stomach. If perforation takes place, nothing can be done. If 
vomiting is persistent, it is well not to give the patient any food 
by stomach, but give enemas of half a pint of good rich milk, 
beef-tea or mutton broth, and the white of eggs beaten up with 
the milk. This is for the purpose of giving the stomach a rest, 
and the ulcer, being thus left free from irritation, a chance to 
heal. This method of feeding has, in some cases, been kept up 
for two or three months at a time, with the best results. 

Morphine and bismuth may be given, to relieve pain and 
vomiting. If food is given by stomach, it should consist princi¬ 
pally of milk. 

Cathartics or laxatives should never be given by stomach. If 
at all, they should be given by enema. Usually enemas of 
water are all that will be required. 

Cancer of the Stomach. 

Cancer of the Stomach is not a frequent disease. Sim¬ 
ple ulcer of the stomach is far more common. Perhaps one- 
third of all cancers are of the stomach. The disease rarely oc¬ 
curs before forty years of age. It is most common between fifty 
and sixty. It is twice as common in men as in women. Some¬ 
times there is considerable difficulty in finding out what is the 
matter. There is usually loss of appetite and loss of flesh, with 
weakness and exhaustion. There is pain in the stomach, 
which is increased after meals, and frequently vomiting also. 
Often there is a peculiar yellow complexion, which points to 
cancer as the cause. If these symptoms should occur in a young 
person, simple ulcer of the stomach is more probable. Some¬ 
times a tumor can be felt through the abdominal walls over the 
stomach. If this can be done, and the other symptoms are 
present, there can scarcely be two opinions in the case. The 
loss of appetite, the cutting pains, the vomiting, the black, cof- 
fee-grounds-appearing substance (blood acted upon by gastric 
juice) in the vomited matter, indicate that the trouble is not 
dyspepsia. The pain of cancer is “ cutting. ” Of simple ulcer 
it is described as “ burning ” or “ gnawing. ” 

The pain in cancer is more constant, while in ulcer it occurs 
more particularly after eating ; vomiting more immediately 
after eating in simple ulcer. Hemorrhage is more frequent 
and greater in amount in ulcer than in cancer. A tumor is 
never found in simple ulcer, and is often to be found in case of 
cancer of the stomach. These things, taken in connection 
with the history of the case, are usually sufficient to decide the 
case. 

Treatment. —There is no treatment that is of any avail in 
curing the disease. Remedies may be given to relieve pain, 
and life may be prolonged by careful attention to the nutrition 
of the patient. 

Diarrhoea. 

Diarrhcea is an affection of the small intestines, and is due 
to many different causes. It may be temporary, lasting but 
for a few hours, or it may be chronic, lasting for months. It 


may be caused by any trivial thing, as a slight change in the 
weather or some temporary indigestion, or may be a symptom 
of some grave or chronic disease, as typhoid fever, consump¬ 
tion or intestinal catarrh. There is one type which is prob¬ 
ably due to disease of the pancreas, in which fat, in appear¬ 
ance like melted butter, is evacuated, which upon cooling over 
the stool gives it the appearance of being mostly fat. This 
form is of considerable gravity, and often proves fatal. 

Diarrhoea occurs most frequently during the summer months. 
In September, when the weather suddenly becomes cooler, 
there are always a large number of cases. 

Treatment .—If in the beginning of a diarrhoea the bowels 
are freely evacuated by some mild cathartic, nothing further is 
generally required. For this purpose a small dose of salts, or 
what is better, castor oil, may be taken. If the diarrhoea con¬ 
tinues, twenty-five drops of laudanum may be taken every 
three to six hours. Or instead, five-grain doses of Dover's 
powder, or a sixth of a grain of morphine. 

In case of chronic diarrhoea, more dependence for a cure 
must be had upon suitable diet. Those articles should be 
eaten which are principally or wholly digested in the stomach, 
and not those which are digested in the small intestine. Ten¬ 
der meats of all sorts are best digested ; milk may be taken also, 
and ripe fruits. Vegetables generally should not be eaten. 
The food should be taken frequently, and a small amount at a 
time. If the patient lives in the city, a change should be made 
to the country. A malarious district should be avoided, and 
care should be taken as to dress. Woolen should be worn 
next the person at all seasons. Rest in bed is usefid. Tonics 
should be taken—among the best are iron and quinine. Fif¬ 
teen or twenty drops of laudanum may be taken when required 
to check the diarrhcea. 

Summer Complaint. 

Diarrhcea occurring in young children, and prevailing during 
the warm season, is known as summer complaint. It is com¬ 
mon during teething, and may begin in an acute attack of 
cholera infantum. It is a cause of great mortality among lit¬ 
tle children. In the large cities during certain months fully 
one-half of the deaths are due to this cause. The little patient 
should be removed to the country if possible. A spot should 
be selected that is free from malaria, that is cool and dry. 
Pure, fresh, sweet milk, together with lean, tender meats, 
rare done, or raw tender beef chopped fine and seasoned to 
taste, should be fed the child. Tonics may be given, and from 
twenty to sixty drops (according to the age of the child and 
severity of the diarrhoea) of the camphorated tincture of 
opium (paregoric) may be given every few hours. Food 
should be taken often, and a small amount at a time. 

Enteritis — Inflammation of the Small Intestine. 

Enteritis, either acute or subacute, is very rare after the 
age of infancy. The diagnosis is not always clear, but diar¬ 
rhcea is always a sympton, and is generally in children classed 
under summer complaint or cholera infantum. The treat¬ 
ment advised under these heads should be employed. When 
occurring in adults, rest in bed is to be strictly enjoined, hot 
poultices or hot water dressing over the abdomen may be used, 
















































49 ° 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


and opium in some shape, laudanum or morphine , is to be 
given, together with quinine. 

Dysentery—Inflammation of the Large Intestine. 

Acute Dysentery, or “ flux , ” occurs in single, isolated 
cases, and as an epidemic. The disease is more frequent in hot 
than in temperate or cold climates. It is more common in the 
summer or fall than at other seasons. The inflammation is 
confined to the large intestine, and in many cases affects only a 
very small portion of it. The isolated cases usually end in 
recovery, although death sometimes results in the most severe 
cases. The epidemic variety, commonly known as the bloody 
flux , very frequently proves fatal. 

The disease usually begins with loose passages having the 
appearance of an ordinary diarrhoea, but within a short time 
the character of the evacuations changes, showing a large 
amount of mucus, commonly spoken of as slime. Following 
this, very dark evacuations frequently take place, the color being 
due to blood, the red color of the blood being changed to 
black by the contents of the intestine. There is considerable 
griping and pain with a constant desire (called by physicians 
tenesmus ) to evacuate the bowels. There is more or less fever 
and weakness. Vomiting is also common. 

In the epidemic variety the progress of the disease is much 
more rapid. All of the symptoms are exaggerated. The quan¬ 
tity of slime is more abundant ; blood in its red color is evacu¬ 
ated, sometimes in considerable quantity. The fever is much 
higher, and exhaustion and prostration are much more marked. 
Death sometimes takes place within a few hours, and some¬ 
times not until the third week. The great majority of cases 
recover. The disease may occur at any age, but is most com¬ 
mon from thirty to forty years. 

Treatment .—A full dose of castor oil or salts may be admin¬ 
istered in the beginning of the disease, to remove all offending 
substances from the bowels. This is not to be repeated. The 
treatment from this on consists in efforts to support the strength 
of the patient and to limit the movements from the bowels. 
The patient should be kept quiet in bed, and should restrain, a 
movement as long as possible. Meat broths and milk should 
form the chief part of the diet. Vegetables should not be per¬ 
mitted. Opium in some form, either as laudanum or 77ior~ 
phine , or Dover's powders , should be given after every move¬ 
ment. It is well to introduce this medicine by injection or 
suppository if it can be so retained ; otherwise it must be taken 
by stomach. If vomiting is present, efforts to relieve this must 
be made, directions for which will be found in this article, 
under its proper head. Quinine in four-grain doses should be 
given to keep up the strengtji. In malarious districts espec¬ 
ially is quinine imperatively called for. Stimulants, as brandy 
or whisky or milk punch , should be given in all cases of great 
prostration. 

Chronic Dysentery rarely occurs except as it follows 
acute dysentery. It is a very grave and most intractable dis¬ 
ease. It may be difficult to determine whether a given case is 
chronic dysentery or chronic diarrhoea ; that is, whether the 
inflammation is of the large or small intestine. 

Treatment .—Enemas of warm water should be used after 
each movement, and immediately returned, the object being to 


keep free from irritating matter the ulcerated and inflamed 
spots. Tonics must be given, and the diet should be most 
nutritious, and contain as little waste as possible to pass over 
the diseased parts. Opium should not be used except when 
especially indicated by pain, for the reason that it interferes 
with the appetite. The tendency of the disease is to progress¬ 
ive loss of appetite and flesh, and gradual decline, prostration, 
apathy and death from exhaustion. 


Constipation—Costiveness. 

Constipation, or costiveness , may proceed from a variety 
of causes. It is an affection of the large intestines, and is gen¬ 
erally functional , i. e ., it is not due to any organic change in 
the part. It is a very frequent, and is generally not at all a seri¬ 
ous affection, although it brings about great discomfort, and may 
be the origin of dyspepsia, piles and various other troublesome 
diseases. It occasions headache, dulness of mind, palpitation 
of the heart, accumulation of gas in the stomach and intestines, 
colic pains, and sometimes diarrhoea. Severe straining may 
produce great harm. Blood-vessels in the brain have been rup¬ 
tured, and protrusion of the rectum has been occasioned by it. 

It is caused most frequently by neglect to attend to the calls 
of nature when it is demanded, and both the sensation and de¬ 
sire after a time subside. It may be twelve or twenty-four 
hours before the call is repeated. Again it may be ignored, 
and again subside. In this way a habit is formed which 
becomes very troublesome, destroys one’s comfort, and fre¬ 
quently, by interfering with digestion, undermines the general 
health. This habit of neglecting the calls of nature is brought 
about chiefly by two causes: the mind may be occupied and 
the patient driven with work. He will not take the time either 
to eat properly, or to visit the closet. But the far more fre¬ 
quent cause, in my opinion, especially in the country, is the 
neglect of people to provide themselves' with comfortable 
closets, and sometimes not even uncomfortable out-houses. In 
winter, when the thermometer is from five to forty degrees 
below zero, with deep snow-drifts, and the wind blowing a gale, 
a trip to a stable, or to a cold out-house, through the cracks of 
which the wind drives a freezing blast, is indeed a dreaded 
experience. To bare oneself in such cold, and perhaps stop 
the wind out of the privy with a portion of one’s anatomy, is 
not an experience that seeks frequent repetition. Again, when 
it rains in spring and fall, there is a dread of going out into the 
storm. And in summer the stench from the privy vault is 
often so offensive as to deter frequent visits. Thus, by these 
inconvenieces, people develop a habit of waiting as long as pos¬ 
sible, frequently for days together, until a troublesome consti¬ 
pation is developed, which may be very difficult to cure. 

Treatmeiit. — Attention should first be directed to a cure of 
the bad habit of irregularity. The patient should go regu¬ 
larly every morning after breakfast, and take plenty of time to 
complete the act. Every house should have a comfortable 
closet, free from bad smells. If in the country where there 
are no sewers, and no closet is possible in the house, the privy 
should be well built, the outside well boarded up and battened 
and the inside lathed and plastered, so as to keep out the wind. 
A wooden box should extend up through the privy and open 
outside, so as to ventilate the vault, which should be often 































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


49 1 


cleaned out. A good board walk should extend from it to the 
house ; then, if the house will keep an umbrella for rainy 
weather, the comfort and health of the family will be greatly 
enhanced, and the doctor’s bills will be smaller. 

Of course there are other causes, but, whatever they are, care 
should be taken to remove or avoid them. If constipation is 
only temporary, a laxative pill may be taken, or an enema of 
water. If, however, it be habitual or chronic, other means 
will have to be employed to cure it. The diet should be, in 
good part, articles which leave a large residue of undigested 
matter to be carried out of the body, such as vegetables, 
salads, cabbage, greens; or corn-bread, oat meal, cracked 
wheat, etc. A glass of cold water taken fifteen or twenty 
minutes before breakfast is often very useful. If medicines 
be taken they should be taken in small doses and frequently 
repeated, so as to bring about a regular habit. Free purga¬ 
tion should never be sought; much harm is done by it. A 
small pill of aloes , or of aloes and strychnine , which may be 
had at the drug stores, will be found very effective. One pill 
should be taken every night; sometimes one every night and 
morning may prove most effective. 

Colic. 

Colic, strictly speaking, is a functional affection of the 
colon, characterized by spasmodic pains. It has, however, by 
common usage, been made to apply generally to all severe spas¬ 
modic pains in the abdomen. Thus it is applied to the pains 
in certain inflammations, as peritonitis , enteritis and dysentery , 
to the pain caused by the passage of gall-stones, and to that 
caused by the passage of small stones from the kidney into the 
bladder, as well as to certain neuralgias of the abdominal 
organs, as that caused by lead-poisoning. So the distinctions 
are made by prefixing a word, as Jlatule7it , or wind colic ; cra¬ 
pulous colic, or that caused by indigestion, as in cholera mor¬ 
bus ; hepatic colic, caused by the passage of gall-stones ; ne¬ 
phritic colic, caused by passage of calculi from the kidney, and 
lead colic, caused by lead-poisoning. 

For treatment of the colic of dysentery, peritonitis, cholera 
morbus and cholera, as well as of the pain accompanying the 
passage of stones from the gall-bladder and kidney, see the 
proper heads as above. 

The pain in colic is caused by spasm of the muscular coat of 
the intestine. The object of treatment is to relieve this spasm. 
Some persons are subject to frequent attacks, which arebrought 
about by slight causes. Constipation is a frequent cause. 

Treatment should first be directed to the relief of the pain. 
Hot cloths placed over the abdomen, or cloths wrung out of 
hot water, will aid, and will sometimes alone fully relieve the 
patient. Various hot and stimuluting drinks are useful, but 
there is no remedy so absolutely certain of relief as some form 
of opium. Twenty-five to forty drops of laudanum may be 
given every half hour to an adult, either by injection or by the 
stomach, until relief is obtained. For children, a proportionate 
dose. For infants and children under four years, paregoric is 
safest. For adults, viorphi7ie may be given in quarter-grain 
doses, every half hour until relieved. If the patient is consti¬ 
pated, two or three compound cathartic pills may be taken, 01 


what is better, a large injection of warm water, so as to free 
the bowels. This, in most instances, will complete the cure. 

Lead Colic is caused by poisoning by lead. The lead may 
be taken into the system by many different ways, without the 
knowledge of the patient. Persons manufacturing paints or 
working in shot-factories or other places where lead is used 
may be poisoned. Painters are very liable to lead-poisoning. 
Persons have been poisoned by sleeping in a newly-painted 
room, or by using certain face-washes and hair-dyes which con¬ 
tain lead, or by drinking water which has stood in lead pipes, 
or beer or cider which has been for some time in contact with a 
lead faucet, and by many accidental or intentional adulterations 
of food. Lead-poisoning is manifested by various affections of 
the nervous system, such as paralysis, as of the extensor muscles 
of the hand, and neuralgias, of which colic, or neuralgia of the 
intestines, is one. 

The bowels are usually constipated. The pain is sometimes 
dull and heavy, and sometimes sharp and cutting. It usually 
comes on very gradually, beginning with slight pain, and grows 
worse until it may become very severe. There is seldom entire 
relief from pain, but there are periods of great increase, when 
the paroxysms are excruciating. If not relieved by treatment, 
the pain is likely to continue for days, and perhaps for weeks, 
and attacks will frequently occur. Persons do not die from 
lead colic, although they may from other effects of lead-poison¬ 
ing. A blue line along the gums next the teeth is usually 
present in these cases. 

Treatment should first be given as in ordinary colic. When 
the pain is relieved and the bowels moved, the following pre¬ 
scription should be taken, which will produce a permanent 
cure: 

Iodide of potassium, - - - - i ounce. 

Distilled water, ad. - - - - i ounce. 

Mix. 

Dose: As directed. 

The above is a saturated solution. Begin with five drops in 
a wine-glass of water three times a day after meals, and increase 
one drop each day until the patient is taking twenty-five to 
thirty drops three times a day. 

Cholera Morbus. 

Cholera Morbus, or sporadic cholera, begins very suddenly 
by vomiting and colic pains. This is followed by purging and 
increase in pain and continued vomiting. The vomiting is 
sometimes preceded by a sense of weight and uneasiness in the 
stomach. If the vomiting and purging continue long, both 
the vomited matters and the dejections become entirely fluid 
and acrid. The skin is usually cool or cold ; cramps occjur in 
the legs and feet and in the abdominal muscles. During the 
interims between vomiting and purging, the patient is greatly 
prostrated and exhausted. The mouth is dry, and the patient 
suffers from great thirst. 

The disease is more frequent in the summer months, and is 
more likely to occur at night than in the day-time. The 
patient usually recovers. 

Treatment .—There is but one remedy worthy of mention 
in this disease, and that is opium in some shape. The injec- 











































49 2 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


tion of a solution of morphia under the skin is the best way to 
administer it. But none except physicians are possessed of the 
necessary instrument for this purpose. Therefore, if the 
method of administration given below should fail, by being 
vomited or evacuated before an effect can be produced, a phy¬ 
sician should be called. 

Half a grain of morphia should be taken dry on the tongue 
and dissolved in the mouth, and should be given directly after 
vomiting. If this is rejected, the dose should be at once 
repeated. If this is again rejected, it may again be repeated, or 
from sixty to eighty drops of laudanum may be given in two 
tablespoonfuls of water by injection. This should be given 
directly after a movement of the bowels, so as to have time to 
take effect before the next movement occurs. If this be 
rejected, the injection should be repeated. 

To relieve thirst, small pieces of ice may be taken into the 
mouth, or a spoonful of water may be allowed every few min¬ 
utes. Sometimes a very hot cup of tea, taken without milk or 
sugar, acts well in relieving the vomiting. The body should 
be wrapped in a warm blanket. 

Cholera Infantum. 

The affection treated of under this head is similar to the 
cholera morbus of adults, except that it is applied to children 
usually under two years of age. Unlike the disease in adults, 
where recovery is almost certain, in children under two years 
it is frequently fatal. Indeed, cholera infantum, together with 
the more chronic affection known as summer complaint , causes, 
in the large cities of the United States, nearly one-half the 
deaths during the hot season. Children of the poor living in 
crowded tenement-houses are more liable to the disease than 
others. Change of food, as in weaning, frequently acts as a 
cause. Children brought up on a bottle are especially liable to 
it. Doubtless poor, diluted, changed or soured milk is a cause. 
The greatest care should be taken to obtain fresh and pure 
milk for infants during these months. Unless there is urgent 
need in the interest of the mother’s health, a child should not 
be weaned during the hot months. 

The attack usually begins with vomiting and purging, which 
acts are frequently repeated. The vomited matters and the 
dejections are very fluid ; pain, prostration and cramps ensue ; 
the body is cold. If the purging and vomiting can be arrested 
recovery may quickly take place. If this cannot be controlled, 
however, the child rapidly fails, suffers from thirst and pain 
and prostration, aud in the course of two or three days goes 
into collapse and dies. It may, however, become chronic, an 
affection previously treated under the head of summer com¬ 
plaint, when the child, in unfavorable cases, gradually fails, 
becomes emaciated and dull, and finally dies of starvation. 

Treatment .—When an attack begins the babe should be 
wrapped in a warm shawl or blanket. Twenty to thirty drops 
of paregoric should be given directly after vomiting. If it is 
rejected the dose is to be repeated. If this is again rejected or 
if relief does not follow, it is again to be repeated. Each time 
it should be given directly after the act of purging. If purg¬ 
ing is not so frequent the medicine is better given by injection. 
Drinks of very warm tea may be given ; let the tea be as hot 


as can be well taken. A physician should be called if relief is 
not soon obtained. 

The treatment for the chronic form will be found under the 
head of summer complaint. 

Epidemic Cholera. 

Epidemic or Asiatic Cholera is a disease which seems 
to take its origin in India. There it exists sometimes in isolated 
cases, and sometimes as an epidemic. Frequently it leaves its 
native country, and makes trips over the entire civilized world, 
following the highways of travel and commerce. It first occur¬ 
red in the United States in 1832 ; again in 1834. Again it 
took its origin in India in 1847, and reached this country in 
1849, and prevailed herein 1850, ’51 and ’52. Beginning again 
in India in 1S64, it reached the United States in ’66 and pre¬ 
vailed somewhat in ’67. 

The pathology and cause of the disease are not well under¬ 
stood. But this much is quite well established : That it has a 
special cause, and that this special cause can be transported and 
reproduced in places where the conditions are favorable to its 
development—conditions similar, to those where it first took its 
origin. That this special cause may be rapidly developed under 
conditions favorable to it ; that it may be destroyed by disin¬ 
fectants, and that it suddenly becomes inert, inoperative,or is 
carried away by causes not understood. There are many well- 
established facts concerning its communicability, which, how¬ 
ever, are often apparently contradictory, and hence there are 
few physicians who do not hold in reserve or doubt any opin¬ 
ion which their experience has led them to entertain. 

The introduction of cholera into New York in 1866 was not 
traceable to any particular emigrant passenger, nor any particu¬ 
lar lot of baggage or goods, nor to any particular ship ; but it 
followed the arrival of infected ships into £he harbor. 

The first cases occurred almost simultaneously, and in widely 
separated districts. This could hardly have been the case if the 
disease had been communicated from one person to another. 

As the season advanced and cases became more frequent, the 
disease was found to prevail in certain low and insalubrious 
localities, while the rest of the city was almost free from the 
epidemic. These localities were widely separated. 

There was no evidence that the disease was ever directly com¬ 
municated from one person to another. Persons in the same 
house, and who waited upon the sick, were not more frequently 
attacked than other persons who resided in the insalubrious dis¬ 
trict, but at a distance from any case. 

Where the epidemic has prevailed in Europe and in this 
country, no more than from one to ten in a hundred physicians 
and nurses who cared for the cholera patients had the disease. 

In the London hospital, out of one hundred persons employed 
in the cholera wards only five had the disease, and of eleven 
laundry-women employed at the hospital to wash the soiled 
clothing and bedding of cholera patients, only one was at¬ 
tacked. 

It is thought by some to have its origin in germs developed 
in the alimentary canal of cholera patients, which are further 
developed in the soil, the condition of which, as regards com¬ 
position, temperature and moisture, must be favorable. This 
one, of all the theories, would best explain the phenomena as 


































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


493 


usually observed. In New York, for example, only in the low 
and unhealthy parts of the city did the disease make its appear¬ 
ance. Some cases occurred in persons after leaving these 
unhealthy districts for healthy ones, but none of these communi¬ 
cated the disease to persons living in the healthy district to 
which the patient had gone. The germs from the infected 
ships seem to have reached all of the infected districts at about 
the same time, and, it may be, could only become active by 
development in the soil peculiar to these districts, for the high 
and clean parts of the city never became affected. 

In the great majority of cases cholera is preceded by a sim¬ 
ple diarrhoea, which continues from a few hours to a week, in 
different cases, before the full development of the disease. 
This is not attended by pain and is usually considered by the 
patient as of no consequence. Vomiting during this stage 
rarely occurs. This diarrhoea occurs in not less than ninety 
per cent of cases. Suddenly the diarrhoea changes its aspect, 
and large watery evacuations take place. This marks the 
beginning of the disease proper. The dejections may be clear 
like water, or may be milky or muddy in appearance. Some¬ 
times the dejections are very large, sometimes small. The act 
is not attended by pain. Gurgling sounds in the bowels are 
common. Vomiting is also a common symptom. The matter 
vomited is a watery liquid. As the disease progresses there is 
a sense of great prostration and weakness. The skin is cool. 
In some cases cramps occur in the muscles of the legs. If the 
disease pursues a favorable course, the vomiting and purging 
cease at the close of the stage of invasion, and the patient at 
once becomes convalescent, and in the shortest space of time is 
restored to his usual health. 

If the disease does not end with the first stage, all the bad 
symptoms continue. The pulse usually is frequent and very 
feeble, ranging from no to 150 per minute. The surface of 
the body becomes cold, the lips and face blue. The breath is 
cold and the respiratory act is more frequent and irregular. 
The voice is feeble ; the patient is indifferent and has no appre¬ 
hensions for the result. The cramps in the feet and legs is the 
only pain suffered. Thirst is very great ; the patient craves 
cold water. The face becomes so changed and old in appear¬ 


ance as not to be recognizable. The patient may sink into 
complete collapse in from three to eight hours, in which state 
death usually ensues. 

If the patient rallies from the state of collapse, he is likely 
to continue in a critical condition for some time before reach¬ 
ing convalescence. Diarrhoea and vomiting frequently con¬ 
tinue, the matters now being greenish yellow in color, and the 
patient may finally sink into a typhoid state and die. If 
recovery finally takes place, convalescence is generally slow, 
and the health is not fully restored for a long time. Excep¬ 
tionally, even from the collapsed state, recovery rapidly super¬ 
venes. 

Prevention of Cholera. —Much may undoubtedly be 
done to prevent the disease by attention to cleanliness, and . by 
disinfectants, and none of these things should be omitted. 

There is, however, in nearly all cases, a premonitory diar¬ 
rhoea, and if this be effectually treated there is little danger of 
the full development of the disease. Prudent and intelligent 
people who give prompt attention to any occurrence of diar¬ 
rhoea during the prevalence of the disease rarely have cholera. 

If the diarrhoea occurs in a young child, full doses of pare¬ 
goric should be given every time the bowels move. If more 
than eight years old, full doses of laudanum should be given, 
together with acetate of lead and bismuth. For an adult, 
twenty-five to forty drops of laudanum, or, instead, one-sixth to 
one-quarter grain of morphine after every movement of the 
bowels. Small doses of red pepper, in addition to the opiates, 
are useful. The above treatment, taken in time, will prevent 
the further development of the disease in almost every case. 

The treatment of cholera , when fully developed, does not 
differ during the first stages from that recommended during the 
premonitary diarrhoea, except that the opiates should be given 
in larger doses. After collapse has taken place there is little 
that can be done with any hope of success. Sometimes active 
treatment in this stage does harm; it rarely does good. The 
body should be kept warm by the application of dry heat. 
The nutrition should be kept up, and brandy and water may 
be given frequently in small quantities. 


~»-THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS AND THE BLOOD.-«- 


Absorption. 

Under the head of “ Physiology of the Digestive Organs ” 
was described the elaborate process of the solution of the 
food. When this process has been completed, absorption takes 
place by the blood-vessels upon the walls of the stomach and 
small intestines, and by a special system of little vessels called 
lacteals, which open upon the intestinal walls. The solution 
of albuminous substances and the emulsion of fats must be per¬ 
fect, or they will not be taken up. Whether they are taken up 
by the blood-vessels or lacteals, the product is emptied into 
the large veins. With the exception of that carried by the 


thoracic duct , and one or two other lacteal trunks, the product 
of digestion, chyle by name, is carried, with venous blood, 
directly to the liver, where it is distributed to the liver cells 
in minute capillaries, and is here probably further modified, 
elaborated and refined, and also gains the substance glyco¬ 
gen, a liver sugar, and is then carried to the heart in the cur¬ 
rent of venous blood, and from the heart is sent to the lungs, 
there to be purified by the oxygen of the inspired air, and again 
returned to the heart, fit to be used in nourishing all the deli¬ 
cate tissues and organs, and in turn to be oxidized or burned 
and carried out of the body. 

















































494 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


THE HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS. 

The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system. It 
is situated almost in the centre of the chest, between the right 
and left lungs. Its base is above and to the right, and its apex 
downward and to the left. It may be felt beating a little below 
and toward the median line from the left nipple. It is in size 
about as large as the closed fist of the person to whom it be¬ 
longs. It is a hollow muscle containing four cavities, two of 
which are upon the right and two upon the left side of the 
organ ; the heart thus being a double, or, indeed, two distinct 
organs, a right and a left heart, which, though bound together, 
are entirely distinct from each other, each having its own par¬ 
ticular work to perform. The two cavities of the right side of 
the heart communicate with each other, as do also the two 
cavities on the left side. The openings between the cavities 
are guarded by valves, which permit the blood to flow only in 
one direction. 



Fig. 4. The Human Heart. 


Connected with each of the four chambers of the heart are 
large blood-vessels. The large veins (Fig. 5), the vena cava 
ascendens (1), and the vena cava descendens (2), bring the 
blood from all parts of the body to the right heart, and pour it 
into the upper chamber (3), which, from its fancied resemblance 
to the ear of a dog, is called the auricle. This upper cavity of 
the right side of the heart into which the venee cavce empty, is 
known as the right auricle. It has very thin walls and serves 
only as a receptacle for the venous blood until it can be received 


into the cavity below, which is called the right ventricle. As 
soon as the right auricle is filled, its walls contract, and the 
valves which guard the opening (5, 5, Fig. 6) are pushed open 
as shown in the cut, and the blood flows into and fills the cav¬ 
ity (6) of the right ventricle. The right ventricle thus being 
filled, its walls immediately contract, the movement of the 
blood closes the valves (5, 5) called the tricuspid valves, which 
guard auricular ventricular opening (4), thus preventing 
(as shown in Fig. 7), the regurgitation of the blood back 
into the auricle. At the same time it pushes open the valves 



Fig. 5. 

t , 2, Vensecavae, ascendens and descendens: 3,^4-ight auricle; 4, 4, 4, 4, 
lungs; 5, pulmonary artery; 6, right ventricle ; 7, 7, 7, 7, pulmonary 
veins; 8, left auricle; 9, left ventricle; io, aorta. 

(9, 9) called the pulmonary valves, which guard the entrance 
(7) into the pulmonary artery , so that all the blood in the 
right ventricle (6) is forced into the pulmonary artery (8), 
which leads to the lungs (4, 4), as shown by the black vessel 
(5) in Fig. 5, where it divides into a minute capillary net¬ 
work upon the walls of the sixty million air-cells of the lungs. 
In these capillaries the pulmonary veins begin by little rootlets 
which flow together, forming minute veins, and these unite to 
form larger veins, these again to form still larger, until the four 
(7> 7> F 'g- 5) lar g e pulmonary veins—two from each lung- 
are formed. These bring back the purified blood from the 
lungs and empty it into the upper cavity (8, F’ig. 5, or 14, 
Fig. 8), of the left side of the heart. From this cavity, 
by contraction of the auricular walls, the blood flows down¬ 
ward through the auriculo-ventricular opening (15), guarded 
by the mitral valves, into the left ventricle (16, Fig. 8), 
in the same manner as on the right side. As soon as the 
left ventricle is filled with blood, its strong muscular walls con¬ 
tract. The movement of the blood closes the mitral valves (15, 
Fig. 8), which prevents the blood from flowing back into the left 
auricle, and pushes open the semilunar valves (g, Fig. 9) which 
guard the entrance into the aorta, so that all the blood in the 
ventricle is sent into the aorta, and thence all over the body, 
with such force that all the larger arteries swell and throb as the 




















































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


Fig. 6. Diagram of Eight Side of the Heart. 

i, 2, Venae cavae, ascendens and descendens; 3, cavity of right auricle: 
4, auriculo-ventricular opening: 5, 5, tricuspid valves; 6, cavity of right 
ventricle; 7, opening leading to pulmonary artery; 8, pulmonary artery; 
g, pulmonary valves. 

The aorta (10, Fig. 5; 18, Fig. 8) branches and subdivides into 
a great number of large arteries leading to the head, arms, trunk, 
lower extremities and internal organs. These arteries again 
branch and subdivide a great many times, until they are reduced 
to only Ttnnr °f an inch hr diameter. They are much smaller than 
the finest hair, and can be seen only by a magnifying-glass. They 


blood rushes through them. This throb of the arteries is called 
the pulse. Physicians make use of this knowledge to ascer¬ 
tain, in disease, how the heart is doing its work. 


is not allowed to breathe for a moment the circulation in the 
capillaries stops, to begin again when respiration is resumed. 
In these capillaries the system veins begin by little rootlets 
which flow together into minute vessels, these into small veins, 
these into larger, and these again into still larger, until all 
are collected into the two great trunks, the venae cavae ascendens 
and descendens, which, as we have seen, empty the impure blood 
collected from the body into the right auricle of the heart. 

The heart is enclosed by a serous membrane, the pericar - 
diinn , which forms a kind of a double bag. The inner layer of the 
membrane is closely attached to the heart, the outer layer being 
free. Between the layers is a space, containing an ounce or 
two of fluid, which is secreted by the membrane to lubricate 
its surfaces, so that the movements of the heart will not cause 
friction and consequent inflammation. 

The heart is lined by a delicate membrane, the endocardium , 
folds of which form the valves at the openings leading from 
the auricles into the ventricles, and from the ventricles into the 
arteries. 


Fig. 8. Diagram of Right and Deft Sides of Heart. 

1, 2/3, 4, s, 6, 7, 8, same as Fig. 5; 10, pulmonary artery leading to the 
right lung; n, branch of pulmonary artery to the left lung; 12, pulmonary 
veins from left lung; 13, pulmonary veins from the right lung; 14, cavity 
of left auricle; 15, left auriculo-ventricular opening; 16 , cavity of left 
ventricle; 17, opening into aorta; 18, aorta. 

The muscular walls of the auricles (Figs. 8, 9 and xo) are very 
thin. As they have little work to do, it is not necessary that 
they should be strong. The walls of the right ventricle (Fig. 
10) are much thicker than the auricular walls, for the reason 
that it has to force the blood through the capillaries of the 
lungs, while the auricle has to force the blood into the ventri¬ 
cle only. But the walls of the left ventricle (h h, Fig. 9) are 
much thicker than those of the right, for the reason that it has 
many times its amount of work to perform. The right ven¬ 
tricle has to send the blood only to the lung, while the left has 
to send it over the entire system—from the crown of the 
head to the tips of the fingers and toes, and to all the organs, 
the brain, liver, stomach, muscles and bones. 


Fig. 7. Diagram of Eight Side of Heart, with Tricuspid 
Valves Closed and Pulmonary Valves Open. 

lie so closely together that the point of a needle cannot be thrust 
into any part of the body without wounding a greater or less 
number of them. The circulation of the blood in the capillaries 
may be beautifully seen by placing the web of the foot of a 
living frog under a microscope magnifying about 400 diameters, 
when all the little capillaries, with the blood-corpuscles rapidly 
coursing through them, may be seen, as in Fig. 11. It the frog 













































496 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


Diseases of the Heart. 

The heart, in health, is a most wonderful and beautiful 
mechanism. It performs its work quietly and regularly, day 
and night, sleeping and waking, year after year, never stopping 
for a quarter of a second. But, like all parts of the body, it is 
subject to disease and injury, and, when out of repair, may 
cause the most distressing symptoms, and, not unfrequently, sud¬ 
den death. 



Fig. 9. Showing Right Side of Heart. 

a, b, Columnae carnese; c, cavity of righ auricle; d, d, openings of pul¬ 
monary veins into left auricle; g, semilunar or aortic valves;./) aorta; /t, k, 
muscular walls of right ventricle. 

The diseases of the heart are many. The enveloping mem¬ 
brane, the pericardium, may become inflamed, when the dis¬ 
ease is known as pericarditis , signifying “ an inflammation 
around the heart.” Or the lining membrane may become 
inflamed, which is called endocarditis (endo , within; cardium, 
the heart, and itis, inflammation), “ inflammation within 
the heart.” In consequence of pericarditis, the fluid around 
the heart may be greatly increased, so as to interfere 
with its movements. This is dropsy of the heart. Or the 
smooth surfaces of the pericardium or enveloping membrane 
may become agglutinated together, so that at every contraction 
the heart must lift the whole weight of the diaphragm. Or, 
from endocarditis, the openings between the cavities may be 
almost closed up, or the valves shortened or deformed so as 
not to close perfectly, and hence permit the blood to regurgi¬ 
tate, like the leaky valves of an old pump, which permits most 
of the water to flow back into the well, instead of raising it to 
the spout, no matter how hard one may work at the handle. 
A heart with the openings greatly contracted by disease may 
be likened to a pump with a spout too small. It is easy 
to understand how, if the openings of the heart are con¬ 
tracted, as they sometimes are, to the size of a goose-quill, or if 
the valves leak badly, permitting the blood to regurgitate, the 
work of the heart is greatly increased. If a schoolmaster 
should become a blacksmith, by work at the forge he would 


soon increase the muscles of his arms to double their former 
size. So, when by damaged valves or contracted orifices the 
heart is called upon to do more work, the first effect is to in¬ 
crease the thickness of its muscular walls. By this cause the 
heart sometimes becomes three or four times its normal size. 

This condition is called hypertrophy. But there is a limit 
to muscular development, and after a time the walls begin to 
weaken and to dilate. They are no longer strong enough to 
force all the blood out of the cavity when it contracts upon it. 
More and more blood remains in the ventricle after contrac¬ 
tion, until the day comes when, perhaps, in a moment of excite¬ 
ment, the ventricle becomes filled with blood, and, the muscle of 
the heart not being strong enough to force it out, there is a 
sudden paralysis of the heart from exhaustion of the heart mus¬ 
cle, and death immediately ensues, the patient suddenly falling 
down dead. Or the blood may be dammed back in the veins, 
because it cannot get through the heart. In this way death 
may take place from congestion of the lungs. When the lungs 
are congested, there is a great difficulty in breathing. This is a 
common symptom of heart disease. The blood may be dammed 
from the heart back into the veins of the trunk and lower ex¬ 
tremities. When this is the case, the feet and legs swell, from 
the watery portions of the blood escaping outside of the vessels 
into the tissues. Sometimes the swelling is very great. There 
may be dropsy of the abdomen in consequence, or the liver 
and kidneys may be congested, and their functions impaired. 



Fig. 10. Showing Right Si«le of Heart. 

a, b, Venae cavae; d, left auricle; e, f, tricuspid valves; g, pulmonary 
artery; h, aorta. 

Sometimes fat is deposited in the muscular fibre of the heart 
in place of the true muscular substance. This condition is 
known as fatty degeneration. It always greatly weakens the 
power of the heart, and its walls dilate. Sometimes the heart 
is paralyzed from this cause, and, occasionally, when one part 
is more degenerated than another, the walls of the heart may be 
ruptured by its own contraction upon a quantity of blood. 
Death in either case, of course, immediately takes place. 































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


497 


Palpitation of the heart is not a disease proper of the heart. 
It depends upon a derangement of the nervous system, just as a 
trembling hand or jerking eyelid is due to a fault of the nerves 
and not to any disease of the hand or of the eyelid. There 
is nothing dangerous in palpitation of the heart. 

Neuralgia of the heart is a disease of the nervous system, and 
not of the heart. 

Most lesions of the valves of the heart are caused by inflam¬ 
mation of the lining membrane, endocarditis , during an attack 
of inflammatory rheumatism. If the patient does not die 
during the time of the acute inflammation, he is likely to suffer 
from heart symptoms after a few years, by which time the valves 
become so deformed or the orifices so contracted as to interfere 
with the function of the heart, and the patient becomes aware, 
for the first time, of his condition. Valvular disease may have 
other causes than rheumatism. 

Diagnosis .—A skilled physician is able, by percussing or tap¬ 
ping the chest wall, and taking note of the sounds thus produced, 
to say positively whether the heart is enlarged or not ; and, by 
listening to the beating of the heart, he can tell certainly 
whether there is any leakage at the valves, and say with confi¬ 
dence which pair of valves are at fault, or whether there is or is 
not a contraction at any of the orifices. Where the valves leak, 
or the orifices are obstructed, there are certain hissing or blow¬ 
ing sounds, called murmurs , which, heard over different parts of 
the chest, and at different times with reference to the normal 
sounds of the heart, enable the educated and skilled physician to 
determine the character of the lesion, or to say that no disease 
at all of the heart exists. 



Fig. 11. 

Circulation of the Blood in the Foot of the Frog. 

Treatment. —If one suspects, for any reason, a grave dis¬ 
ease of the heart, he should'go to some skilled physician in 
whom he has full confidence, and be examined. He will prob¬ 
ably learn, as is generally the case, that there is no organic dis¬ 
ease of the heart at all, and that the symptoms which occa¬ 
sioned the alarm, such as palpitation, are referable to a disor¬ 
dered state of the stomach or of the nervous system. The 
patient should not undertake to treat himself, if really suffering 
from valvular lesions of the heart, so that treatment had best 
be left to the physician whose advice is sought in the case. 


V- 


Digitalis is, perhaps, the most valuable remedy which exists 
for strengthening the heart’s action. The body should be well 
nourished, the food of good quality and variety, and the meals 
taken regularly. The bowels should be kept regular, and no 
very severe exercise should be taken. A gentleman, a patient 
of the writer, suffering from valvular disease, together with 
great enlargement and dilitation of the heart, came very near 
death every Sunday night on account of difficulty of breath¬ 
ing, due to congestion of the lungs, from damming the blood 
back into the pulmonary veins, the left heart not having 
strength to empty the ventricle. It seemed strange to the 
patient that the distress came only on Sunday nights, but upon 
enquiry it was found that on the six week-days he took three 
meals a day, and on Sunday but two, the last of which was 
about 2 o’clock p. m. The full power of the heart, when well 
nourished, was required, in its damaged condition, for the per¬ 
formance of its functions, and the abstinence from food for a 
few hours so weakened its action as to make death imminent. 
Sunday night suppers were ordered, and thereafter Sunday 
night ceased to be an especial dread. 


z> 



Fig. 12. 

Red and White Blood-Corpuscles Highly Magnified. 

THE BLOOD. 

The blood is a compound fluid. In man, and all the higher 
order of animals, it is of a red color ; in some of the lower 
forms of life it is colorless. The quantity in man is about one- 
eighth that of the weight of the body. The vessels of a man 
weighing one hundred and forty pounds would contain nearly 
eighteen pounds of blood. The office of the blood is not alone 
to carry nutriment to the tissues to assist in their repair, but 
is also to carry out of the body the products of waste—the 
ashes, so to speak, of the oxidized tissues which have been 
burned up or consumed in the production of force and animal 
heat. If a small part of a drop of blood be examined under 
a microscope, it will no longer present the appearance of a 
simple red fluid, but little circular bodies with a yellowish-red 




































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


71 


tinge will be seen, and, if magnified two hundred and fifty 
times, will present the appearance shown in the lower part (A, 
A) of Fig. 12. These are the red corpuscles. They are little 
flattened circular bodies about ^nnr of an inch in diameter, 
and not more than one-quarter as thick. It would take 
120,000,000,000 of them to make a cubic inch. The flat surfaces 
are somewhat concave, so that the centre of the corpuscle is its 
thinnest part. If examined with a lens magnifying i,ooo 
times, the corpuscles will present the appearance of B, C, D 
in the figure. After standing a few minutes the flat surfaces 
of the corpuscles are inclined to stick together, and so arrange 
themselves in the form of a roll of coin (D, D). If treated 
with a drop of vinegar they become clear (IP). If instead of 
vinegar a drop of water is added, they swell up (E), and 
become globular. If exposed to the air for a time, they 
become shrivelled (H, II) and irregular. In the lower part of 
Fig. 12 are to be seen two bodies (a, a) which do not look 
like the other corpuscles. They are larger in size, globular in 
shape, present a granular appearance, and are of a white color. 
They are known as the white corpuscles. Only one white cor¬ 
puscle exists to four hundred of the red. The coloring matter 
of the blood is in the red corpuscles. When they are removed 
a clear fluid remains. 

If a quantity of blood be drawn into a bowl from the veins 
of an animal, it will be, at first, quite fluid, but in a few mo¬ 
ments will become thick like a mass of jelly. This mass is 
called a clot, and the process coagulation. If allowed to stand 
for a day or two the clot will continue to contract, and will be 
found at the end of that time in the bottom of the bowl, cov¬ 
ered with a clear liquid called the serum. 

If, as soon as the blood is drawn from the vein, it be whipped 
with a bunch of twigs, a white stringy substance, like the 
gluten obtained by washing flour, is found to cover the twigs, 
binding them together. This substance is called fibrin. 
Blood, subjected to this whipping, does not form a clot, for the 
reason that the coagulating substance, fibrin, has been removed 
upon the twigs. If this whipped or defibrinated blood be now 
permitted to stand, the red corpuscles settle to the bottom of 
the bowl, while the clear serum remains on top. These three 
constituents of the blood, fibrin, serum and corpuscles, are 
rendered plain to the sight, but they are made up of many 
other substances, such as albumen, fat, sugar, soda, salt, iron, 
lime, magnesia, water, carbonic acid gas, oxygen, etc., etc. 

The serum and the fibrin are not separated in the living 
blood, but together form the plasma. The office of the plas¬ 
ma is to nourish and rebuild the tissues and to carry the prod¬ 
ucts of waste and combustion to those organs—such as the 
liver, kidneys and skin—whose function it is to separate them 


from the blood and carry them out of the body. The particu¬ 
lar office of the corpuscles is to carry oxygen from the lungs to 
the tissues and carbonic acid gas from the tissues to the lungs, 
there to be exchanged for oxygen. 

Diseases of the Blood. 

The plasma of the blood is replenished in its nutritive constit¬ 
uents by the food taken at frequent intervals. Water is neces¬ 
sary to render the blood sufficiently fluid, and to hold the other 
constituents in solution. The presence of certain chemical sub¬ 
stances is also essential. Lime, iron, and certain other minerals, 
must also find a place. Besides these conditions, certain constitu¬ 
ents manufactured in the body itself, as liver sugar and the cor¬ 
puscles in normal quantity, are necessary to health. Water is 
more essential than food, and oxygen more than water. One 
deprived of food dies from impoverishment of the blood ; if 
deprived of water, death takes place much sooner ; but if 
deprived of oxygen, death ensues within five to eight minutes. 
About a ton and a half in the shape of food and drink is added 
to the blood of an ordinary man during the year. As there 
is the same amount of waste, a ton and a half of material, 
therefore, must be carried out of the body through the blood 
during the same time. Some of the products of oxidation, as 
urea and carbonic acid gas, are very poisonous to the nervous 
system. Certain organs, as the kidneys, skin and lungs, are 
designed especially to remove these poisons from the current 
of the blood, and carry them out of the body. If, through 
disease of these organs, they fail to perform their functions, the 
blood becomes highly charged with the poison, and, unless 
speedily relieved, death is the result. If the lungs fail to 
eliminate the carbonic acid, death results within a few minutes. 
If the kidneys fail to remove the urea, death must follow in a 
short time. The same is true if the skin fails in its office. 

From the above it may readily be seen that the disorders of 
the blood are many. There may be too much blood, when the 
condition is called plethora; or too little, when it is called 
anaemia ; or it may contain too much water, or too little ; or 
too many red corpuscles, or too few ; or the plasma may be 
deficient in tissue-building constituents ; or the blood may be 
poisoned by the retention of carbonic acid and urea ; or it may 
contain living germs. 

Treatment. —A considerable quantity and wide variety of 
food should be taken regularly. A sufficient amount of water 
and fluids should also be taken. Frequent baths and a reason¬ 
able amount of exercise are advised. The sleeping-room should 
be well ventilated, and plenty of fresh air supplied. Where the 
blood disease is due to disease of some particular organ, the 
latter requires primary attention. 


'Is 



























PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


- 

. / 
499 


•^THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.^- 


It is essentially necessary to the life of all animals .that the 
nutrient fluid should be carried to all parts of the system, and 
since the functional activity of the nervous and muscular tissues, 
and all tissues, is dependent upon their oxidation, it is also neces¬ 
sary that oxygen should be carried to and brought directly in 
contact with every fibre and cell in the whole body. This im¬ 
plies the introduction of air. It is necessary in every animal, 
moreover, to keep up the temperature or body heat to a specific 
point. This is also accomplished by oxidation or burning 
either the disintegrating material which is passing to waste, or 
the combustible substances, such as sugars and fats, found in the 
blood. 



Fig. 13. Head and Gills of the Menobranchus. 


As we saw in the early part of this article, all organic mate¬ 
rial, at its death and combustion, gives rise to two products, car¬ 
bonic acid and water , and we have seen by experiment that 
these are the products alike of the burning candle and the oxi¬ 
dizing tissues of a living man. These products of combustion 
of the tissues are poured into the current of the blood. But 
the conditions of life are such that carbonic acid gas acts as a 
poison in the system, and means must therefore be provided for 
its removal. The introduction of life-giving oxygen into the 
system and the removal of the poisonous carbonic acid are ac¬ 
complished by the same mechanism, the breathing apparatus. 



Fig. 14. Swimming-Bladder of the Fish. 

a, b, Air chambers; d, c, wind-pipe; o, oesophagus. 


THE LUNGS. 

The breathing apparatus , or mechanism by which oxygen is 
introduced into, and carbonic acid is removed from the blood, 
in all forms of life, consists of a thin membrane so arranged as 
to permit the blood to flow upon one side of it, while the other 
side of the membrane (which must be moist) is in contact with the 
air. The oxygen gas of the air, having a greater affinity or 


attraction for the blood corpuscles than the carbonic acid gas, 
passes, therefore, through the thin membrane into the blood 
and displaces the carbonic acid gas, which passes out through the 
membrane into the air. The membrane, or breathing apparatus, 
in all cases, is the skin , or some extension, 
modification of it, as the mucous membrane. 

In the lower forms of aquatic life, and in 
certain worms, which are always moist, the 
skin serves the full purpose of lungs in purify¬ 
ing the blood, and no special organs of respir¬ 
ation are required. The moist skin of the 
frog is so delicate as to serve this purpose. 

We may remove its lungs, and it will continue 
to live and breathe , so to speak ; the heart 
will continue to beat, and the blood to circulate 
and be purified so long as the skin is kept wet. 

But if allowed to dry, so that the exchange 
of gases can no longer take place through 
the skin, the animal soon dies “ from the 
want of breath. ” 

In fishes, the gills, which are covered by a 
delicate membrane, take the place of the lungs. 

There is a rich plexus of blood-vessels on one 
side of this membrane, while the other side 
is bathed in water. Oxygen is held in solution 
in the water, and is appropriated by the 
blood, while carbonic acid is exhaled through 
the membrane. Humboldt placed fishes in 
water which contained 20 per cent of air in 
solution, this consisting of 29.8 parts of oxy¬ 
gen, 66.2 parts nitrogen and 4.0 carbonic acid. 

After the fishes had remained in it a due time, 
analysis showed but 2.3 parts oxygen, while 
the carbonic acid had increased to 33.8 parts, 
showing the ordinary results of respiration. 

In the menobranchus the gills (Fig. 13) are 
external feathery tufts on the sides of the 
neck. Each filament consists of a fold of 
mucous membrane connected with that of the pharynx, and con¬ 
tains a net-work of capillary blood-vessels. Respiration takes 
place as described in the above paragraph. 

But the first approach to the true lung is seen in the swim¬ 
ming-bladder of fishes. In the carp there is, in its double- 
chambered swimming-bladder (Fig. 14), an approach to the 
double lungs of the higher order of animals. It is connected 
by means of a wind-pipe, d, c, with the oesophagus, so that the 
fish is enabled at will to increase or diminish the amount of air 
in the chambers. While this is a rudimentary lung, its real use 
is to vary the specific gravity of the fish, by compression or 
rarification of the included air. As explained above, the gills 
in fishes fill the office of the true lung. 

\ 


reduplication or 



Fig. 15. 

Lungs of Reptile. 


















































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


Fig. 16. Lungs of 
tlie Frog. 


The lungs of the reptile present a sack-like form (Fig. 15). 
The two lungs are not equal in size, one, A, being fully devel¬ 
oped, while the other, B, remains in a more or less rudimentary 
state. There is a pulmonary artery, c c, which brings the im¬ 
pure blood to the lungs, where it is broken up into minute 
capillaries and distributed over the walls of the membranous 
bag, where the blood is purified and sent through the pulmo¬ 
nary vein, d d, back to the heart. The air is taken into the 
sack through the trachea, a, by a kind of swallowing process, 
and is forced out again by contraction of the abdominal mus¬ 
cles. 

The progress from the simple sack, as 
shown in the swimming-bladder of the 
fish and the lungs of the reptile, to the 
million-chambered respiratory organs of 
the higher animals, is well illustrated in 
the lungs of a frog (Fig. 16), which has a 
number of imperfect membranous parti¬ 
tions dividing up the sack into many cham¬ 
bers, with the effect to greatly increase 
the respiratory surface. If the surface of 
the membrane forming the walls of the 
sack amounted to two square inches, the 
effect of the fifty or sixty partitions would 
be to increase the surface of the respiratory membrane to per¬ 
haps fifteen square inches, so that the lung with the partitions is 
capable of purifying 
seven times more 
blood per minute than 
the simple sack with¬ 
out the partitions. 

In man the trachea, 
or wind-pipe, divides 
into two bronchial 
tubes, one of which 
enters each lung, and 
then branches like a 
tree. The terminal 
tubes are only about 
5-7, of an inch in diam¬ 
eter. Upon the sides 
of these minute tubes 
the air-cells open; 
sometimes single ones 
and sometimes many 
cells communicate 
with one another (Fig. 

17). Such a tubelet, 
with the air-cells thus 
clustered upon it, is a Fig. 18. 
miniature representa¬ 
tion of the lungs of the frog. The air cells vary in size from 
to 5 ^o of an inch in diameter. It is said that each terminal 
bronchus has 20,000 air-cells clustered upon it, and that the total 
number in both lungs is more than 600,000,000, the walls of 
which, if united and spread out in one continuous sheet, would 
present a surface of 1,500 square feet. The cell walls are formed 
of an exceedingly delicate membrane, covered by the richest plexus 


1 

rtf 


of capillary blood-vessels in the economy, which lie so thickly 
together that the spaces between them are less than their 
own diameters. Figure 18 represents five air-cells, with the 
capillary blood vessels distributed upon their walls. These capil¬ 
laries are only of an inch in diameter, requiring 200 of 

them to equal the size of a cambric needle. As the cells are 
close together and the partition walls of incomprehensible thin¬ 
ness, the little capillaries passing 
between them are brought in com¬ 
munication with the air on both 
sides. The blood corpuscles are 
obliged to pass through the little 
vessels in single file, and so, with 
air on both sides, they rapidly and 
completely exchange their poison¬ 
ous carbonic acid gas for pure life- 
giving oxygen, and change their 
color from blue to crimson. Then, 
by the contraction of the abdom¬ 
inal muscles, the chest walls, and 
the elastic walls of the air-cells 
themselves, the impure air is forced 

out of the body, and by a new in- chial Xube with Clusterillg 
spiration the lungs are refilled with Air-Cells, 
pure air. This in turn loses its oxygen to the blood, becomes 
impregnated with carbonic acid, and is expired, and the lungs 

again refilled with 
pure air. 

The Mechanism of 
Respiration. 

The minute anato¬ 
my of the pulmonary 
lobule and the physi¬ 
ology of the respira¬ 
tory membrane hav¬ 
ing been explained, it 
remains only to recite 
the gross anatomy of 
the respiratory or¬ 
gans, and the mech¬ 
anism by which the 
lungs are filled and 
emptied of air. 

The nose may be 
very properly consid¬ 
ered the first of the 
respiratory organs. 
By its turbinated 
bones and the numer¬ 
ous cells connected 
with its cavity, a con¬ 
siderable surface is produced, all of which is lined by the nasal 
mucous membrane; over this surface the air passes, and is 
warmed and cleansed from dust before passing into the lungs. 
At the entrance of the nostril are a number of stiff hairs, which 
act as a barrier to dust. Within the nose resides the sense of 
smell, which informs us of the quality of air we are breathing. 
The cavities of the nose communicate with the throat by two 


Showing a Portion of Five Air-Cells, with the Capillaries Upon Cell 
Walls (Greatly Magnified). 











































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 




openings. (See Fig. i.) Except during the act of swallowing, 
the epiglotis, or lid which covers the opening into the larynx, 
stands wide open, as shown in the cut, while the gullet below the 
larynx remains closed, so that there is a continuous tube from 
the nostrils, into the lungs. 

The Larynx is a kind of a triangular box placed at the top 
of the trachea, or wind-pipe, and is made up of rigid and 
unyielding rings of cartilage or gristle. The larger end of the 
larynx is placed upward, and across the superior opening are 
stretched four ligamentous bands covered by a most delicate 
mucous membrane. These bands are the vocal cords. The 
two upper cords are called the false, while the two lower bands 
are called the true vocal cords. To the vibration of these 
latter the voice is due. In front they are attached to a fixed 
point, the thyroid cartilages, which project forward on the 
neck, especially in men, and are called “ Adam's apple. ” Behind 
they are attached to movable pieces of cartilage, which are 
controlled by little muscles, and can be so moved as to separate 
the cords from each other, as seen in inspiration (A, Fig. 19, 
or Fig. 22), allowing the air a free entrance into the trachea. In 
expiration the cords fall together, leaving only a narrow slit (£), 
through which the air passes out. When an attempt is made to 
produce a sound there is a great change in the conformity of 
the larynx ; the vocal cords are approximated more closely 
together and put upon the stretch. The air from the lungs is 
then forced through the narrow slit, causing the free edges to 
vibrate, at the same time forcing them slightly apart in the 
centre, leaving a narrow oval slit, C, as shown in Fig. 19. 


ABC 



Tig. 19. The Vocal Cords. 

A, as seen in inspiration; B, as seen in .expiration; C, as seen while 
uttering a high-pitched sound. 

Below the larynx is the trachea, a long air-tube, composed of ’ 
rings of cartilage bound together by connective tissue and 
lined with mucous membrane. The trachea divides into two 
tubes called the bronchia, one of which leads to each lung, and 
there subdivides and branches like a tree into the ultimate 
bronchial tubules which open into the air-cells. 

The lungs are contained in the cavity of the chest ( A, Fig. 

20) . This cavity is separated from the cavity of the abdomen 
(C) by an arched muscle (B) called the diaphragm. 

The lungs are placed one upon each side of the heart (Fig. 

21) . Each lung is enclosed in a double membranous sack 
called the pleura, one fold of which is closely attached to the 
substance of the lung, while the outside layer lines the chest 
wall. Between the two layers is a cavity which contains a little 
fluid called serum, which is secreted by the membrane, and 
serves to lubricate its surfaces, so that they glide smoothly over 
each other with every movement of the lungs. The right lung 
is divided into three (6, 7, 8) and the left into two (1,2) lobes. 




Movements of Respiration. 

When the diaphragm contracts, it approaches a straight line 
across the body ; at the same time the costal muscles elevate the 
ribs, which are also, because of their direction, carried outward. 
This increases the size of the cavity of the chest. The descent 
of the diaphragm increases the length of the chest-cavity, while 
the movement of the ribs increases its breadth. This causes a 
vacuum in the chest-cavity, and the outside air rushes in through 
the trachea and dilates the air-cells until the cavity is filled. 
This is known as inspiration. The diaphragm and costal mus¬ 
cles now relax, the ribs return to their place, thus narrowing the 
chest, while the abdominal muscles contract, forcing the stomach 
and liver upward against the diaphragm, which rises into its 



Fig. 20. 

A, cavity of chest; B, diaphragm; C, cavity of abdomen, 
arched position, decreasing the length of the chest-cavity. 
These movements, together with the elasticity of the air-cells, 
force the contained air out through the trachea, emptying the 
lungs. This act is called expiration, which is followed by and 
alternates with the act of inspiration, and comprises the phe¬ 
nomenon of respiration. 

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

Diseases under this head may be divided into those affecting 
the mucous membrane lining the air-passages, those affecting the 
serous membrane covering the lungs, and those affecting the 
substance of the lung itself. 

Cold—Catarrh—Bronchitis. 

Coryza, or cold in the head, is an acute inflammation of 
the lining membrane of the nose. The eyes, in this disease, are 
also frequently inflamed and red, and the tears flow over the 
face. The symptoms begin with an itching or tingling sensation 





















































502 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 



in the nose, which is followed by sneezing. A slight fever ac¬ 
companies these symptoms, and not unfrequently there is more 
or less headache. 

Treatment .—Twenty or twenty-five drops of laudanum 
should be taken at bed-time, the first evening after the symp¬ 
toms are noticed. Not unfrequently this will effect a cure. If 
not, another dose may be taken the following evening, and this 
repeated the next. If the cold is severe the laudanum should 
be taken night and morning until relieved. It is also well to 
take four grains of quinine night and morning. Instead of 
laudanum, one-sixth of a grain of morphine, or a full dose of 
Dover’s powder, will serve the purpose equally Well. Treated 
in the beginning, 
nothing is surer than 
a perfect cure in from 
twenty-four to forty- 
eight hours, but if 
not effectually treat¬ 
ed, it is apt to extend 
to the larynx and be¬ 
come a severe bron¬ 
chitis, or eventuate in 
a chronic, low-grade 
inflammation of the 
nasal membrane, 
called catarrh. 

Catarrh. 

Catarrh is a 
name that properly 
applies to all inflam¬ 
mations of any part 
of the mucous mem¬ 
brane,such as catarrh 
of the stomach or of 
the bladder, but by 
common usage, un¬ 
less qualified by an¬ 
other word, has come 
to mean a chronic in¬ 
flammation of the 
nasal mucous mem¬ 
brane. It is a very 
troublesome disease, 
and is often very dif¬ 
ficult to treat. Pa¬ 
tients are frequently 
seen who have suf¬ 
fered from the disease for years, 
extend through the eustachian tube to the ears, and sometimes 
with not only the effect to impair the hearing, but to quite de¬ 
stroy it. The odor is, in bad cases, most penetrating, rendering 
the patient very offensive to his associates. 

Treatment .—In the beginning the most effective treatment is 
that recommended for coryza. Later, tonics should be given. 
Quinine in two-grain doses, three times a day ; laudanum in 
small doses and iodide of potassium in five-grain doses three 
times a day. In the beginning powders and solutions snuffed up 


the nose usually do harm, and it is a question whether they ever 
do good in any stage. The most effective treatment for a 
chronic case is, perhaps, a change of climate. The writer has 
known some excellent cures to result from a residence in North¬ 
ern Wisconsin, or in the region of Lake Superior. 

Acute Laryngitis. 

Acute Laryngitis is an inflammation of the mucous mem¬ 
brane lining the larynx. It is attended with a cough and hoarse¬ 
ness, and frequently with much difficulty of breathing. The 
hoarseness is due to inflammation and swelling of the vocal 
cords. Medicinal treatment should be the same as that recom¬ 
mended for coryza. 
At night the throat 
may be bound with a 
bandage wrung out 
of cold water. Qui¬ 
nine should be taken 
in four-grain doses 
three times a day. 

Disease of Vocal 
Cords. 

It not unfrequently 
happens that speech, 
or the power of pho- 
nation, is lost in con¬ 
sequence of disease or 
injury of vocal cords, 
or of ulceration or 
swelling of the sur- 
rounding parts. 
Within the last few 
years a little instru¬ 
ment, called a laryn¬ 
goscope , has been in¬ 
vented, by which a 
view of the larynx 
and vocal cords may 
be obtained. It con¬ 
sists of a little round 
mirror, about the 
size of a copper cent, 
fastened at an angle 
upon a small stem or 
handle. This is in¬ 
troduced into the 
mouth, as shown in 
Fig. 22, the tongue having been drawn forward. Then, by the 
aid of a bright light, placed beside the patient, and reflected 
from a mirror worn upon the forehead of the physician, the rays 
are thrown upon the little mirror in the mouth of the patient, 
from which it is again reflected down to and illuminates the larynx, 
the image of which is reflected back into the little mirror in the 
mouth of the patient. In Fig. 22 the image of the larynx and 
vocal cords is shown as seen by the physician. By this means a 
physician skilled in the use of the instrument is able to examine 
an ulcer of the larynx as critically as he might a burn on the hand. 


Fig. 21. Showing the Lungs in Situ. 

1, 2, Upper and lower lobe of left lung; 6, 7, 8, upper, middle and lower lobe of right lung; 5 

space occupied by the heart. 

The inflammation is apt to 














































71 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


5°3 




In case of loss of the voice, not clearly due to an acute cold , 
or in case of lioarsenesss of long standing, such an examination 
should be sought directly, lest the voice may become perma¬ 
nently impaired or destroyed. Sometimes one or both of the 
vocal cords may be paralyzed. As the symptoms may be due to 
different causes, it is best not to undertake self-treatment, but 
go at once to a skilful physician. 



Fig. 22. Showing the Manner of Using the Laryngoscope, 
with the Image of the Larynx, Epiglotis aiul Vocal Cords in 
the Mirror. 

Bronchitis. 

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining membrane of the 
trachea and bronchial tubes. It may be either acute or chronic. 

I f acute, there will be a slight fever and considerable cough. 
The treatment should be the same as that advised for coryza. 

Chronic Bronchitis usually eventuates from an acute attack. 
The disease may be of years’ standing. Those cases of death of 
elderly people from exhaustion, attended by cough and expec¬ 
toration, and accredited to consumption, may usually be put 
down as bronchitis. Consumption rarely attacks persons after 
40 or 45 years of age. 

Treatment should consist partly in good living and warm dress¬ 
ing. Any of the bitter tonics, with iron, may be taken, together 
with some form of opium to relieve the cough. Iodide of potas¬ 
sium in five-grain doses, with two grains of carbonate of ammonia, 
taken after meals, will be found very useful. 

Pertussis—Whooping Cough. 

Whooping Cough is an infectious disease, attacking the 
mucous membrane of the air passages. It attacks children, 
not exclusively, but chiefly. Among the first symptoms the 
child appears to have taken cold. Slight fever, suffused eyes, 
running nose and a cough make up the early symptoms. The 
cough is worse at night, and the temperature and pulse are 
higher. At this time there is nothing 'to distinguish it from 
an ordinary cold. This stage may last but a few days or be 
protracted over a period of two weeks, when these symptoms 
are changed for a distinct paroxysmal cough, having more 
or less of a metallic ring. The child makes a peculiar noise 


during inspiration. There is more difficulty in inspiration 
than expiration during the paroxysm. The paroxysm over, 
the patient seems to be well. The number of paroxysms 
during twenty-four hours varies from ten to twenty in ordinary, 
to from seventy-five to one hundred in aggravated cases. Dur¬ 
ing the cough the child becomes black in the face, and blood 
may be forced from the nose, throat or lungs, and at times from 
the ears. The little patient soon learns to dread these attacks, 
and seeks something to seize upon for support during the par¬ 
oxysm. If lying in bed, he springs up and perhaps stands upon 
his feet, the tongue being thrust out of the mouth during the 
cough. The material expectorated is a clear, tough mucus. In 
young children the nurse will be obliged to remove this mucus 
with a handkerchief upon the finger. It seems sometimes as 
if the patient would die of strangulation before it can be 
removed. If the paroxysms are frequent the front teeth may 
chafe the under part of the tongue so as to form ulcers which 
greatly annoy the patient. An uncontrolable diarrhoea may set 
in, or the brain may become affected, when convulsions or stupor 
make their appearance. 

Treatment .— Cough medicines as a general thing disturb the 
stomach without mitigating the cough. Small doses of the syrup 
of ipecacuanha may do good. The patient should be kept warm 
with good flannel underclothing. It is not advisable to keep him 
shut indoors, but if the weather is at all propitious, it is perhaps 
better that he should remain out in the fresh air. 

Tonics are needed. Small doses of quinine or cinchona mix¬ 
ture will do good. Three or four drops of tincture of belladonna 
at bed-time may give the patient a good rest. 

If the child has not been vaccinated, it will be Well to vacci¬ 
nate him, for vaccina seems to favorably modify the symptoms of 
whooping cough. 

Asthma. 

Asthma is caused by a spasm of the muscular fibres of the 
small bronchial tubes, which obstructs the outward flow of air 
from the lungs ; hence the great distress for want of breath, 
and the loud wheezing sounds. The disease is of nervous origin, 
and is sometimes hereditary. It is generally worse at night. 

Treatment .—There are many remedies which for a time re¬ 
lieve the bad symptoms, and a change of climate is almost 
always attended by relief. An attack may be brought on by any 
irritating smoke, or vapor, or dust contained in the breathing- 
air. The emanation from a feather pillow is sufficient in some 
persons to produce a paroxysm. The writer has found the fol¬ 
lowing prescription of use in a greater number of cases than any 
other. It usually cuts short the attack within a few hours : 

Iodide of potassium, - - - - 90 grains. 

Carbonate of ammonia, - - - 60 grains. 

Syrup of orange-peel, 1 ounce. 

Simple syrup, ..... j ounce. 

Mix. 

Take a teaspoonful every two to four hours until relieved. 

Pleurisy. 

Pleurisy is an inflammation of the pleura , or the membrane 
which envelopes the lungs. It is usually confined to one side, 
the left more frequently than the right. Sometimes, though 
very rarely, both sides are attacked at the same time. The at- 




(5' 



















































504 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


tack begins with sharp pains in the side, and in the region of the 
nipple. Soon it becomes impossible to take a deep inspiration 
on account of the severe pain caused by friction of the two 
layers of the inflamed membrane. Considerable fever is present. 
Examination by a physician will be necessary to determine 
whether the symptoms are due to pleurisy or pneumonia. 

Pleurisy is not usually a grave disease. The patient generally 
recovers within a few days. Sometimes, however, a great 
effusion of fluid takes place in the pleural sack, compressing the 
lung so that, if the fluid is not soon absorbed, the lung may 
become permanently disabled. Sometimes the effused fluid 
becomes purulent. 

Treatment .—Strips of adhesive plaster, an inch wide and 
from fourteen to sixteen inches long, may be applied by 
sticking one end over the spine and carrying the strip around 
the body upon the affected side, to act as a splint, thus prevent¬ 
ing any movement of the inflamed parts. A quarter of a 
grain of morphine may be given, or, instead, twenty-five drops 
of laudanum. This may be repeated every hour or two until 
relieved from pain. If effusion takes place the treatment should 
be left to the advice of a physician. 

Pneumonia. 

Pneumonia, lung fever, winter fever, or inflammation of 
the lungs , is an inflammation of the substances of the lung. 
But a single lobe of the affected lung is usually attacked. The 


disease rarely attacks both lungs at the same time. In such a 
case a double pneumonia is said to exist. The lower lobes 
(8 and 2, Fig. 21) are more frequently attacked than the upper 
(6 and 1) lobes. 

An attack may occur at any season of the year, but the disease 
is prevalent in winter and spring. The attack begins with symp¬ 
toms similar to those of pleurisy, congestion of the affected 
lobe rapidly supervening. The temperature rises, and the pulse 
beat and respiratory movements become more frequent. An 
exudation takes place into the air-cells of the affected lobe, 
completely filling them, solidifying the lobe and rendering that 
portion of the lung entirely useless. A very high fever ensues, 
and the patient becomes dangerously ill, and may remain in a 
critical condition for several weeks. In unfavorable cases 
death results in from ten to twenty days, from exhaustion. 
Occasionally the inflammation involves both lungs, or more 
than one lobe if but one lung is attacked ; under such cir- 
circumstances death may, in rare cases, result during the first 
or second day from suffocation/ 

Treatment. — In so grave a disease, a skilful physician 
should be called without delay, and his directions for treatment 
carefully followed. Good nursing is of great importance, 
and the most nourishing food must be given from the begin¬ 
ning, in order to guard against danger from exhaustion toward 
I the close of the disease. 


THE EXCRETORY ORGANS. 


name excretory is applied to those organs whose func¬ 
tion it is to remove from the blood the elements of waste — 
the ashes , so to speak, of the oxidized tissues — which have 
been taken into its current during its passage through the 
capillaries. Besides the lungs, which act as excreting organs in 
so far as they remove from the blood carbonic acid gas and 
water, and the liver, which also eliminates from the blood cer¬ 
tain poisonous excretions, there exist two other organs whose 
chief or exclusive function it is to purify the blood, by removing 
from its current the debris of the worn-out and oxidizing tissues. 
These organs are the kidneys and the skin. 

The Kidneys. 

The kidneys are two in number, placed in the abdominal cavity 
one on each side of the spinal column, on a level with the 
lower ribs. The kidney is shaped much like a lima bean. It is, 
in the adult, about four inches long, two inches wide, one inch in 
thickness, and weighs from four to six ounces. It is surrounded 
by a thick cushion of fat which protects it from injury. The 
concave margin, which presents a deep notch called the hilum, 
is turned toward the spinal column. At the hilum enter the 
blood-vessels and nerves and the excretory duct, called the ureter, 
which carries away the urine as fast as it is secreted, and 
empties it into the bladder, a membranous reservoir for holding 
it, until such convenient time as it may be voided. 



On making a vertical section through the kidney (Fig. 23) 
from its convex to its concave border, it appears to be made 
up of two substances, an outside or cortical substance, and an 
inside or medullary substance. The cortical substance forms 
the greater part of the gland and occupies its surface. It is 
soft and dark-colored and contains numerous small red bodies, 
called Malpighian bodies, scattered throughout its substance. 
The medullary substance is of a pale red color and consists of 
thousands of little tubes arranged in pyramids (1 1, 2 2, 4 4, 
Fig. 23), called the pyramids op Malpighi. The little tubes, 
or urinary tubules, of which the pyramids are made up, are 
connected, one with each of the Malpighian bodies, from which 
they are gathered together in pyramids, and empty, by com¬ 
mon ducts (5, 5, 5, 5), into a cavity (7) shown in the cut, and 
known as the pelvis of the kidney, from which the ureter (8) 
conducts the urine away to the bladder. Figure 24 shows the 
Malpighian bodies (1, 5, 6) greatly magnified ; 3 is a branch of 
the renal artery, from which little branches (4, 4, 4) enter the 
little bodies and break into minute looped capillaries (5), which 
again unite, forming a vein (7, 7, 7), which passes out of the 
little body, branches and subdivides (8, 9), and finally again 
breaks up into capillaries (10) to nourish the substance of the 
kidney. From the Malpighian bodies extend the little tubes 
(2, 2, 2), which finally unite to form the pyramids. 




































-*■ 


6> 



PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


It is in the Malpighian bodies and in the little urinary 
tubules that the urine is separated from the blood. The 
capsules of these little bodies, Mr. Huxley says, may be likened 
to a funnel, and the membranous walls of the little capillaries 
to very delicate filtering-paper, into which the blood is poured. 
A substance called urea, the ashes of the oxidized muscular 
tissue, and certain saline substances, among which are common 
salt and the phosphates and sulphates of potash, soda, lime and 
magnesia in solution, are filtered out of the blood, carried 
away by the little tubules (2, 2, 2) to the pelvis of the kidney, 
from which it flows through the ureter into the bladder, and 


Fig. 23. A Longitudinal Section of the Kidney. 

1, 2, 4, Pyramids of Malpighi; 7, cavity of the pelvis; 5, 5, mouths of 
the urinary tubules; 8, the ureter. 

thence out of the body. Thus the function of the kidney i*s to 
purify the blood, by removing those poisonous elements of waste 
which cannot be removed by the other excretory organs. 

DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS. 

The kidney is liable to disease, inflammation and degenera¬ 
tion, the same as other parts of the body. Anything which 
interferes with the proper secretion and elimination of urea by 
the kidney may properly be considered a disease. Sometimes 
irritation of the nerves of the kidney is sufficient to stop the 
secretion of urine for a considerable time. Mental emotions 
may diminish or increase the secretion. It has long been ob¬ 
served that the urine of an hysterical patient is excessive in 
amount and of a very pale color. During a fever the urine is 
small in amount and of a very high color. This is due to the 
great evaporation which takes place from the skin in conse¬ 
quence of the high temperature. Almost all the diseases to 
which the kidney is liable have been classed together and called 
Bright's disease, so called because Dr. Richard Bright first 


described one type of inflammation of the kidney, and almost 
all knowledge subsequently gained regarding diseases of the 
kidney, in which albumen is excreted, has been included under 
that name. 

An inflammation may be either acute or chronic ; may be 
confined to the pelvis or to the urinary tubules, or the sub¬ 
stance of the kidney may be inflamed. An acute inflammation 
may cause death within a few days, or it may become chronic, 
or complete recovery may take place within a few weeks. A 
chronic inflammation may last for many years. Where the kid- 


Fig. 24. 

i, 6, 5, Malpighian bodies; 2,2,2, urinary tubules; 3, renal artery; 
4, 4, 4, branches of renal artery: 5, 5, plexus of looped capillaries; 7, 8, 9, 
veins and venous plexus. 

neys are so much diseased as to. fail in removing the urea from 
the blood, nervous symptoms and convulsions rapidly super¬ 
vene, caused by uremic poisoning. The kidneys failing in their 
duty, the stomach attempts to perform the work of the kidney ; 
urine transudes into the stomach, and vomiting is set up. 
The vomited matter has a strong ammoniacal smell like urine. 

Treatment. — Where disease of the kidney is suspected a 
skilled and educated physician should be consulted. By an 
examination of the urine, he can ascertain whether or not a 


a 


















































G\ 




5°6 


✓ 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


sufficient amount of urea is being eliminated, whether nutri¬ 
tive constituents of the blood are being lost in the urine, and 
by the use of the microscope can tell, by the presence or ab¬ 
sence of epithelial easts, whether the urinary tubules are dis¬ 
eased or not. Do not begin taking quack patent-medicines 
before you ascertain whether or not any disease exists. If dis¬ 
ease of the kidneys is suspected, because of pain in the back, 
the chances are ten to one that no disease whatever of the 
kidneys exists. The trouble is, in nine cases out of ten, due to 
the muscles of the back, which may be affected with rheuma¬ 
tism or neuralgia, or simply strained. The writer has known 
a number of patients who supposed they were suffering from 
kidney disease because of backache, which was in reality caused 
by sleeping in an uncomfortable, sagging bed. With a new bed¬ 
spring, the backache and supposed “ Bright’s disease ” disap¬ 
peared. Certain quack patent-medicines have obtained a pop¬ 
ular reputation by the fact that many people, who never had 
any disease of the kidneys, have recovered from a backache 
while taking the medicine ; the cessation of the backache being 
in no way more dependent upon the medicine taken than upon 
the water drunk during the time. Pain in the back is not a 
symptom of kidney-disease. Swelling of the feet, dropsy of 
the face or loss of strength is most often the first symptom 
noticed by the patient, indicating that he is out of health. N ot 
unfrequently failure of sight is the first symptom observed. 
The treatment should be left to the advice of a physician. 

THE SKIN. 

The skin is a hard, firm, elastic membrane which covers 
the body and serves to protect the soft parts from injury. It 
is also an excretory organ, exhaling, as it does, a large portion 
of the fluids given off from the body, besides being the chief 
means of maintaining the animal heat at an equable point. 
The skin is composed of two layers. The deeper one is called 
the derma, or true skin, and the outer layer the epidermis 
(Greek; epi, upon, and derma, skin). The derma is composed 
of strong elastic and inelastic fibres interlaced with each other; 
between the fibres in some parts is found much adipose, or fat 
tissue. In its substance are found also the sweat glands, 
sebaceous glands, hair follicles, lymphatics and nerves. The 
epidermis has no fibres, but is composed of several layers of 
cells placed one upon another. In the deepest of these is the 
pigment or coloring matter upon which depends the com¬ 
plexion. The hair and nails are appendages of the skin, and 
are but a modified form of the epidermic cells. 

At the root of each hair is a little gland, sometimes two or 
more, called a sebaceous gland, which secretes an oily substance 
which lubricates the hair and surface of the skin. Coiled up in 
the deepest part of the true skin, or beneath it, are little tubes, 
which pass up through the entire thickness of the skin and 
open on the surface. They are called sudoriparous or sweat 
glands. 

There is a constant exhalation from the skin, generally not 
visible, when it is called inse?isible perspiration. When visible, 
it is called sensible perspiration, or sweat. The skin excretes, 
perhaps, more water than the kidneys, amounting to between 
one and two pounds daily. Other excretions are also eliminated 


by the skin, so that it becomes one of the most important organs 
of the body. 

Diseases of the Skin. 

It is beyond the scope of this article to consider the rarer dis¬ 
eases of the skin, or to more than indicate the character and 
simpler means of treatment of the more common affections. 

At one time most of the skin diseases were thought to be 
constitutional, and that the eruption was caused by attempted 
elimination of the poison. It is now known that most of the 
skin diseases are of local origin. A certain class are caused by 
vegetable parasites ; another class by animal parasites; others by 
the local effects of heat or cold, or by the irritation of mechan¬ 
ical or chemical agents ; others are in a measure dependent upon 
the general health, and others to specific poisons, which include 
syphilis and the eruptive fevers. The eruptive fevers will be 
treated under the head of fevers. 

Phthiriasis—Lousiness. 

There are three distinct forms of pediculi, or lice, which in¬ 
fest the human body: the pediculuscorporis, or body-louse; pedi- 
culus capitis, or head-louse; and the pediculus pubis, or crab 
louse. Low and filthy people may be infested with any or all 
of these forms. Cleanly and respectable people are, therefore, 
never affected by phthiriasis, or the lesions caused by these ped- 
iculi, for if they come in contact with filthy people infested 
with either variety, and should by accident get lice upon the 
body or head, the fact is soon discovered, and the body rid of 
them before sufficient time has elapsed to produce the charac¬ 
teristic lesions or wounds. The favorite seat of the body-louse 
is about the hips or shoulders. They are seldom found upon 
the body when the clothing is removed, but may be found in the 
seams of the under-garments, where they also lay their eggs. 
The head-lice, by their bites and by the excoriations caused by 
scratching, not infrequently cause an eczema of the scalp which 
sometimes eventuates in abscesses. The crab-louse may cause a 
considerable eruption over the parts of the body infested by 
it. It is a small red louse, very difficult to see. It clings very 
firmly to the roots of the hairs and to the skin by means of crab¬ 
like claws. Like the head-louse, it deposits its eggs or nits upon 
the hairs. 

Treatnietit .—In the case of phthiriasis from head lice, 
the hair of the head should first be thoroughly soaked in com¬ 
mon kerosene oil, two or three times a day, and wrapped up in 
cloth for the first twenty-four hours. This will kill both the 
lice and their nits. It is never necessary to cut the hair. At 
the end of twenty-four hours the hair should be thoroughly 
washed, and the excoriated patches may be treated with a little 
oxide of zinc ointment. When caused by body lice the treat¬ 
ment is very easy. The clothing is to be removed and thor¬ 
oughly boiled and carefully ironed, and a thorough bath 
given the body with soap and warm water. The excoriations 
readily heal. 

The crab louse is more difficult to destroy. By a thorough 
application of one of the mercurial ointments, however, the 
object may be accomplished. 




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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


Scabies—The Itch. 


Eczema—Salt Rheum. 





The Itch is quite a different disease from phthiriasis, 
although due to a parasite. It is caused by a minute insect, the 
near its scabiei, which bores into and underneath the epidermic 
layer of the skin. A good idea of its appearance under the 
microscope may be gained 
from the accompanying 
cut (Fig. 25). The female 
causes the eruption and 
itching by burrowing be¬ 
neath the epidermis to de¬ 
posit her eggs. The male 
is said never to penetrate 
the skin. The seat of the 
eruption is most frequent 
between the fingers, on the 
inside of the wrist and on 
the soles of the feet. Itch¬ 
ing may be quite severe. 

It is a contagious disease, 
and is frequently contract¬ 
ed at school, where some 
unkept child introduces it. Fig. 25 . The Acarus Scabiei, or 
The disgrace attending it Itcli Insect, 

is such that it is becoming a rather rare disease. 

Treatment .—First rub the patient all over with strong soap, 
and follow this by a hot bath, lasting an hour or more, after 
which rub him thoroughly with a sulphur ointment. The clothes 
are to be thoroughly boiled or baked. 


Tinea Trichophytina—Ringworm. 

Ringworm is caused by a vegetable parasite. It begins by 
a small red spot, which enlarges with rapidity. As it increases 
at the border it heals in the centre. The margin is red and 
raised above the healthy skin. The centre of the patch is 
scaly and of a dirty yellow color. There may be several 
patches. 

Treatment. —Red precipitate or citrine ointment well rubbed 
in will usually cure the disease. 


Acne. 


Acne is a disease of the sebaceous glands at the roots of the 
hairs. There are several varieties, all of which consist of an 
eruption upon the face. The different forms are due to differ¬ 
ent causes, but in most there is a disturbance of the general 
health, frequently attended with dyspepsia and nervous de¬ 
rangements. Avery common variety is th aacna puncta nigra , 
or little black specks over the nose and face, due to little plugs of 
sebaceous matter in the ducts of the glands, the projecting end 
becoming blackened by a collection of dust. Another vaiiety 
consists of little white specks in the region of the eyes, consist¬ 
ing of sebaceous matter beneath a very thin layer of skin. 
Other varieties consist of inflammation surrounding the gland,' 
causing hard indurated nodules as large as half a pea. 

Treatment. —The general health should lie built up. If dys¬ 
pepsia and constipation exist, remedies should be employed for 
their cure. The local treatment of the disease should be left 
to a physician. 


Eczema is, perhaps, the most common of all skin diseases. 
It occurs at all periods of life. It is non-contagious and may 
be either acute or chronic. It may make its appearance upon 
any part of the body, although it is most common upon the 
hands, feet and scalp. Eczema has been called a catarrh of 
the skin. It begins generally by itching and burning, redness 
and congestion. Vesicles or pustules may appear. There is, 
in all cases, an exudation, and crust or scales are formed. In¬ 
filtration sometimes takes place, followed by fissures or cracks. 
Itching is a prominent symptom. The most varied appearances 
present themselves in different cases, but the essential condi¬ 
tion is a moist surface upon which an exudation or scabbing 
takes place, which is attended by an unbearable itching, in 
comparison with which the itching of the itch is a most pleas¬ 
ant sensation. It appears upon the scalp and face of the 
infant, and spreads until sometimes the entire scalp and face are 
completely covered by the crust. The feet and hands of adults 
are the parts most affected. 

Treatment. —Many cases of eczema are very difficult to 
treat. In acute cases the most soothing applications are best. 
The skin must be protected from the air. Both air and water 
are very irritating in cases of eczema. The oxide of zinc oint¬ 
ment is, perhaps, as soothing and valuable a dressing as can be 
used. In chronic cases the scales must be removed, and some¬ 
times require rather severe stimulating treatment, even to scrub¬ 
bing with a brush and soap. Jf this is done, the parts must be 
immediately dried and covered by a mild and soothing applica¬ 
tion. Water is to be avoided when possible. The different 
preparations of tar are most popular in the treatment of chronic 
cases. Attention must be given to the general health. Tonics 
are always required, together with cod liver oil. Starch and 
sugar should be avoided in articles of diet, and a large amount 
of fats taken. Any measure that will promote the general 
health is in the right direction. 

Erysipelas. 

A disease characterized by fever, with a local inflammation of 
the skin. The part inflamed is very red. The boundary-line 
dividing the healthy from the diseased skin is very marked. 

Erysipelas may arise from two circumstances. It may be 
caused from a specific, contagious virus. When so arising it 
is called idiopathic erysipelas. It may be preceded by some 
wound, from which the inflammation radiates. Under this con¬ 
dition it is called traumatic erysipelas. 

At times this disease is very contagious and very fatal. The 
inflammation may extend to the tissue beneath the skin, forming 
extensive abscesses. A large amount of connective tissue morti¬ 
fies. There is a tendency for it to spread, principally on the 
surface, but it may involve internal organs, as the throat and 
the membrane covering the brain. 

This is not a local, but a constitutional disease, and the patient 
is not protected against but rather more liable to future attacks. 

A puerperal woman, coming in contact with erysipelatous 
virus, may contract some form of puerperal fever. 

Treatment. —An erysipelatous patient should be kept by him¬ 
self, especially away from wounded and puerperal patients. The 



















































5 ° 8 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 



inflamed skin may be bathed in copperas water or painted with 
the tincture of iodine. To prevent the inflammation from spread¬ 
ing, make a ring around it, upon the healthy skin, with nitrate 
of silver or collodion. Internally : tincture of iron in twenty 
drops, dose in water every two or three hours, and two grains of 


quinine every hour or two. If the inflammation has extended 
to the parts beneath the skin, and the skin is tense, incisions 
should be made to relieve the tension and evacuate the pus. 
Poultices are of great service when there is a tendency to gan¬ 
grene. 


•VTHE MUSCULAR SYSTEM.*- 


In the preceding pages we have seen how new matter, in the 
form of food from the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms, 
is being constantly introduced into the body to supply the 
waste which is constantly taking place there. 

To discover and appropriate these articles of food, to pro¬ 
vide clothing necessary to sustain the temperature of the body, 
and to secure shelter, it is necessary that man be provided with 
power of locomotion , as well as power of movement of one part 
of the body upon another , as the arms upon the trunk and the 
fingers upon the hands. 

This power of motion and locomotion is resident in certain 
organs, the lean meat of the body, called muscles. Muscles 
are of two kinds, voluntary and involuntary. The voluntary 
muscles are those which contract in response to the will, such 









Fig. 26. 

A, a muscular fibre breaking up into its fibrillae; C, a muscular fibre 
breaking up into disks; D, a muscular fibre with contractile substance 
torn, and the sarcolemma still intact. 


Fig. 27. Muscles of tlie Arm. 

P, the power; F, the fulcrum; IV, the weight. 

This power is called tnusaclar contractity, and when, in virtue 
of this power, a muscular fibre contracts, it tends to bring its 
ends together with whatever may be fastened to them. 

The great majority of the muscles are attached to levers, 
which are the bones of the body. Figure 27 will illustrate the 
different kinds of levers described in mechanics, and sufficiently 
explain the movements of the different levers of the body upon 
each other. 


as the muscles of the face, arms and legs. The involuntary 
muscles are those whose contraction does not depend upon 
our wishes, such as the heart, which goes on contracting month 
after month, and year after year, sleeping or waking, never 
stopping while we live. It is estimated that during a life of 
eighty years it propels half a million tons of blood! Every 
muscle is a bundle of tens of thousands of fibres. These fibres 
are from to ysViT °f an inch in thickness, and are made 
up of hundreds of fibrillae only 25 - o 0() of an inch in diameter. 
The substance of these fibrillae presents a peculiar striated 
appearance, due to the fact that they are made up of elongated 
bead-like nuclei. 

Every fibre has the power, under certain conditions, of shorten¬ 
ing its length, while it at the same time increases its thickness. 

































































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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


5°9 


-fcTHE BONES.*- 


To give form and symmetry to the body, as well as to afford 
attachment and leverage to the muscles, by which locomotion is 
made possible, an essentially different tissue from any yet con¬ 
sidered is necessary. This tissue must be hard, strong and un¬ 
yielding, and so disposed as to form a frame-work for the sup¬ 
port of the soft parts. 

Such a frame-work we find in the skeleton, which is made up 
of bones of various sizes and shapes, and known as long, short, 
flat and irregular bones, and so disposed as to perfectly 
fulfil the offices for which they are intended. Some of the 
bones are designed principally for the protection of soft and 
delicate parts. Such are the bones of the cranium, which are 
immovably dovetailed together so as to form a strong box for 
the enclosure and protection of the brain. 

Some not only afford protection to delicate organs and aid in 
preserving form and symmetry, but at the same time afford at¬ 
tachment for muscles, and thus aid in movements essential to 
life. Thus the ribs afford protection to the heart and lungs, 
maintain the form and symmetry of the chest, and afford attach¬ 
ment for the respiratory muscles. 

The long bones are found in the limbs, where they form a 
system of levers, which, in the lower extremities, have to sus¬ 
tain the weight of the trunk, and, besides, confer the power of 
locomotion. In the upper extremities (Fig. 27) they are essen¬ 
tial to those movements necessary in all manual labor. 

The short and irregular bones are found where great 
strength and solidity are required. They are shaped also for the 
attachment of numerous muscles and for protection of certain 
delicate organs. 



Ji G f 

Fig. 28. A Perfectly Shaped Foot. 

Bone tissue is the hardest structure of the animal body, and 
at the same time possesses a certain degree of toughness and 
elasticity. Kvery bone, be it long or short , is composed of 
what is called fundamental substance. It is a peculiar 
organic animal substance, called ostme, in combination with 
various inorganic salts, of which the phosphate and carbonate 


of lime largely predominate. To the organic substance are due 
its toughness and elasticity, while to the inorganic salts must be 
credited its hardness and solidity. 

If a bone be soaked in dilute hydrochloric acid for a time, 
its mineral constituents will be removed and the organic sub¬ 
stance will remain in the shape of the 
original bone. This is no longer hard 
and unyielding, but is soft, pliable and 
elastic; and, if a long bone, it may be 
tied in a knot, as shown in Fig. 29. 

If, on the other hand, the bone be 
burned for a short time in an open fire, 
the organic substance is consumed, and 
the mineral constituents remain, in 
which case the bone remains hard and 
in its original shape, but has lost its 
elasticity. It is now very brittle and 
easily broken. 

The point of union between two 
bones is called a joint. Here the sur¬ 
faces are coated with smooth cartilage 
and covered with a delicate membrane 
which secretes a peculiar fluid for lubri¬ 
cating the articular surfaces. 

DISEASES OF THE BONES. 

In children and young people the or- A Bone with 

, , , , the Inorganic Salts Re- 

game substance of the bones preponder- moved> Tie(l in a Knot . 

ates. The bones are, therefore, elastic 

and very difficult to break, but are soft, and easily bent and 
deformed. Bow-legs may be caused by requiring a child to 
sustain the weight of its body upon its legs too early. 

In old people the inorganic constituents of the bones 
preponderate, and therefore their bones are very brittle and 
easily broken. With them, great care against falling should be 
observed. 

Rickets. 

There is a disease of early childhood known as rickets, in 
which the mineral constituents of the bones are not deposited in 
normal quantity, and, as a result, the bones become very soft; 
and, by action of the muscles, they are bent into all sorts of 
deformed shapes. Thus result bow-legs, knock-knees, pigeon- 
breasts and deformities of spine and pelvis. Enlargement of the 
joints takes place ; the head grows too fast and the face too slow. 

The disease is usually caused by poor food and damp, 
unhealthy apartments. The little patient seldom dies, but gen¬ 
erally becomes more or less deformed. 

Treatment. —Correct diet, plenty of good, pure milk, suf¬ 
ficient animal food, and an abundance of fresh air. Give the 



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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


7f 




child cold sponge baths of short duration, and rub briskly with 
a towel. The child must be kept off its feet and required to 
sleep on a mattress. The limbs may require splints. 

Deformities from Clothing. 

Silly young girls—and most young girls are silly in matters of 
dress—deform their bodies for life by wearing corsets laced so as 
to compress the lungs and heart, and force downward the ab¬ 
dominal organs into unnatural positions, when, by the compres¬ 
sion of the blood vessels, the organs of the abdomen and pelvis 
become congested, and conditions are developed from which 
they can never recover. The great regret is that so many of 
them remain silly, and that even mothers may be found as silly 
as the girls. Corsets which are used to destroy the vital organs 
of our girls are capable of doing vastly more harm than the 
little iron shoes which are used to destroy the feet of Chinese 
ladies, because of the greater importance of the organs involved. 
A young American girl would have no difficulty in seeing that 
the compressed and deformed baby foot of a Chinese lady is not 


handsome, but it is really too bad that she cannot be made to 
see that her permanently deformed body, with her ribs all 
crushed in upon her vital organs, is not beautiful. 

Deformed Feet. 

But deformed feet are not alone found in China. American 
young men and young women will often wear shoes one or two 
sizes too short and with narrow toes, which pile the toes of the 
foot one on the top of another until the most terrible perma¬ 
nent deformities exist, and which, with corns and enlarged 
joints, cause the ugly shapes which we see in men and women. 
Besides the deformity and the excessive pain, the young lady or 
gentleman is unable to walk or dance, except in a hopping, 
most awkward way. The motive for this species of self- 
imposed torture is to be handsome and admired, but they 
defeat their purpose in making for themselves ugly, deformed 
feet, and substitute an awkward and stumbling gait for a grace 
and beauty of movement possible only with a well-shaped and 
unbound foot. 


-#>THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.**- 


The parts and functions of the body which we have thus far 
considered stand in subordination to the wonderful system now 
to be examined. “It may truly be said,” are the words of 
Draper, “ that the position of any animal in the scale of life is 
directly dependent on the degree of development of its ner¬ 
vous system. Through this it is brought into relation with the 
external world, deriving sensations or impressions therefrom. 
Through this, also, all voluntary muscular contractions or 
movements take place. ” 

Whatever the grade of intelligence may be, the degree of 
development or expansion of the nervous system is in close cor¬ 
respondence thereto, from the lowest conditions in which it is 
first making its appearance, in forms of animal life which are 
scarcely distinguishable from vegetable forms, up to its highest 
elaboration in the cerebro-spinal system of man. 

The nervous system may be considered as of two portions, 
the cerebro-sfinal system and the sympathetic system. The 
cerebro-spinal system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, 
and the nerves which proceed from them, together with their 
ganglia. The sympathetic system consists of a series of ner¬ 
vous ganglia placed on the posterior wall of the thoracic and 
abdominal cavities upon each side of the vertebral column, and 
of nervous threads or filaments which connect these together, 
and supply the walls of the blood-vessels and the internal 
organs. Comparatively little is known about the functions of 
the sympathetic system, except in so far as it may regulate the 
size of the blood-vessels; and, indeed, this action appears to 
depend upon the filaments received from the spinal nerves. 

In both divisions are found two kinds of structure—fibrous 
and cellular. The latter are found in masses of greater or less 
size and of various shapes, and are called ganglia. The former, 
consisting of fibre, serve to connect the ganglia together and 



to put them in communication with the integument, the mus¬ 
cles and all parts of the body. The function of the ganglia or 
nerve centres is for the reception of impressions and for the 
origination of motions. The cortex of the brain is the great¬ 
est of these ganglia in extent and in function. In this won¬ 
derful ganglion originates voluntary motion ; here also are 
received, through the special senses, the impressions of exter¬ 
nal objects and circumstances, and from it originate the pro¬ 
cesses of intellection. 

It would be beyond the scope and purposes of this article to 
recite the more minute anatomy of the nervous system, for to 
be of service to the reader it would necessitate space for explan¬ 
ation and illustration beyond the compass of the entire article. 
It will be sufficient to indicate the position and character of 
the larger organs which go to make it up. 

The brain is that part of the nervous system contained within 
the cavity of the skull (Fig. 30). It consists of the cerebrum, 
cerebellum, pons varolii and medulla oblongata. Besides the 
protection afforded this delicate organ by the strong bony 
walls of the skull, the brain is enveloped by three distinct 
membranes. The outer one, called the dura mater , is thick 
and strong, and lines the bones of the skull. It dips down 
between the different parts of the brain, forming strong parti¬ 
tions, so that one part shall not press upon and injure another. 
Next beneath are two layers of a thin membrane called the 
arachnoid , or spider's web. This is a serous membrane, with 
functions like that covering the heart and lungs ; it is covered 
with epithelium, and secretes a fluid, small in amount, which 
lubricates and serves in a measure, perhaps, as a kind of 
cushion to protect the brain from jars received by the body. 
Beneath this is a very delicate membrane, composed principally 
of minute blood-vessels. It is closely adherent to the substance 


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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 



of the brain, dipping down into all the sulci, and even finding 
its way through the posterior fissures into the ventricles or 
cavities occupying the centre of the brain. Its use is to nourish 
the brain. 

The cerebrum ( C C ) represents the principal mass of the 
brain. It is divided by a deep fissure, from before backward, 
into two lateral halves, called the right and left hemispheres. 
The two hemispheres are connected together at the bottom of 
the fissure by a large bundle of white fibres, called the corpus 
callosum. In the centre of each hemisphere is a large cavity 
called the right and left lateral ventricles. The surface of 
the cerebrum is composed of cellular gray matter and presents 
a convoluted appearance, as shown in Figure 30. This gray 
cellular matter of the surface of the cerebrum is the anatomical 
substratum of the intellect. In 
that part of the surface of the 
hemisphere mid-way between 
the forehead and the back part 
of the head originates volun¬ 
tary motion. One special func¬ 
tion of the part just back of 
this seems to be the reception 
of impressions of external ob¬ 
jects, brought hither by the 
nerves of special sense. The 
forward part of the hemi¬ 
spheres appears to be wholly 
for the purposes of intellec¬ 
tion. By reference to Figure 
30 the reader will observe a 
sharp point of bone in contact 
with the brain just back of and 
a litde above the eye. From 
it extending upward and back¬ 
ward is a deep fissure, the fis¬ 
sure of Sylvius. Toward the 
front part of this fissure, and 
just above it, is a small convo¬ 
lution of gray substance called 
the third frontal convolution. 

The back portion of this con¬ 
volution on the left side of the 
brain is the anatomical substra¬ 
tum of the faculty of speech. 

When this part is destroyed all language is lost. Language, 
moreover, is never lost except by disease of this part. 

The interior of the hemispheres is composed of white matter 
which consists of fibres connecting together different parts of 
the brain, and of fibres passing down into the spinal cord. The 
fibres are probably connected with the cells on the surface of 
the hemispheres, and after being gathered into a bundle pass 
down to other ganglia, there to be put in communication with 
the skin, muscles and viscera of the body. There are certain 
collections of gray matter at the base of the hemispheres, called 
the basal ganglia. Fibres from these ganglia unite with the 
fibres from the convolutions in two triangular-shaped bundles, 
the crura cerebri , one from each hemisphere, and pass down¬ 


Fig. 30. The Human Brain. 

C, C, cerebrum; cb., cerebellum; m. ob., medulla oblongata. 


ward through the pons varolii into the medulla oblongata (m. 
ob. ), as the oblong body at the top of the spinal cord is called. 

The cerebellum or little brain (cb. ) is situated beneath the 
posterior lobes of the cerebrum. It measures about three and 
a half by two and a half inches, and is about two inches thick 
in its thickest place. It weighs about five ounces, being only 
about one-eighth as large as the cerebrum. It is composed of 
gray and white matter, and, like the cerebrum, is divided into 
two lobes. Its functions are not well understood, but are, 
at least, related to the co-ordination of movements. 

The pons varolii is a bond of union or bridge between the 
cerebrum above, the cerebellum behind, and the medulla oblon¬ 
gata below—being made up of fibres from these bodies and 
passing in different directions from one to another. 

The medulla oblongata is 
the upper enlarged part of the 
spinal cord. It lies within the 
cranial cavity, and is connected 
with other parts of the brain 
by bundles of fibres passing up¬ 
ward through the pons varolii. 
It is composed of gray and 
white matter, but, unlike the 
cerebrum, the white matter oc¬ 
cupies the surface, while the 
masses of gray matter are in 
the interior. From the me¬ 
dulla are given off all of the 
cranial nerves except two pairs, 
the olfactory, or nerves of 
smell, and the optic, or nerves 
of sight. These two pairs take 
their apparent origin at the 
base of the cerebrum. 

The spinal cord is the contin¬ 
uation of the nervous matter 
from the medulla down through 
the spinal canal. Were it not 
for the gray matter in its inte¬ 
rior, which is a real ganglionic 
centre, it might be considered 
a great nerve trunk from which 
all the other nerves are but 
branches. The spinal cord, like 


the cerebrum, is divided into two lateral halves by a deep fissure 
in front and behind. The two halves are connected together in 
the centre, throughout the length of the cord. The surface of 
the cord, like the medulla oblongata, is composed of white mat¬ 
ter. In the interior of each half is a crescentric-shaped collec- 
sion of gray matter which extends throughout the length of the 
cord. The forward horn of the gray crescent is broader than 
the posterior horn, and contains some very large nerve-cells. 
These horns are called the anterior and posterior cornua. 
The centre of the crescent to which they belong is connected 
with the gray crescent of the opposite side by a band of gray 
matter. The white matter of the cord is made up of fibres 
which connect the gray matter of the brain with the gray matter 














































512 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


of the cord and with the ganglia on the roots of the spinal 
nerves. 

There are thirty-one pairs of nerves given off from the cord, 
one pair passing out at each vertebral arch enclosing the 
spinal canal. 

Each nerve arises from the cord by two roots, the anterior 
and posterior roots, which then unite to form a single trunk or 
spinal nerve. 

If the trunk of a spinal nerve be irritated as by pinching, 
two things happen : in the first place, all the muscles to which 
its filaments are distributed contract; in the second place, 
acute pain is felt, and the pain is referred to that part of the 
skin to which the fibres of the nerve are distributed. 

If the anterior root of the nerve be irritated in the same way, 
all of the muscles to which the nerve is distributed will contract, 
but no pain will be felt. 

So, if the posterior root of the nerve be irritated in the same 
way, and the anterior root be left untouched, acute pain will be 
felt and referred to the whole area of the skin to which the 
nerve is distributed, but none of the muscles contract. 

It is, therefore, clear that all the power for causing muscular 
contraction which a spinal nerve possesses is centered in the 
fibres which comprise its anterior roots, while all the power of 
giving rise to sensation resides in its posterior roots. The 
anterior roots, therefore, are commonly called motor , and the 
posterior roots are called sensory. 

If the anterior roots of a spinal nerve be divided in a living 
animal, it is unable to move or contract the muscles to which 
the nerve is distributed, but every part of the skin remains sen¬ 
sitive to touch. But if the anterior root be left uninjured and 
the posterior root be divided, the animal will be able to move 
or contract all the muscles, but is unable to feel anything over 
any part of the skin to which the filaments are distributed. 

By these experiments, then, it is clear that the anterior roots 
are composed of fibres which convey impulses from the gang¬ 
lionic centres in the brain or cord to the muscles, causing the 
muscles to contract. It is also plain that the posterior roots 
are composed of fibres which carry impressions fro?n the surface 
where they originate to the centres in the brain and cord. 

Those nerves which carry impulses from the central organ 
to the periphery are called efferent nerves, while those which 
convey impressions from the outside to the central organ are 
called afferent nerves. 

If similar experiments be performed upon the spinal cord, it 
will be found to act in many respects similar. If the cord be 
divided in the back, the animal will be unable to move the hind 
legs, and this part of the body will be insensible to pain, while 
all the parts forward of the cut will retain all the powers of 
motion and sensation. 

If, by an accident, a man should suffer a similar injury, all of 
the parts below the wound would be paralyzed. The patient 
would be unable by his own will-power to move his legs; neither 
would he have any sensation in the parts. If he should be 
blindfolded, and the soles of his feet be tickled with a feather, he 
may jerk up his legs in the most violent manner, still he will not 
only know nothing of the tickling, but will have no knowledge 
of the jerking of his legs, for the reason that all impressions 
made upon his lower extremities are cut off from his brain, 


which is the anatomical basis of his mind. He can make no 
intentional or voluntary movement of his legs for the same 
reason ; his brain is cut off from the muscles of his legs at the 
point where the cord is cut in two. The movement in response to 
the tickling of the feather is very easily explained. The impres¬ 
sion from the sole of the foot passes up by the sensory fibres 
to the gray matter of the cord, which, acting as a centre, origin¬ 
ates there an impulse or stimulus, which, passing out over the 
motor filaments to the muscles, causes them to contract, thus 
giving the-violent jerk to the legs. 

The above is but an illustration showing that many of our 
common movements, such as walking, or any habitual and oft- 
repeated movement, may be executed without requiring the 
attention of the mind ; some of the basal ganglia of the brain 
acting as a centre, and originating the motor impulses. 

If not the whole cord, but only the anterior part, be injured, 
a paralysis of motion below the injury results, while sensation 
will remain perfect. If the posterior part be injured, on the 
other hand, sensation is lost while motion is unaffected. 

If one lateral half of the spinal cord be divided, say on the 
right side of the body, the patient will immediately lose all 
power in the right leg, but sensation in the right leg will be 
perfect. He will, however, lose all feeling in the left leg, 
while the power of motion in this leg remains good. Hence, 
it must be true that the sensory fibres cross over from the 
side where they enter to the opposite side of the cord to pass 
up to the brain, while the motor impulses sent down from the 
brain must pass down on the same side of the cord by which 
they pass out to the muscles. 


Kg’. 31. Mode of Termination of Motor Nerves. 

A, primitive fasciculusof a muscleof the human subject; 2, nerve tube; 
3, medullary substance of nerve tube; 4, terminal plate situated beneath 
the sarcolemma. 

If this be true, it follows that a longitudinal division down 
the centre of the cord throughout its entire length would 
destroy sensation on both sides of the body, without interfering 
at all with motion. 

If, however, the longitudinal incision be carried up through 
the lower part of the medulla, paralysis of motion on both 
sides immediately results, for at this point all of the motor 
fibres from the right side of the brain cross over to the left side 
of the cord, while those from the left side of the brain cross 
over to the right side of the cord. 















































































































HYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


5*3 


Nerve Endings. —The motor fibres of the spinal nerves 
originate in the atiterior cornua of gray matter in the cord, and 
are believed to be intimately connected there with certain 
nerve cells, which are capable of originating motor stimulus. 
The distal end of the motor fibre passes through the sarcolemma 
of each muscular fibre and is brought into the closest relation 
with the muscular substance, as shown in Figure 31. 

The sense of touch is possessed by all parts of the body, 
some parts more perfect than others. Wherever the sense of 
touch is delicate, the deep layer of the skin is raised up into 
little conical papilla. Into these papillae the terminal ends 
of the sensory nerve fibre enters. In certain localities, as the 
tips of the fingers, where the tactile sense is very acute, the 



Fig. 33. Taste-Buds From the Rabbit. 

nerve ending is enlarged in the papillae, forming a little oval 
swelling called a tactile corpuscle. Filaments of the nerve of 
taste terminate in a similar manner in papillae upon the tongue. 
Surrounding these papillae are peculiar cells, or taste-l>uds, in 
which is supposed to reside the sense of taste, h igure 32 
shows these taste-buds in the rabbit. 



Fig. 33. Olfactory Ganglion and Nerves. 

The endings of the filaments of the olfactory nerve, or the 
special nerve of smell , upon the delicate mucous membrane in 
the upper part of the nasal cavity, is beautifully shown in fig¬ 
ure 33. The termination of the auditory and optic nerves is 
explained in the chapter upon the special senses of sight and 
hearing. 


DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

The diseases of the nervous system, as might be expected 
from its delicate anatomy and complicated functions, take a 
wide range, from the slightest twinge of pain in a minute nerve 
filament to total paralysis or hopeless insanity. 

In all the graver manifestations of nervous disease, the advice 
of a physician skilled in the treatment of disease is naturally 
sought ; this will render discussion of the more serious affec¬ 
tions unnecessary. No class of diseases are more serious than 
those of the nervous system, and while it may be true that 
there is less tendency to a spontaneous recovery than any other 
class of diseases, yet it is also true that no class of diseases are 
more favorably influenced by proper treatment. 

The chief symptoms of nervous disease are usually manifested 
either by pain , convulsions , paralysis , trembling , sleeplessness , 
imbecility or insanity. Two or more of these conditions may 
exist in the same patient. Pain is a symptom common to 
many diseases. The disease in which it constitutes the only 
symptom is 

Neuralgia. 

Pain may have its seat along the course of any nerve. It re¬ 
ceives different names corresponding to the seat of pain. Thus 
we hear of facial neuralgia, inter-costal neuralgia, occipital 
neuralgia, sciatica , or neuralgia of the sciatic nerve, gastralgia, 
or neuralgia of the stomach, etc., etc. 

The pain of neuralgia varies in different cases and at differ¬ 
ent times from a slight, dull ache to the most excruciating tor¬ 
ture. The nerve which is the seat of the pain, in many instances 
at least, is in a state of inflammation. It is usually tender, 
as shown by examination, at points where pressure can be made 
upon the nerve, and following an attack there is usually a 
certain soreness and tenderness over the seat of the pain. 

Treatment. —It is impossible in this article to give the space 
which the subject demands. The treatment embraces a large 
number of remedies and many methods of procedure. That 
which has affected a permanent cure in one case may have no 
effect in another. In some cases the pain is so persistent as to 
tax the physician to the utmost, who finds a remedy after hav¬ 
ing almost exhausted the pharmacopoeia. 

Some form of opium will always afford temporary relief if 
taken in sufficient doses, and it is one of the most valuable cura¬ 
tive remedies in many cases. The patient is apt to be in poor 
flesh. In such a case, if a permanent cure is to be anticipated, 
the general health must be improved, and the body weight 
greatly increased. A method has, of late years, been very suc¬ 
cessfully employed in sanitariums, where the patient is required 
to take the necessary amount of rest in bed, to take a large 
amount of the most nourishing food, at intervals of only a 
few hours, and accompanied with baths, massage and suitable 
tonic treatment. By this means the body weight is greatly 
increased, the general health built up, and this is almost always 
followed by entire and permanent relief from pain. 

Convulsions. 

The term convulsion may be applied to an acute spasmodic 
contraction of the whole muscular system, as in infantile con¬ 
vulsions, or to an occasional paroxysm, as in an epileptic fit , or 
to the constant irregular contraction of certain muscles, as in 
chorea or Saint Vitus’ dance. 

























































J 



PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


Treatment. —In the case of infantile convulsions the child 
may be placed in a tub of warm water, and cold water may be 
poured upon its head. After the first paroxysm is over, the 
cause of the convulsion should be sought out. If due to denti¬ 
tion, or “ cutting teeth,” or to worms in the bowels, the proper 
remedy for such conditions should be applied. Paregoric or 
bromide of potassium will quiet the system. 

In case of ehorea the general health must receive attention. 
Quinine and iron will be found to be most valuable tonics. 
Malt or cod-liver oil is called for. A solution of arsenic, 
given in large doses, is perhaps the most valuable of all medi¬ 
cinal substances in this dis¬ 


ease, but should be given 
only under the observation 
of a physician. 

Epilepsy. 

Epilepsy, or “fits,” 
needs no description here, 
since there is no difficulty 
in recognizing the disease 
when it exists. If all cases 
of epilepsy could receive 
proper and thorough treat¬ 
ment from the beginning, 

I believe that in the ma¬ 
jority of cases it could be 
cured, but frequently no 
physician is consulted until 
after a large number of 
paroxysms have fi n al 1 y 
aroused the friends to the 
danger. Even when ad¬ 
vice is sought, treatment 
is seldom thorough or car¬ 
ried on for a sufficient 
length of time. In few 
cases should treatment be 
left off before the end of, 
at least, two years. 

The treatment of benefit 
in the greatest number of 
cases is the bromide of 
potassium or sodium, to¬ 
gether with tonic treat¬ 
ment and a generous diet, sleep, rest and quiet. The bro¬ 
mide of sodium affects the stomach less, and, therefore, in 
most cases is to have the preference. It should be taken, 
according to the age of the patient, in doses of from two to 
ten grains, in a wine-glass of water, three times a day after 
meals. 

Paralysis. 

Paralysis may occur at any age, and is due to many causes. 
It may vary in extent from a single muscle, or group of muscles, 
to a loss of power over almost the entire body. 

Paralysis may result from an injury to a nerve, in which case 
only the muscles supplied by that particular nerve are affected. 
It may result from an injury to or a disease of the spinal cord. 


In such a case the paralysis may be found on one or both sides 
of the body, or in only a single group of muscles, according to 
the seat and extent of the injury. But in every case the par¬ 
alysis is always below the point of disease or injury of the cord. 
It may result from injury or disease of the brain, in which case 
the paralysis usually affects one entire side of the body, when it 
is called hemaplegia. When the disease or injury is upon the 
right side of the brain, the left leg and left arm are paralyzed ; 
and when the disease is upon the left side of the brain, the par¬ 
alysis is upon the right side of the body. This is explained by 
the fact that the motor fibres arising from one side of the brain 

cross over in the 7 tiedulla 
to the opposite side of the 
body. 

Infantile paralysis oc¬ 
curs usually in children be¬ 
tween one and four years 
of age. The child may 
be fretful and troublesome 
for a day or two previous, 
but frequently the first 
symptom noticed is the 
paralysis. This may oc¬ 
cur in the leg or arm on 
the same side, or the leg 
on one side and the arm 
on the other, or both legs 
may be paralyzed and the 
arms not affected, or both 
arms may be paralyzed and 
the legs remain well; or 
only one leg or one aim 
may be the seat of the 
paralysis. The paralysis 
is due to an inflammation 
of the anterior cornu of 
the gray matter of the 
spinal cord, and the extent 
of the paralysis will de¬ 
pend upon the extent of' 
the inflammation. The 
child will probably not 
die. Some of the paralyzed 
muscles will regain their 
power. Others never will, but will waste away. The child 
will grow up more or less of a cripple. The treatment should 
be left to a physician. 

In paralysis of the extensor muscles of the hand , due to 
lead-poisoning, recovery will take place under proper treat¬ 
ment. Remove the cause. If the patient be a printer or 
worker in lead, a change of occupation will be necessary. 
Iodide of potassium may be taken in ten-grain doses three 
times a day after meals in half a glass of water. 

Hemaplegia , or paralysis of one side of the body due to 
injury or disease of the brain, may be caused by embolism or 
thrombosis (plugging of a blood vessel), thus cutting off nutri¬ 
tion from a portion of the brain, or may be caused by a hemor- 


Fifj. 34. Superficial Branches of the Facial and the Fifth Nerves. 

Trunk of the seventh or facial nerve; 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, branches 

of the fifth nerve. 


O 


































































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


5*5 


71 


rhage into the substance of the brain or-upon its surface, and 
thus, by tearing the nerve fibres, or by pressure, the function of 
the organ is destroyed ; or paralysis may result from a tumor 
or an abscess in the brain, or from other causes. The results as 
regards the question of recovery from the paralysis will depend 
upon the exact seat and extent of the injury. The treatment 
should be left to the advice of a physician. 

There are a great number of diseases which manifest strange 
symptoms, affecting both the motor and sensory nerves, but 
which would require the attention of a physician, and which 
would take up too much space to treat here. 

Insomnia. 

Insomnia , or sleeplessness, is a symptom common to many 
nervous diseases, and one which requires prompt attention, as 
without sleep little good can be accomplished in other directions 
by treatment. The treatment must depend very much upon the 
age, occupation and other circumstances of the patient. If in 
a child, out-door play at games requiring exercise sufficient to 
produce fatigue should be encouraged. 

In men and women worried by business or domestic cares, 
disappointments or anxieties, the case is much more serious. 
If possible, they should, for a time, leave home and business, 
when they will often leave their worries, also, behind them. 
Mental labor should be abandoned entirely, and physical labor 
or sports requiring little thought, of a kind most comform- 
ableto the tastes of the patient, and affording the most pleasant 
diversion, should be chosen and followed to the point of 
fatigue. A generous diet of the most nutritious food should be 
taken, and a comfortable spring-bed, in a well-ventilated, cheer¬ 
ful room, should be provided. One of the bromides, with tonics, 
may be prescribed, together with meat and milk. In severe 
cases the hydrate of chloral, in from fifteen to thirty-grain 
doses, may be given at bed-time. 

Insanity. 

Insanity, the most dreaded of all the nervous diseases, is a 
mental symptom dependent upon a disease of the brain. It is 


commonly classified according to the character of the delusions 
and conduct of the patient. Thus we have mania , melan¬ 
cholia and dementia. This classification is further divided 
into the acute and chronic of each class. 

The cause of the disease is more often hereditary than other¬ 
wise. Aside from hereditary taint, general poor physical 
health, nervous prostration, anxiety and worry will rank next 
as causes of attack. Where a predisposition exists, the most 
trivial disorders and circumstances, which, in other persons, 
would be unfelt, may act, in these individuals, as exciting causes. 
Child-birth, typhoid fever, business failures, disappointment in 
love, religious or other excitement, and a hundred other things, 
may act as an exciting cause in a person of an unstable nervous 
system. 

In the beginning of an attack there is usually lack of appe¬ 
tite, loss of weight, sleeplessness, constipation. If these 
symptoms were promptly relieved many cases of insanity might 
be averted. 

Treatment .— After the disease is fully developed, if melan¬ 
choly delusions are present, the greatest care and watchfulness 
should be observed to guard against suicide or self-injury. In 
case of violent mania, care is to be taken that no injury is done 
to others. 

Prompt attention should be given to secure a movement of 
the bowels, to induce the patient to take a suitable amount of 
food, and to secure not less than eight hours’ sleep during the 
twenty-four. If this cannot be secured at home, the patient 
should be sent to an institution where he can have the proper 
care, without a day’s delay. The choice of an institution will 
depend upon the circumstances of the patient; if possible, an 
institution should be chosen where there are not too many 
patients, where individual care is certain to be given by physi¬ 
cians skilled in the treatment of such cases. If the patient is 
poor, he will have to be sent to a State institution, in which 
case avoid, if possible, a crowded ward. With the best treat¬ 
ment, from forty to fifty per cent of patients recover. 


-jAjT ■ 


5* THE EYE.*§ 


Anatomy. 

The eyeballs and nearly all of their accessory parts are 
securely contained in two bony cavities called the orbits. These 
are shaped like four-sided pyramids, with their bases pointing 
forward and outward, and their apices backward and inward. 
They are about if inches deep, and their axes are inclined to 
each other at an angle of 42 degrees to 43 degrees. Each orbit 
has a roof, floor, inner and outer wall. The roof is very thin 
and separates the orbital from the cranial cavity. At its outer 
angle there is a depression for the lachrymal or tear gland, and 
another at its inner angle for the pulley of the superior oblique 
muscle. The inner wall has in front the lachrymal groove for 
lachrymal sac. The base or facial opening of the orbit has a 


strong, bony edge, and is about in. wide, and 1 '/^ in. high. 
The apex is formed l>y the optic foramen and canal, which con¬ 
nects the orbit with the interior of the skull, and through which 
the optic nerve passes. 

The orbits are lined by a vascular membrane, which nourishes 
the bony walls, and which is continuous at fissures and sutures 
with the periosteum of facial bones, and dura mater within the 
skull. It also forms a tendinous ring around optic foramen, 
giving origin to the ocular muscles. 

Upon this membrane, or periorbita, and filling the space not 
occupied by the eyeball and its appendages, is found connective 
tissue and loose fat, which serve as a support to the globe and 
facilitate the various movements of which it is capable. The 















































\ 


516 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


connective tissue is thickened in places, forming sheaths for the 
muscles, vessels and nerves, and fascia for connecting the parts 
within the orbit with one another, and with the periorbita. 

The optic nerves originate at the base of the brain, in the 
thalami optici and corpora quadrigemina, and receive filaments 
from other portions of the brain and spinal cord. From their 
origin they run forward as optic tracts until they unite just pos¬ 
terior to the optic foramina and form the optic chiasm , in which 
they decussate. The fibres of the inner side of each tract cross 
over to inner side of opposite nerve and supply the inner half of 
the retina on that side. The outer fibres of each tract pass 
directly, without crossing, to outer half of nerve and retina of 
same side. The optic nerves proper begin at the outer anterior 
edge of chiasm, and, rapidly diverging as they leave the cranial 
cavity, pass through the orbits to the eyeballs, which they enter 
about two lines within and half a line below the posterior pole. 

The eyeball is situated in the anterior part of the orbit a lit¬ 
tle to the outer side of its axis, and about equi-distant from the 



sory ligament and canal of Petit; 12, vitreous. 

upper and lower walls. It is maintained in position by the 
optic nerve behind and the lids in front, and is further sup¬ 
ported behind and on the sides by a cushion of fat. It is 
nearly spherical in form, but a side view shows it to be com¬ 
posed of segments of two spheres of different diameters. The 
anterior segment, which forms the transparent cornea, has the 
shorter diameter and is therefore more prominent than the pos¬ 
terior or scleral portion. The eye is longer from before back¬ 
ward than transversely, and is shortest vertically. The ante¬ 
rior pole is the geometrical centre of the cornea, and the pos¬ 
terior pole is the geometrical centre of the bottom of the eye. 
The axis is an imaginary straight line extending from pole to 
pole. The equatorial plane is an imaginary plane through the 
centre of the globe perpendicular to the axis. The equator is 


the line where the equatorial plane cuts the surface of the eye¬ 
ball. Meridianal planes are imaginary planes coinciding with 
the axis. Meridians are lines where meridianal planes cut the 
surface. 

The eyeball has three investing membranes or coats which 
maintain its shape and enclose three transparent humors. The 
outer coat embraces the cornea and sclera, the middle coat the 
choroid, ciliary body and iris, and the inner coat is the retina. 
The humors are the aqueous, crystalline and vitreous. 

The greater part (five-sixths) of the outer coat, commonly 
known as the “white of the eye,” is called the sclera (from 
Gr. skleros , hard). It is very firm and elastic, nearly one-half 
a line in thickness behind, where it is re-enforced by the sheath 
of optic nerve, and gradually becomes thinner toward the 
anterior border, where it is only one-fifth of a line thick. 
The sclera is continuous in front with the cornea, being 
joined to the latter by bevelled edges, the outer overlapping the 
cornea more than the inner edge. The opening in the sclera 
behind, for the passage of the optic nerve fibres, is par¬ 
tially closed by a few fibres from the sclera, which are 
joined by the sheaths of the nerve fibres, and together 
form a sieve-like membrane called the latnina cribrosa. 
Near the inner anterior edge of the sclera is a circular 
channel called Schlemm's canal. It encloses venous 
plexus, receives veins from sclera and ciliary plexus, and 
communicates with the anterior chamber and anterior 
ciliary veins. 

The cornea (Latin, cornu , horn) forms the anterior 
one-sixth of the outer coat and is also very dense and 
elastic. It fits into the sclera very much as a watch 
crystal does into a watch. It is made up of five layers, 
viz.: the outer and the inner epithelial layers, the outer 
and inner elastic membranes, and the corneal substance 
proper. The latter embraces the bulk of the cornea, as 
the epithelial and elastic layers are very thin. The cor¬ 
neal substance is composed of elastic fibres, which are 
arranged into bundles, and these again into layers, 
whose general direction is parallel to the corneal surface. 
The spaces between the fibres, bundles and layers is filled 
by a cement-like substance, in which is a system of 
canals and spaces containing serous fluid, lymph cells 
and corneal corpuscles. The cornea, unlike the other 
coats of the eye, has no blood-vessels, except at its edge, 
where a very narrow zone of capillary loops is found. 
It is sustained through the circulation of serum in the lymph 
channels. Nerves are freely distributed throughout, chiefly 
near the anterior surface in epithelial and elastic layers. 

That portion of the middle coat which lines the inner sur¬ 
face of the sclera is called the choroid behind, and the ciliary 
body in front. The choroid extends from the optic nerve 
entrance to a line just anterior to the equator. The ciliary 
body extends from the anterior termination of the choroid to 
that of the sclera, where it joins the iris, with which it is con¬ 
tinuous. The iris hangs like a curtain from the anterior edge 
of the ciliary body, floating in the aqueous humor. The cho¬ 
roid is composed chiefly of blood-vessels with connective tis¬ 
sue, pigment cells and a few muscular fibres. The ciliary body 
may be considered as a prismatic ring with a posterior, anterior 



K- 




<0 


c) 








































0 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 




517 


and inner edge. The inner edge gives attachment to the sus¬ 
pensory ligament of the lens. In the anterior outer portion is 
found the ciliary, or muscle of accommodation, the outer fibres 
of which are meridional and the inner are circular. The inner 
posterior surface is raised into from seventy to eighty folds, the 
ciliary processes. The iris has a central opening, the pupil, 
through which the light passes to the interior of the eye. The 
amount of light admitted is regulated by two muscles in the iris, 
one of which dilates and the other contracts the pupil. 

The retina is attached to the inner surface of the choroid, 
and with it extends from the entrance of the optic nerve to the 
ora s err at a. It has ten layers, but only two are of special 
importance, the others being accessory. The layer of rods and 
cones receives the images of objects viewed, and the layer of 
nerve fibres , which is an expansion of the fibres of the optic 
nerve, transmits the impressions to the sensorium, and is recog¬ 
nized as vision. The most sensitive part of the retina, the 
macula lutea, corresponds very nearly with the posterior pole. 

The aqueous humor is a watery fluid which fills the place 
between the cornea and crystalline lens. This 
space is divided by the iris into the anterior 
and posterior chambers , which communicate 
through the pupil. 

The crystalline lens is a transparent double 
convex lens, situated behind the iris and be¬ 
tween the aqueous and vitreous humors. It 
is enclosed by two structureless membranes, 
the anterior and posterior capsules, which are 
continuous, near the peripheral edge of the 
lens, with the zonule of Zinn , or suspensory 
ligament. Between the folds of the zonule 
and the border of the lens is a triangular 
space, canal of Petit, which is closed during 
life by the folds falling together. The ante¬ 
rior capsule supports the margin of the pupil 
unless the pupil be dilated, in which case the 
iris floats freely in the aqueous humor. The 
lens, though clear and apparently homogene¬ 
ous in structure, is composed of flattened hex¬ 
agonal fibres with dentated lateral edges, by 
which they are firmly joined together. The 
convexity of the lens is greater on the posterior than on the 
anterior surface. 

The vitreous body (Lat. vitreum , glass) fills the cavity 
within the retina and behind the lens. It is a structureless, 
gelatinous substance, possessing a refractive power less than 
the lens, but greater than the aqueous humor. During foetal 
life the hyaloid artery runs from papilla (optic nerve entrance) 
to posterior surface of lens, rudiments of which sometimes per¬ 
sist. The canal through which it passes is the canal of Cloquet, 
or hyaloid canal. The anterior surface of the vitreous is hol¬ 
lowed out for reception of the lens, forming the hyaloidea 
fossa. The vitreous has no vessels or nerves, and receives its 
nutriment from the retina and uveal tract (middle coat). 

The eyeball is moved by six muscles, five of which take their 
origin from the tendinous ring around the optic foramen at the 
apex of the orbit. Four are called the recti (straight) mus¬ 


cles. They pass directly from their origin, over the globe, and 
are inserted in the sclera near the corneal margin, one above, 
one below, one on the inner and one on the outer side. The 
fifth muscle, the superior oblique, passes to the upper inner 
angle of the orbit, then through a tendinous ring—the pulley — 
then backward and outward, beneath the superior rectus, to 
upper, outer and posterior quadrant of the eyeball, where it is 
inserted. The sixth muscle, the inferior oblique, arises at the 
inner lower angle of the orbit and passes outward, downward, 
backward, beneath the inferior rectus, then upward and back¬ 
ward between external rectus and globe, and is inserted 
close to the insertion of the superior oblique. 

The superior rectus moves the eye upward and inward, and 
rotates it slightly inward. The internal rectus, the strongest, 
moves the eye inward, and the external moves it outward. The 
superior oblique moves the eye downward and outward, rotat¬ 
ing it inward. The inferior oblique moves the eye upward and 
outward, rotating it outward. Three of the recti, the superior, 
inferior and internal, and the inferior oblique, are controlled in 


their action by one nerve, the third, or oculo motorizes. The 
superior oblique is governed by the fourth, or trochlear nerve, 
and the external rectus by the sixth, or abducens . The third 
nerve also sends a branch to the ciliary muscle (muscle of ac¬ 
commodation). 

There are certain appendages of the eye which serve either 
as a means of protection or aid in the performance of its func¬ 
tion. Of these, the eyebrows, eyelids and lachrymal apparatus 
are the most important. The eyebrows are arched elevations of 
skin above the orbits, covered with rows of short hairs, and serve 
to protect the eye and to slightly influence the amount of light 
admitted. The eyelids are two movable folds of skin covering the 
eyes in front and closing the orbital entrance. The upper lid 
is the larger, measuring about four-fifths of an inch in height 
upon its inner surface. The lower is only about half an inch 
high. The outer or skin covering of the lids is continuous at 



Fig. 36. Muscles of the Eye. 

1, Inferior oblique: 2, ext. rectus; 3, int. rectus; 4, inf. rectus; 5, sup. rectus; 6 , sup. oblique; 
7, pulley of sup. oblique; 9, 10, levator palpebrae superioris; 11, optic nerve. 









































IV 


518 


~ 7 [ 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


their edges with their inner mucous lining or conjunctiva (Lat., 
conjungere, to join together), which is reflected from the lids 
on to the eyeball, forming the retrotarsal fold of the conjunc¬ 
tiva, and joining the lids to the globe. Between the skin and 
conjunctiva the lids are composed of loose connective tissue, 
muscle, cartilage, ligaments, glands, blood-vessels and nerves. 
The so-called cartilages of the lids are not true cartilage, but 
consist of dense fibrous tissue. They are two in number, one in 
each lid. The upper is the larger, and is crescentric in shape. 
The lower one is elliptical. They serve to maintain the form 
of the lids and as points of attachment for ligaments which 
bind the lids to edge of the orbit, and the muscle which lifts 
the upper lid, the levator palpebrte superioris. This muscle 
arises just above the origin of the recti muscles and passes for¬ 
ward along the roof of the orbit to its insertion around the 
upper margin of the cartilage of the upper lid. It is supplied 
by the third nerve. 

The muscle which closes the lids, orbicularis palpebrarum , 
arises from the edge of the orbit, near the inner angle of the 
opening between the lids, and its fibres pass around the lids, 
between the skin and cartilage, and unite at the outer angle. 
It is supplied by the facial, supra-orbital and superior maxillary 
nerves. 

The eyelashes, or cilia , are rows of short, thick hairs on the 
free margins of the lids, those of the upper lid curving upward 
and those of the lower curving downward. Their follicles lie 
in the connective tissue upon the cartilage, and are connected 
with sebaceous glands which lubricate the cilia. 

Imbedded in the cartilages are blind tubes into which open 
secondary follicles (thirty to forty in upper lid, twenty to thirty 
in lower). The tubes, meibomian glands , lie parallel and 
open in a row near the inner edge of the free border of the 
lid. They furnish a sebaceous secretion which lubricates the 
margin of the lids. 

The size of the opening between the lids, palpebral fissure , 
determines the apparent size of the eye ; a large opening allow¬ 
ing the globe to bulge forward and become prominent, while a 
small fissure prevents much of the eyeball from being seen. 
The angles formed by the margins of the lids at the extremi¬ 
ties of the fissure are called the internal and externalcanthi. 

The conjunctiva, when the lids are closed, form a shut sac, 
with its palpebral and ocular surfaces in contact. It forms a 
crescentric fold at the inner canthus — semilunar fold , or 
plica semilunaris. This is regarded as the rudiment of the 
third eyelid, or membrana nictitans , in birds. Tying upon the 
semilunar fold in the inner canthus is a small red body, the 
caruncula lachrymalis. It consists of hair follicles, sebaceous 
glands, connective tissue and fat, is covered by mucous mem¬ 
brane, and has a few fine hairs on its surface. 

The lachrymal apparatus consists of a secreting portion, the 
lachrymal gland and conjunctival glands; and the conduct¬ 
ing portion, canaliculi, sac and nasal duct. The lachrymal 
gland is almond-shaped and lies in a depression in the roof of 
the orbit at the outer angle. Its lower surface rests upon the 
outer part of the eyeball, and its longest diameter, the trans¬ 
verse, is about three-fifths of an inch. The secretion of the 
gland (the tears) is conveyed to the conjunctival sac by six to 
twelve ducts, which open in a row at the outer third of the 


superior retrotarsal fold. The accessory glands consist of a 
group of small glands arranged in a row just above the con¬ 
junctival reflection. The secretion of the lachrymal and acces¬ 
sory glands is composed of water, albumen and salt, and is 
spread over the front of the eye by winking of the lids, lubri¬ 
cating its surface. The excess is collected in a triangular space 
at the inner canthus, the lacus lachrymalis , and is forced into 
the canaliculi by the orbicularis muscle, or flows over the cheek. 
Ordinarily the lachrymal gland pours out very little secretion, 
and its removal does not materially affect the moisture of the 
eye, the secretion from the accessory glands being quite suf¬ 
ficient for this purpose. Under the same circumstances the 
tears evaporate from the surface of the eyeball, very little pass¬ 
ing into the nose. 

The canaliculi are two mucous canals about one-quarter of 
an inch long and half a line in diameter, which begin in the 
centre of a small elevation, the puncta, about one-fiftli of an 
inch from the angle of the lids, and run along the edge of the 
latter (one above and one below), to the lachrymal sac. The 
lachrymal sac lies in a groove in the upper end of the lachrymal 
canal, oval in form, and flattened from before backward; is about 
two-fifths of an inch long and one-sixth of an inch wide; is 
continuous with nasal duct , sometimes direct and sometimes 
interrupted by folds of mucous membrane. The nasal duct 
runs in a bony canal downward, backward and outward, three- 
fifths to four-fifths of an inch long and one-eighth of an inch 
in diameter, and usually opens in inferior meatus of the nose. 

Certain changes are observed in most of the tissues of the 
eye in old age. The sclera loses its elasticity to some extent, 
and presents calcareous deposits, favoring the development of 
the disease called glaucoma. The cornea diminishes in size 
and thickness, and also loses tone ; the elastic layers become 
brittle and show warty elevations at margins. Usually after 
fifty years of age fatty degeneration begins in the upper and 
lower margins of the cornea, forming arcus senilis. These 
grayish, crescentric opacities gradually extend until their ends 
join and form a ring. The choroid, ciliary body and retina 
undergo degenerative changes, and their blood vessels become 
atheromatous. The lens increases in density, becomes flatter, 
and loses its elasticity, the nucleus assumes amber color, and 
small opacities appear. The zonule of Zinn is weakened, 
resulting in a tendency to dislocations of the lens.' 

Physiology. 

The eyeballs may be considered as hollow, spherical boxes, 
blackened upon their inner surfaces, and having a system of 
convex lenses and transparent media, which unite the rays of 
light, forming inverted images of external objects, upon a 
special nervous membrane—the retina—which appreciates 
both intensity and color. Each eyeball, therefore, resembles a 
camera obscura. Images formed in the bottom of the eye may 
be seen by removing the sclera and choroid behind and leaving 
only the retina. 

The impressions perceived by the retina are conveyed to the 
brain by the optic nerves, producing the results we call vision. 

1 he exact way in which our visual perception is gained of an 
object, single and erect from its two inverted retinal images, 
cannot be satisfactorily explained. We know, however, that 
the two eyes act in perfect harmony, and that the images are 
















































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


5 T 9 


symmetrically disposed on the two retinae, and are combined 
into a single impression. The two retinal images are slightly 
different, the eyes being separated sufficiently for each to com¬ 
mand a different view. Our ideas of solidity result from the 
union of the two images ; our ideas of distance from the mus¬ 
cular efforts required to see distinctly and from experience. 

The iris, with its central perforation, acts as a diaphragm reg¬ 
ulating the amount of light admitted into the eye, by what is 
known as the reflex movement of the iris, the pupil contract¬ 
ing in a strong light and dilating in a feeble one. 

The rays of light coming from any object, when entering the 
eye, pass through the cornea, aqueous humor, lens and vitreous 
before they reach the retina at the bottom (fundus) of the eye. 
As the light rays pass through these media they are bent (re¬ 
fracted) from their original- course and united (focused) in the 
perfectly shaped eye, on the retina. It is absolutely necessary 
that they be focused upon the retina to form a perfect image 
upon that membrane. If the focus be at any point not on the 
retina, a blurred image results, and vision of course is indistinct. 
To see perfectly, it is further necessary that the focus be formed 
on the most sensitive part of the retina ( macula lutea). The 
retina is sensitive to the impressions of light throughout, but 
especially so near the posterior pole, and therefore, when ac¬ 
curate vision is desired, the eyes are so directed by the ocular 
muscles that the light is focused on the macula. 

Rays of light coming from any point of illumination, how¬ 
ever distant, are divergent, but as the pupil ordinarily is only 
about two lines in diameter, rays coming from a distance more 
than twenty feet are so slightly divergent when they enter the eye 
that the divergence is not recognized. So, for all practical pur¬ 
poses, rays coming from a distance of twenty feet or more may 
be regarded as coming from an infinite distance, and, therefore, 
as being parallel. In the ideally perfect eye parallel rays are 
focused by its refractive media upon the macula, and a per¬ 
fect image is formed upon the perceptive layer of the retina. 

When rays enter the eye, coming from a distance less than 
twenty feet, they are perceptibly divergent, and the shorter the 
distance the greater the divergence. It will therefore be seen 
that the refractive media must undergo a change, i.e. , increase 
the refractive power sufficiently to unite the divergent rays on 
the same place that the parallel rays were focused. This 
change the eye is capable of making, and it is called accommo¬ 
dation, because the eye can be adjusted or accommodated for 
different distances. The change is brought about by the ciliary 
muscle contracting. The suspensory ligament is in this way re¬ 
laxed, and the lens, of its own elasticity, is rendered more con¬ 
vex, chiefly on its anterior surface. The iris is at the same time 
pushed forward, and the pupil contracted. I lie changes thus 
produced in the refracting media greatly increase the refrac¬ 
tive power, accurately focusing divergent rays. I here is a 
point, however, where the divergence is so great that the ut¬ 
most effort at accommodation fails to unite the rays on the 
macula. This is the near point of distinct vision, and its dis¬ 
tance from the eye gradually increases with age, owing to 
physiological changes in the lens, diminishing its elasticity. 1>\ 
means of accommodation the eye sees everything distinctly, 
from within a few inches to fifteen or twenty feet away, 


beyond which it is unnecessary, as the vision is perfect with 
the media in a passive condition. 

While viewing distant objects, the axes of the eyes are par¬ 
allel, but near objects require a certain amount of convergence 
to allow the focus to be formed upon the macula of each eye. 
The interal rectus is the principal muscle concerned in the act 
of convergence, but the other ocular muscles are more or less 
called into action to maintain a certain position or change the 
direction of the eye. When we consider that six muscles con¬ 
trol the movements of each eye, and while viewing near objects 
each eye must be accommodated and converged so that a perfect 
image may be formed on a corresponding point in the retina of 
each, we can but wonder how it is possible for this complicated 
muscular action to be maintained for any great length of time 
in a normal state of perfection, much more when some portion 
of the delicate mechanism is defective, and the harmony of 
action is seriously disturbed. 

Errors of Refraction and Accommodation. 

Contrary to popular opinion, the perfect eye is the excep¬ 
tion instead of the rule. In many cases, however, the defect 
is so slight that the eyes give very little trouble unless used 
excessively for close work, especially by artificial light. Very 
often the defect so materially disturbs vision, and requires such 
an unnatural strain to overcome it, that a variety of troubles 
result. The eyes not only feel fatigued and ache, but the lids 
may swell, or become inflamed, the eyes becoming so sensitive 
that mere exposure to light will bring on a severe paroxysm of 
pain. Again severe attacks of headache, dizziness and a host 
of nervous disorders may follow. 

Emmetropia is the term applied to the normally-shaped eye¬ 
ball. 

Hypermetropia, or over-sight, is a condition where the 
eye-ball is shorter from before backward than it should be, and 
as a consequence parallel rays of light are not united when they 
reach the retina unless the accommodation be called into play. 
A hypermetropic eye never sees at any distance without mak¬ 
ing an effort at accommodation; hence it is never at rest 
except during sleep, and the constant strain tends often to 
produce very serious consequences. In the majority of cases 
where hypermetropia exists, one eye is more defective than the 
other, and thus makes the defect much more difficult to be 
overcome by accommodation. The muscle of accommodation 
is under the same nerve control as the muscles of convergence, 
and hence the action of the ciliary muscle calls for a corre¬ 
sponding effort on the part of the converging muscles, andt'/rz' 
versa. When, however, one or both eyes are hypermetropic, 
a greater effort at accommodation is required, and while the eyes 
are focused for a given point they are converged for a nearer 
one, and double vision is the result. The double vision is pro¬ 
duced by the images being formed at different points on the 
retina in the two eyes. Under such circumstances distinct 
vision is only obtained when the image of one eye (the 
weaker) is suppressed. If the difference in the refractive con¬ 
dition be very great, it will be a comparatively easy matter to 
suppress the image formed in the weaker eye ; but if there be 
but little difference, one will turn inward, and the image, being 
formed on a less sensitive part of the retina, is finally ignored. 









































e. 


In the former case, the weaker eye may remain “ straight,” but 
in the latter the eye which turns in will soon become perma¬ 
nently “ crossed. ” In this way nearly all cases of convergent 
squint, or strabismus , are produced. 

Treatment of Hypermetropia. —The only thing that can be 
done to relieve this condition is to correct the defect by hav¬ 
ing the person affected wear convex glasses, which should be 
adjusted by an oculist who thoroughly understands the subject. 
The accurate correction of refractive defects is a matter of such 
great importance that no one but a competent person should 
undertake to do it. 

Presbyopia, or far-sightedness, is a condition that is the result 
of natural changes due to age. At about forty years of age most 
people find that they are compelled, in order to see well, to 
hold their newspaper a little farther from their eyes than for¬ 
merly. The eyes also feel fatigued much sooner, especially 
when artificial light is used. This is the result of a diminished 
power of accommodation, and can be easily relieved by using 
properly fitted convex glasses. 

Myopia, or near-sightedness, is the opposite condition from 
hypermetropia, that is, instead of being too short, the eyeball 
is too long. Parallel rays unite before they reach the retina, 
and divergent rays focus without the aid of accommodation. 
In hypermetropia the defect exists from birth, but in myopia it 
is usually acquired, although a predisposition, as a weakened 
condition of the coats of the eye, may be inherited. Close 
work favors the production of a myopic condition in the eye. 
Straining the accommodation and convergence increases the 
tension of the eye, and this interferes with the escape of the 
venous blood from the interior. As the veins pass through the 
sclera obliquely, any increase of pressure from within would 
tend to obstruct the flow of blood through them. The retarded 
escape of venous blood tends to still further intensify the 
intra-ocular pressure, and this to increase the myopia. The 
trouble, once begun, therefore, is very likely to become pro¬ 
gressive, unless proper means are promptly employed to stay its 
further development. 

Treatment .—As a myopic should be considered as a “ sick 
eye,” no time should be lost in having it cared for by one 
skilled in the treatment of such difficulties. Unless checked, 
the defect is liable to go from bad to worse until all useful vision 
is irreparably destroyed. All strain should be removed as far 
as possible, and close work abandoned until the progress of the 
difficulty has been checked. Concave glasses carefully selected 
should be worn all the time. A full correction of the myopia 
should be made by glasses for distant vision ; and, if the defect 
be great, about one-half correction for near objects. 

Astigmatism (Gr.: a, without, and stigma , a point).—In 
this condition the rays of light entering in one meridian are 
focused at a different point from those entering in another 
meridian, the meridians of greatest difference being at right 
angles with each other. 

-In simple myopic astigmatism , one meridian is emmetropic 
(normal) and the meridian at right angle is myopic. Simple 
hypermetropic astigmatism has one meridian emmetropic and 
the other hypermetropic. Compound myopic astigmatism has 
both meridians myopic, but one more than the other. Com¬ 
pound hypermetropic astigmatism has both meridians hyper¬ 


metropic, but one more than the other. In mixed astigmatism 
one meridian is myopic and the other is hypermetropic. 

On account of the inability to focus all meridians at once in 
astigmatism, the defect is a source of much greater difficulty, 
and its correction is far more important than either hyperme¬ 
tropia or myopia. Neither convex nor concave glasses will cor¬ 
rect astigmatism, because, the surface of the glass being curved 
equally in all meridians, when a glass is found that will correct 
one meridian, the other is either corrected too much or too lit¬ 
tle. A glass is required that will correct one meridian and 
leave the other unaffected. This is found in what is called the 
cylindrical glass, the shape of which shows it to be the segment 
of a cylinder, that is, in the direction of the axis of the cylinder 
the glass is the same thickness throughout, but its surface is 
curved in a direction at right angles with the axis. A cylin¬ 
drical glass may be either convex or concave. The ordinary 
convex and concave glasses are spherical in shape. Compound 
astigmatism is corrected by using a lens that is ground spherical 
on one side and cylindrical on the other. Mixed astigmatism 
is corrected by one ground concave-cylindrical on one surface 
and convex-cylindrical on the other, with the axes of the cylin¬ 
ders at right angles with each other. 

Diseases of the Eye and Their Treatment. 

Diseases of the eye are so numerous and their diagnosis so diffi¬ 
cult, that it requires long study, special training and experience 
to recognize and treat them with safety and success. Simple 
troubles will usually recover without treatment if not meddled 
with, but may ultimately prove serious if allowed to go un¬ 
checked or become aggravated by harsh or improper remedies. 
Grave difficulties may be overlooked as such, until vision has 
been permanently impaired or destroyed. In view of these 
facts, it is considered unnecessary if not dangerous to outline 
the symptoms and treatment of the various eye diseases in this 
article. Nevertheless, a few hints with reference to the hand¬ 
ling of some of the simpler affections, conduct in emergencies, 
and the care of the eyes, will not be out of place. 

If a foreign body should get into an eye, the tears will quickly 
begin to flow freely, and, in many cases, will wash it out. But 
if the substance be rough and angular, it may be imbedded in 
the cornea or the folds of the conjunctiva. When a foreign 
substance is supposed to be in the eye, the cornea should be 
thoroughly inspected by aid of a convex lens, if at hand, to 
concentrate the light upon the eye. The body may be so small 
as to escape detection with the unaided eye, but sufficient to 
cause great pain and dangerous inflammation. The best method 
of removing substances from the cornea, when a surgeon can¬ 
not be had, is to sharpen a lead pencil very fine, and, standing 
behind the person seated in a chair, steady the eye and separate 
the lids with the left hand, and gently pick it out with the point 
of the pencil. After removal of the foreign body, the eye 
should be rested, bathed in warm water if irritable, and the per¬ 
son instructed not to rub it. In case nothing be found in the 
cornea, the lower lid should be drawn down by placing the ball 
of the thumb on the cheek below, and, by pressing downward, 
the inner surface of the lict exposed. This should be carefully 
examined, and, if nothing is found, the upper lid should be 
everted, as shown in Figure 37, by seizing the eyelashes at the 


52° 


PHYSIOLOCtY and medicine. 











* 








Q) 




































V 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


5 21 


71 


middle of the lid, and, directing the person to look down, 
pulling the lid downward and outward, then placing a pencil 
or match on the lid about half an inch from its edge and gently 
pressing downward while the edge is lifted upward and over the 
pencil by means of the lashes. If anything is discovered on 
the upper or lower lid, it can be readily removed by the corner 
of a handkerchief being twisted to a point and used as a swab 
to brush it off. 





Fig. 37. Method of Turning the Upper Did. 

If the conjunctiva becomes reddened from any cause, it 
denotes, if long continued, that inflammation has been estab¬ 
lished ; this may be confined to the conj'unctiva or be a com¬ 
plication of some deep-seated trouble. It is not safe to tam¬ 
per in such cases, but if a surgeon cannot be had at once, use 
nothing but simple remedies until professional advice can be 


secured. Warm salt water (one quarter teaspoonful to pint) 
is a safe remedy in all inflammatory conditions of the eye, and 
if used for ten or twenty minutes three or four times daily, will 
relieve most acute affections of the lids and conjunctiva. All 
patent eye-washes should be avoided, because most of them 
contain acetate of lead, and if this is employed when there is 
an abrasion of the cornea the lead will be deposited and a per¬ 
manent opacity remain. 

Should the warm salt water not prove sufficient until a physi¬ 
cian can be seen, bathe the eyes in a weak solution of alum or 
boracic acid (two to five grains to ounce). 

As a rule, so long as the vision remains perfect there is 
nothing dangerous affecting the eye; when, however, sight 
is impaired, an oculist should be consulted as quickly as 
possible. 

For the first twenty-four hours cold applications are advisa¬ 
ble in all injuries of the eye, especially of the lids and con¬ 
junctiva ; but after that time has expired, warm dressings are 
usually followed by the best results. 

When mortar, lime or an alkali by accident gets into the 
eyes, they should be quickly washed with vinegar and water 
(one part to eight or ten). After being thoroughly cleansed, if 
any part of the conjunctiva is found eroded, fresh castor oil or 
vaseline should be applied over the raw surface, and care taken 
not to allow the lids to “grow” to the eyeball. If the con¬ 
junctiva be very much injured, the lids should be kept from 
coming in contact with the eyeball by a piece of cotton soaked 
in oil. In cases of injury from acids, the eyes should be washed 
immediately in bicarbonate of soda (salaratus) and water (one 
part to ten) and then dressed as a burn. 


-VTHE EAR.*f- 


An atomy. 

The anatomy of the ear is usually divided, for the sake of 
convenience, into that of the external, middle and internal. 
The external ear embraces the auricle and exterior auditory 
canal; the middle ear the membrana tympani , cavity of tym¬ 
panum, mastoid cells and eustachian tubes ; the internal ear 
the vestibule, semi-circular canals, cochlea and auditory nerve. 
The auricle is the external funnel-shaped appendage attached 
to the malar and temporal bones by elastic fibres. It consists 
of fibro-cartilaginous framework closely covered by perichon¬ 
drium and skin. From the lower end of the cartilage a pro¬ 
jection extends, formed principally by the skin, the lobe of the 
ear. The outer edge of the auricle is called the helix ; within 
this a depression, the fossa navicularis , at the inner edge of 
which is another ridge, the anti-helix. In front of the open¬ 
ing of the auditory canal is a projection, the tragus ; opposite 
this on the other side of the canal is another projection, the 
anti-tragus. The concavity around the orifice of the canal is 
known as the concha. The triangular depression above the 
concha is the fossa triangularis. 


The meatus auditorius externus , external auditory canal, 
extends from the auricle to themembrana tympani forward and 
inward, by a crooked course ; average length about one inch. 
The outer one-third is cartilaginous, continuous with cartilage 
of the auricle. The inner two-thirds is formed by the bony 
canal in the temporal bone. At the bottom of the canal the 
membrana tympani is inserted in the tympanic groove, sulcus 
iympanicus. The membrane is placed obliquely, and hence 
the anterior and inferior walls of the canal are longest. The 
canal is lined by integument containing soft hairs, sebaceous and 
ceruminous glands. The secretion of the glands, corumen 
(wax), is chiefly fat and coloring matter. 

The membrana tympani, or drum-head, separates the 
auditory canal from the tympanic cavity. It is so obliquely 
placed that the upper border is about a quarter of an inch 
nearer the entrance to canal than the lower. The posterior 
border is about one-fifth of an inch nearer than anterior. It is 
ellipsoidal in shape, with its long axis (one-third of an inch) 
downward and forward. At the upper portion, the short pro¬ 
cess of the malleus shows as a conical protrusion, from which 


A 


7 Is 


& 









































s> 



PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


extend two folds, the anterior and posterior. The membrane 
is slightly concave externally. The deepest concavity surrounds 
the end of the handle of the malleus, and is called the umbo. 
The membrane is inelastic, and about inch in thickness. 
It is composed of three layers, a middle fibrous layer, covered 
externally by skin of auditory canal, and mucous membrane of 
tympanum internally. The middle layer has two layers of 
fibres, an outer radiating and an inner circular. 

When viewed through the auditory canal, the healthy mem¬ 
brane presents a delicate bluish-gray color and is translucent. 
The short process of the malleus appears as a whitish tubercle, 
near upper margin, and the handle of malleus as a light stripe, 
running from this downward and backward to centre of the 
membrane. The “ light spot ” is a bright triangular reflection 
from the oblique surface of the membrane. Its apex points to 
end of handle, and'its base toward margin. 

The cavity of tympanum, or drum of the ear, is an irregular¬ 
shaped space, lined by mucous membrane, which is continuous 
with that of eustachian tube and pharynx. The antero-posterior 
diameter is about '/> inch; the anterior-vertical, inch, and 
the posterior-vertical, three-fifths of an inch ; transverse, one- 
eighth to one-sixth; opposite drum-head, one-twelfth inch. The 
eustachian tube opens into upper part of anterior wall. Above 
the tube is the canal for the tensor tympani muscle, separated 
from it by a thin plate of bone. The posterior wall separates 
the tympanum from the mastoid cells, the openings into which 
are found at the upper part, close to the roof. The drum-head 
forms most of the outer wall. The inner wall forms outer wall 
of the labyrinth. An oval opening ( fenestra oval is ) is found 
opposite support of drum-head in the inner wall which leads 
into the vestibule. The opening is closed by a membrane upon 
which rests the base of the stapes. A smaller opening below 
(fenestra rotunda ) leads into the cochlea. The latter opening 
is closed by a membrane called the membraua tympani secon- 
daria. Anterior, and between the fenestras, is a rounded pro¬ 
jection, thepromontory . This corresponds with the first whorl 
of the cochlea. The upper wall is very thin and separates the 
tympanum from cranial cavity. 

The bones of the ear (ossicles) are three in number — mal¬ 
leus (Lat. for hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). 
They form a chain across tympanum from membrana tympani 
to membrana ovalis. The malleus presents a head, neck, short 
and long process, and manubrium (handle). The incus has a 
head, long and short process. The head articulates with mal¬ 
leus, and is joined to roof of tympanum by a ligament ; short 
process runs back to articulate with posterior wall of tym¬ 
panum. The long process descends parallel with and behind 
the handle of malleus and terminates in a lenticular tip which 
articulates with the head of the stapes. The stapes has head, 
neck, crura and base. The latter rests in fenestra ovalis. 

The tensor ty?npani muscle arises from the periosteum of 
the upper wall of its canal and upper wall of cartilage of 
eustachian tube, and from border of sphenoid. Before leaving 
the canal it becomes tendinous, and as it enters the tympanum 
turns nearly at right angle and is inserted into the anterior half 
of the inner side of malleus between short process and begin¬ 
ning of the handle. It draws the handle inward and makes the 
membrana tympani and the ligaments of the ossicles tense ; at 


the same time the long process of the incus rotates inward with 
the malleus handle, and presses the stapes against the oval win¬ 
dow and the fluid of the labyrinth. The stapedius muscle 
originates in the cavity of the pyramid and is inserted in the 
neck of the stapes. It is supposed to depress the base of the 
stapes and compress the contents of labyrinth. 

The mastoid cells consist o r a number of irregular cells con¬ 
tained in the mastoid process of temporal bone. In the upper 
part of the process a single large cell is found, the mastoid 
antrum. This communicates with the lower cells and the 
tympanic cavity. The eustachian tube is about a line in diam¬ 
eter, and extends from the pharynx upward, outward and 
backward to tympanum. It has a cartilaginous and bony por¬ 
tion. The tympanic end is bony, about half an inch long. 
The narrowest part of canal is at isthmus, the juncture of car¬ 
tilaginous and bony parts. The pharyngeal orifice is trumpet¬ 
shaped, and is found in posterior nasal space just above floor of 
nostril. Its mucous membrane is continuous with that of the 
pharynx and tympanum. 


rig. 38. 

i.Auricle; 2, opening of ext. auditory canal; 3, bony part of canal; 4 , 
cartilaginous portion; 5, ceruminous glands; 6, membrana tympani; 7, 
incus, 8, malleus; 9, manubrium; 10, tensor tympani muscle; 11, 12, 
eustachian tube; 13, 15, semi-circular canals; 16, cochlea. 

The internal ear, or labyrinth, contains the essential parts 
of the hearing apparatus, the ultimate filaments of the audi¬ 
tory nerves. It embraces several bony cavities contained in 
the petrous portion of the temporal bone. Within these 
osseous chambers are membranous sacs which receive the dis- 
tribution of the nerve. The sacs and intervening spaces are 
filled with a clear fluid. The bony cavities are three in num¬ 
ber, the vestibule, semi-circular canals and cochlea. 

The vestibule is an irregular ovoid cavity, situated internal 
to the tympanum. Its height and depth, antero-posteriorly, is 
about one-fifth of an inch, and its transverse diameter about 
one-tenth of an inch. The semi-circular canals are three 
C-shaped canals, starting from the vestibule and returning to it 























































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


again ; are from one-twentieth to one-fifteenth of an inch in 
diameter. Length of posterior verticle, eleven-twelfths inch ; 
anterior verticle, four-fifths ; horizontal, one-fifth inch. 

The cochlea (snail) is a tube that coils around a central pillar 
or axis, and tapers toward one extremity where it ends in a 
blind sac. It is about one and one-half inches long, one-tenth 
of an inch in diameter at the beginning and one-twentieth of 
an inch at the end ; makes two and a half turns from below 
upward from left to right in right ear, and vice versa in the 
left. The cupola, or apex, is directed forward and outward. 
A thin wall separates the cochlea from the carotid canal in 
front. Internally it is in contact with the blind end of the 
internal auditory canal. It projects slightly, as the promon¬ 
tory on the inner wall of the tympanum. Its axis, spindle or 
modiolus, is made up by the inner walls of the tube and a 
central spongy bone substance ; gradually diminishes in size 
from base to apex. Diameter at base, one-eighth of an inch ; 
at apex, one-fiftieth of an inch ; length, one-sixth of an inch. 
Base rests upon the bottom of the internal auditory canal. 
The apex is formed by the inner wall of the last half whorl, 
ending in a thin section of funnel, the infundibulum. The 
walls of the cochlear canal are lined by a very delicate perios¬ 
teum. 

The bony cavities of the vestibule and semi-circular canals 
contain membranous sacs which correspond in shape to the 
osseous chambers in which they are enclosed. 

The utricle (Lat., utriculus, a little leathern bottle) is a 
flattened elliptical tube resting on the inner wall of the vesti¬ 
bule. The outer wall is free and is separated from the outer 
wall of the vestibule by a narrow space filled with endolymph. 

The membranous semi-circular canals are of the same shape 
as the body canals, and open into the utricle by five openings, 
the same as the osseous communicate with the vestibule. The 
membranous fill the osseous canals at the openings, but in other 
parts considerable space exists between the two, which is filled 
by connective tissue, vessels and fluid. The walls of the utri¬ 
cle and canals are very thin and delicate. 

The auditory nerve, or portio mollis of seventh nerve, 
begins by two roots in the medulla oblongata. One nucleus of 
origin is in floor of the fourth ventricle ; the other is in the 
crus cerebelli ad medulfma. The roots are in communication 
with the gray matter of the cerebellum and border of calamus 
scriptorius. The nerve winds around therestiform body, from 
which it receives filaments, and then passes forward in com¬ 
pany with the portio dura, or facial nerve, to the posterior 
border of crus, and enters the internal auditory canal, where 
some fibres connect them together. At the bottom of the 
canal the auditory nerve .divides into two branches, one 
passing to the vestibule and the other to the cochlea. The 
nerve, like the optic, is one of special sense, receiving and 
transmitting the impressions of the waves of sound. 

Physiology. 

The ear, as a whole, is a very complicated, structure. The 
sound-waves are collected by the auricle, reflected into the 
auditory canal, are received upon the membrana tympani, 
which is thrown into corresponding vibrations; these are car¬ 
ried by the chain of bones across the tympanum to the fluid of 


/ 

/ 

5 2 3 


the labyrinth, and thence to the auditory nerves and through 
them to the brain, where they are recognized as sound. The 
membrana tympani, by the aid of its tensor muscle, can be 
maintained at various degrees of tension adapting it to differ¬ 
ent kinds of waves. 

The atmospheric pressure within the cavity of the tym¬ 
panum is governed by its communication with the mastoid 
cells and pharynx. The elements of the terminal auditory 
apparatus in the cochlea are supposed to be tuned to vibrate 
in harmony with all the different notes in our musical scale. 
The semi-circular canals are thought to preside over the equi¬ 
librium of the body, and to be concerned little, if any, in the 
function of hearing. There are still a number of points in 
connection with the physiology of audition remaining unsatis¬ 
factorily explained. 

Diseases of the Ear and Their Treatment. 

The statements made in the article on the eye are also appli¬ 
cable to the ear. The apparatus is so delicate that any disturb¬ 
ance of function should be referred to a skilled specialist for cor¬ 
rection. Many erroneous ideas still exist in the public mind, 
which seriously interfere with the work of the aurist. The ear is 
regarded by some as so “delicate ” that nothing can be done to 
alleviate its disorders, and cases of partial deafness are allowed 
to go uncared-for that could be readily cured. 

The so-called “ rising ” in the ear, followed by an offensive 
discharge, is neglected because “ it is dangerous to meddle with 
the ear ” or stop a discharge from it. Many children are per¬ 
mitted to go in this manner without attention, at the imminent 
peril of their lives and with a serious impairment of hearing. 
The inflammation which causes such a discharge is located in 
the tympanic cavity, and is very liable to extend into the mas¬ 
toid cells and the cranial cavity, resulting fatally. No possible 
harm could result from stopping the discharge, and no time 
should be lost in endeavoring to check it. 

Children often put beans, coffee grains and other small sub¬ 
stances into their ears, and the friends, in attempting to remove 
the foreign body, push it further into the canal. No instru¬ 
ment should ever be used, except by an aurist, to remove any¬ 
thing from the ear. The only thing that can be safely em¬ 
ployed for this purpose is a syringe. 

In case an insect gets into the ear, water should be poured in 
to kill it or cause it to come out. If this should fail to accom¬ 
plish the desired result, a physician should be called. 

If the ear itches or attracts attention in any way, it should 
be examined by a surgeon, or washed out, or a little vaseline 
applied on a pleget of cotton ; and on no account should it be 
picked at with a hairpin, ear-spoon, or other hard instrument. 

One of the most common forms of deafness is caused by an 
extension of inflammation from the throat to the ear through 
the eustachian tube. The first thing noticed by the person is 
a ringing noise in the ear and a slight impairment of hearing. 
These symptoms may come on so gradually as not to attract 
attention for some time. The disease can be checked in the 
early stages, and it is therefore important to attend to it as 
soon as noticed. 

Children frequently suffer ivith “ earache,” and as the attacks 
often occur in the night when it is inconvenient to call medical 








































PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


aid, every family should know how to render prompt relief. The 
pain is usually indicative of inflammation in the middle ear 
which has begun in the pharynx and extended to the ear. Hot 
cloths should be applied to the throat and hot water poured into 
the ear. The water should be used as hot as can be borne, and 


if it fails to relieve, a small quantity (}i grain) of morphine, 
dissolved in a few drops of warm water, should be dropped into 
the ear while the head is inclined so as to allow it to run in. It 
is not advisable to use oil or laudanum, because the oil may clog 
up the canal, and the alcohol in the laudanum will irritate it. 




•^EEYERS.*^- 


Fever is that morbid condition of the body characterized by 
increased heat, thirst, loss of appetite, dryness of skin, acceler¬ 
ated pulse, hurried respiration, muscular weakness, more or 
less pain and wakefulness, and general functional disturbance. 

Fever may be symptomatic—as when it is the result of in¬ 
flammation in some part of the body—or it is said to be ideo- 
pathic, or essential, when it is not the result of some other ail¬ 
ment, but of some specific poison which has entered the body, 
as measles, typhoid fever, small-pox, etc. 

The temperature of the body in fever will range from 99 to 
108 degrees. This is told by the use of a thermometer made 
for this purpose, called a clinical thermometer, which may 
be placed in the arm-pit or under the tongue, and allowed to 
remain there for about three minutes. 

The temperature may run higher in some fevers without 
alarm than in others : 105 degrees is a high fever ; 106 degrees 
is dangerous; 108 degrees, if long continued, is fatal. For 
instance, 104 degrees in typhoid fever is a high temperature, 
while it is comparatively low for scarlet-fever. 

Heat is a stimulus, whether it originates within or without 
the body ; hence the increased action of the heart. 

The pulse of an adult in health ranges from 70 to 80 beats 
per minute. In fever it may range from 90 to 140 or 150. A 
pulse of 120 indicates a high fever; 130, if long-continued, is 
a dangerous symptom. 

In a normal condition, there are about four beats of the pulse 
to each inspiration. Hence, the respiration in all fevers is 
hurried in proportion to the increased pulse, and the pulse rate 
should go up and down with the temperature. It is a bad omen 
to find a high temperature with a low pulse, and vice versa. 
Also, it is a bad symptom to find a rapid pulse with a low 
breathing rate. 

Pain alone may produce all the symptoms of fever, and upon 
the removal of the cause of pain the fever will subside. The 
great object to be sought in the treatment of fevers is the 
lowering of the temperature, which can be accomplished by a 
free use of cold water. If not advisable to use the pack—which 
consists in rolling the patient in a sheet lightly wrung out 
of cold water—frequent sponge-baths may be given instead. 

The higher the temperature, or body-heat, the greater the 
evaporation. The water of the body is carried away very 
rapidly. Here we see the great importance of free use of 
cold water as a drink, which not only replaces the water lost, 


but also lowers the temperature of the body. Lowering the 
temperature lowers the pulse in force and frequency, and 
also diminishes the breathing rate. 

The heart’s action may be controlled by the use of the 
tincture of aconite root or the tincture of belladonna in doses 
of about five drops ; or the tincture of veratrum viride in 
doses of from two to three drops every three or four hours. 
Some prefer smaller doses given with greater frequency, which 
can and must be done when the stomach is at all irritable. 

If there is much nervousness, the aconite should be given; if 
pain, belladonna is better; if at all desirable to produce 
nausea, as in pneumonia, veratrum viride may be given. 

In all fevers there is more or less increased destruction of 
tissue ; hence the importance of keeping all of the emmetories, 
the bowels, kidneys and skin, active or open to carry out all 
this increased debris of the system, thus keeping the blood 
pure. 

It is also of vital importance that the patient should have an 
abundance of cool, fresh air, and sufficient nourishment to 
keep up the strength of the organs, especially the heart. 

Fevers are generally divided into three classes : those in 
which the febrile condition continues from the beginning to the 
end, called continued fevers; those which come and go with 
more or less regularity, called periodical fevers; and those 
characterized by an eruption on the skin, and called eruptive 
fevers. 

Typhoid Fever. 

Typhoid Fever is a disease caused by bad sewerage, the 
odor from old privy vaults, or drinking water contaminated 
with human excrement, especially from typhoid-fever patients. 
It is a low grade of fever, which attacks a person but once. 
It comes on so gradually that it is hard to say when the disease 
began. It generally runs its course in spite of treatment. 
Treatment may save a case from a fatal termination, or reduce 
its duration to the minimum, which is three weeks. At first 
the patient complains of fatigue, loss of appetite, mental dul- 
ness and lack of interest in his work. There may be diarrhoea. 
Pulse ranges from 90 to 110 per minute ; temperature from 
100 degrees to 104 degrees. The skin is dry and of a bronze 
hue. There may be bleeding from the nose. The tongue will 
have a brown coat, which, if the patient is not given an abund¬ 
ance of water, will become very dry. The lips and teeth collect 
a dark brown or blackish, gum-like matter, called sordies. In 



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PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 




525 


the second week the patient may become more or less delirious, 
and, if not closely watched, may get out of bed, in conse¬ 
quence of delusions. It is a common thing for the patient to 
imagine himself away from home. Little red spots, like flea- 
bites, may make their appearance upon the abdomen. If there 
has been diarrhoea, the abdomen may become distended with 
gas. Hemorrhage from the bowels may take place. During 
the third week any or all of these symptoms may become 
aggravated. 

If the patient does well, at the end of the third week he 
will begin to improve, the tongue will clean, the skin become 
moist or wet with perspiration, and the mind perhaps become 
clear. He has not asked for anything, but now he may express 
a desire for food or drink. 

The treatment for this disease, in a mild case, is simply good 
hygienic surroundings and care. On account of the low mental 
condition, he may not be conscious of his wants. Hence he 
may never call for water or food. 

He should have milk and other nutritious food in such quan¬ 
tities as he can digest, at short but regular intervals. 

The bowels will need attention. If there be diarrhoea, some 
mild astringents may be given, as fluid extract of logwood. 
If the bowels are distended by gas, spirits of turpentine maybe 
given. If constipation ensue, some mild laxative, as castor-oil, 
syrup or tincture of rhubarb, or an enema of tepid water, will 
relieve the symptoms. The temperature and circulation can 
be controlled, as laid down under the head of fevers in general. 

In bad cases any or all of the symptoms may be aggravated, 
and will need special attention. 

Young persons are more likely to recover than persons 
advanced in life. They are also more liable to contract the 
disease. 

Typhus Fever. 

Typhus Fever is a disease arising from the crowding of 
human beings into a small space, as in emigrant ships, in prisons 
and in the poorer quarters in large cities. Typhoid fever is 
produced from human effete matter thrown off from the bowels. 
Typhus is liable to become epidemic after famine or excessive 
privation of any kind. When once originated, it is contagious 
in densely populated districts ; thence it may spread to cleaner 
and more healthy parts of the city. 

The attack is more sudden and its duration shorter, and the 
temperature and pulse somewhat higher than in typhoid. The 
eruption on the skin is somewhat like measles. Gangrenous 
spots are liable to appear, and may assume a very serious 
aspect. The tongue becomes contracted, dry and black ; the 
bowels are constipated ; no appetite ; delirium is present, and 
is followed by coma, in which condition the patient may sink 
and die, or gradually pass into a more natural sleep, from 
which he may wake convalescent. 

Treatment similar to typhoid. Personal cleanliness; perfect 
ventilation; good, easily-digested food; milk in its various forms; 
an abundance of cold water. The circulation and temperature 
are to be controlled as directed in fevers in general. 

Malarial Fever—Ague. 

Intermittent Fever is one form of malarial fever. It 
has cold, hot and sweating stages, with a normal interval fol¬ 
lowing. The patient may go through these stages every day, 


every other day, or every third day. This disease is caused by 
decaying vegetable matter. It prevails in new countries, river 
bottoms, districts which overflow, or in the neighborhood of 
canals or mill-ponds. It may prevail in houses with bad cellars, 
or where the sills and floors are in a state of decay. It does 
not make its appearance while the land is under water, but 
when the water recedes and exposes the half-rotten vegetable 
matter to the sun. Some physicians suppose this disease to be 
caused by a microscopic vegetable germ which enters the sys¬ 
tem, contaminating the blood. 

Intermittent fever is not self-protecting nor self-limiting. 
Some persons are never free from it while they reside in a 
malarial district. It runs an indefinite course if not checked 
by remedial agents. If not treated, the blood of the patient 
becomes impoverished, the lips pale, the skin sallow, the mus¬ 
cles weak and the body emaciated. The spleen becomes large, 
vulgarly called an ague cake. Some persons may become accli¬ 
mated, improve, and finally get well without medicine, but the 
majority would go from bad to worse and die, or become so 
weak as to have no physical endurance or resistance, and would 
finally succumb to some other disease which they, in the de¬ 
praved state of the system, are not able to withstand. The 
system may become so surcharged with the poison as to cause 
death from the severity of the chill before reaction or the fever 
stage comes on. This is what is called a “ congestive chill. ” 
Every chill is in reality a congestive chill—that is, during the 
chill some internal organ is congested, or contains an abnormal 
amount of blood ; hence the variety of symptoms during this 
stage. One may have difficulty of breathing because of con¬ 
gestion of the lungs ; another may have pain in the head ; 
another, in the stomach or heart. 

Instead of the cold, hot and sweating stages, the patient may 
have severe periodical pains along the course of a nerve. 
This constitutes one form of neuralgia. At another time, 
or another patient, instead of suffering from either chills or 
neuralgia, may have a periodical diarrhoea, or there may be 
hemorrhage from some part of the mucous membrane. 

Treatment.—The night-air contains the malarial poison in 
greater abundance than that of the day ; so that if persons must 
live in a malarial region, they can lessen the liability to contract 
disease by being in the house before sunset, and remaining 
there until after sunrise in the morning. An attack may be 
induced in some persons by eating anything which is difficult to 
digest. It becomes those who are susceptible to the influence 
of this virus to look well to their food. 

Some preparation of Peruvian bark enters into almost every 
formula for the cure of intermittent fever. Sulphate of cin¬ 
chona is the cheapest, but it is more likely to disturb the stom¬ 
ach. Cinchonidia is cheaper than quinine, and is like it in ap¬ 
pearance. It is not as likely to disturb the stomach as the sul¬ 
phate of cinchona, but more so than quinine. Quinine is more 
used because it is less irritating to the stomach, though it is of 
a higher price. Quinine is the king in this realm of remedies. 
If the interval between the paroxysms is short, we must give 
larger doses, and closer together. When the paroxysms are 
farther apart, we can give smaller doses—three or four grains 
every two hours. We believe we shall have better effect from 
small doses close together than by giving doses of five or 


/ 






5) 










































5 26 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


ten grains, four or five hours apart. We need, in ordinary 
cases, to administer from twenty to thirty grains between the 
paroxysms. The taste of quinine can be disguised by putting 
it in cold coffee or tea. A few doses of bromo-hydric acid 
will prevent the disagreeable effects and the ringing in the ears 
produced by quinine. 

Occasionally we meet with persons who cannot take quinine. 
We can use salicine in the same doses as quinine, or a little 
larger doses even. 

Arsenic is used in chronic forms of the disease, and may be 
used where quinine cannot be employed. 

Nux vomica or strychnine may be used in combination with 
other remedies. 

Remittent Fever. 

Remittent Fever is by some authors treated under the 
head of intermittent fever, considering it simply another form 
of the same disease. Its origin appears to be the same as that 
of ague, but the disease is of such intensity, and the stage of 
febrile excitement lasts so long, as to crowd out the cold and 
sweating stages. In this fever the hot stage is severer in 
intensity as well as longer in duration. The stomach is so 
disturbed that it demands the major part of our attention. 
Vomiting is very distressing to the patient and annoying to 
the physician. Bile is vomited, and thirst is very great. The 
skin and the white of the eye become yellow. This is a more 
serious disease than the intermittent type. The bile may be 
absorbed and the urea not thrown off. Both contaminate the 
blood. The patient may sink into a low typhoid condition 
and become delirious. This condition is called typho-malarial 
fever. 

In treatment the stomach first demands attention. Aro¬ 
matic sulphuric acid may be given in five-drop doses in water 
every hour or two. Or ten drops of dilute muriatic acid and 
five drops of the tincture of aconite root in water every two or 
three hours may be given. 

To control the vomiting it is at times advisable to apply a 
mustard poultice over the pit of the stomach. Lemons are also 
useful. Either let the patient suck the juice or drink a little 
strong lemonade. After we have controlled the stomach 
symptoms, the treatment should be as advised in intermittent 
fever. 

Yellow Fever. 

Yellow Fever originates in hot, low, filthy localities. 
Having once originated, it may spread, as other contagious 
diseases—may be carried a great distance in clothing or goods. 
Exposure and dissipation are strong predisposing causes. Non- 
acclimated persons are more liable to be attacked than natives. 
It is more fatal among the white population. The death-rate is 
high. Patients recovered from this fearful disease enjoy immu¬ 
nity from attacks in future. The attacks generally begin rather 
suddenly. The temperature ranges from ioi to 107 degrees. 
The symptoms are a dry skin, rapid pulse, thirst, frontal head¬ 
ache, pain in the back and calves of the legs, and vomiting. At 
first, the vomited matters consist of mucus and of portions of 
food. There is a cream-like coat upon the tongue, and tender¬ 
ness at the pit of the stomach. After a day or two the pains 
abate, but the vomiting is likely to increase, and the skin becomes 
yellow. About the fourth day, the vomit contains blood, hav¬ 


ing the appearance of coffee-grounds, and known as “ the black 
vomit. ” The urine and stools also contain blood. The tongue 
becomes dry and black, the pulse rapid but feeble. Delirium 
and coma now set in. 

Death or convalescence may take place at any time. Con¬ 
valescence may take place so early in the disease as to leave 
some doubt as to the correctness of the diagnosis, and death 
may strike the patient down before any of the characteristic 
symptoms are established. At times blood is found not only 
in the stools and urine, but the eyes, nose and mouth may 
bleed profusely, thus rendering the patient the most pitiable 
object imaginable. 

This disease demands the highest hygienic skill. It can be 
perpetuated by the virus contained in exposed clothing or fur¬ 
niture. Treatment should be according to general principles. 
Pain and vomiting are best controlled by the hypodermic in¬ 
jection of morphine. Muriatic, nitric and sulphuric acid and 
quinine are called for. 

The convalescence is generally protracted. The yellowness 
of the skin continues for a long time. At this period the main 
thing needed is good, judicious feeding and tonic treatment. 

Rubeola—Measles. 

This is a very infectious febrile disease. As a rule it is ex¬ 
perienced but once. Children are more frequently attacked 
than adults, partly because most adults have, as children, suffered 
from an attack, and thereafter enjoy immunity from the disease. 
But it is also true that adults unprotected by a former attack are 
less susceptible. About two weeks elapse from the time of 
exposure to the development of the disease. The first symptoms 
are those of a cold. The patient coughs and sneezes ; the eyes 
are suffused, and a thin mucus flows from the nose. There is a 
pink appearance of the eye, and during the catarrhal period 
there is a slight fever. On the third or fourth day the fever is 
increased, and an eruption begins to make its appearance at the 
roots of the hair and upon the forehead and temples. The 
eruption is of minute red spots scarcely raised above the surface, 
and smooth to the touch. In small-pox the eruption has a sandy 
or gritty feel. The first attack of small-pox is somewhat like 
remittent fever—a high temperature with vomiting. In measles 
it is more like a cold. The fever rises with the eruption. In 
small-pox it falls. Two days are required for the eruption to 
become general, and in about three or four days more it begins 
to disappear in the order in which it came. Now the tempera¬ 
ture suddenly falls to the normal, or very near it. The temper¬ 
ature seldom rises above 104 degrees. 

At times the lungs become involved to an alarming extent. 
The cough from the beginning is very annoying, and it is liable 
to continue for a long time after every other symptom has dis¬ 
appeared. The eyes become inflamed during the catarrhal 
period, and they so remain long after the patient is well in 
every other respect. At times the eyelids become granulated. 
The throat symptoms may also continue for some time, but 
never become a serious complication, such as that occasioned 
by scarlet fever. 

Treatment .— In this disease, great care against exposure 
is required. More soldiers, during the late civil war, died from 
measles than from small-pox, because in small-pox less harm 
is occasioned by exposure. All the windows and doors may not 




































O 


K 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


/ 


5 2 7 


be permitted, in the case of measles, to be thrown open, unless 
it be summer ; but from experience we know that the nurse needs 
be cautioned more against keeping the room too warm, against 
steaming, sweating and stimulating the patient. If it is an ordi¬ 
nary case, nothing is required beyond securing the greatest 
amount of comfort. Sometimes the eruption is very tardy in 
coming out. In such cases, a warm bath is useful in bringing out 
the eruption. Hot drinks may also be given. Such cases are 
exceptions, however, and not the rule. A few drops of aconite 
and sweet spirits of nitre, in water, may lower the pulse rate and 
temperature, but are generally not required. Syrup of ipecacu¬ 
anha and syrup of tolu will mitigate the cough. The bowels 
may need some attention. If there should be a diarrhoea, pare¬ 
goric may be added to the cough syrup. If constipation exist, 
syrup rhubarb may be given. 

The “ black ” measles is not another disease, but a malig¬ 
nant form of the same, the eruption being attended by small 
hemorrhages under the skin, analogous to that in the malig¬ 
nant form of small-pox. This condition is attended with 
danger. 

Variola—Small-Pox. 

Small-pox is a highly contagious, specific fever, which makes 
its appearance in about two weeks after having been exposed to 
the contagious influence. One attack secures the patient im¬ 
munity from the disease in future. The attack begins with a 
very high fever and intense backache. The pain is in the centre 
of the back, and is not relieved or altered in the least by any 
change of position. There may be vomiting as in remittent 
fever. At first there is no eruption, nor anything, except the 
peculiarity of the pain in the back, which would lead any one to 
suspect the true nature of the disease. On the second or third 
day the eruption makes its appearance at the roots of the hair 
on the forehead. The eruption is raised above the surface, and 
gives to the touch a gritty or sandy feeling. If this is looked for 
diligently, there need be no mistaking small-pox for measles, 
since the eruption of measles at first is not elevated, but is 
smooth, while that of small-pox is sharply elevated. This 
sharp, papillary eruption develops into little vesicles or blisters 
filled with a watery fluid. About the seventh day these little 
blisters become filled with pus, hence are called pustules. A 
peculiarity of these pustules is that the centre is depressed, 
forming an mnbilicated pustule. About the tenth or eleventh 
day the pustule is fully developed, and dries into a crust by the 
fourteenth day. The mucous membrane of the throat, and 
sometimes the trachea, is also effected by the eruption. The 
patient coughs and expectorates a very tough and disagreeable 
mucus. 

On the appearance of the eruption the fever abates and the 
patient feels much better, while in scarlet fever the temper¬ 
ature increases with the eruption. In small-pox the reverse is 
true. About the eighth or ninth day, at which time the pustules 
are developed, the fever rises again. This is termed the second¬ 
ary fever , and is the most dangerous period of the disease. The 
patient is weaker and has less power of resistance. 

The pustules are very likely to destroy the true skin beneath 
them, hence the pit , so commonly seen after this disease. 
Where the pustules are not so numerous, but stand alone, the 
eruption is said to be discrete. When they are so numerous 


: 


as to touch each other, it is called confluent. Sometimes, 
instead of the vesicle filling with a watery material, they fill with 
blood; hemorrhage also takes place from the various parts of 
the mucous membrane. This form is called hemorrhagic or 
malignant small-pox. 

Treatment. —From beginning to end the sufferer needs an 
abundance of cool, fresh air. In ordinary weather windows and 
doors should be open, provided the wind does not blow directly 
upon the patient. The neighbors need not object, for the con¬ 
tagion of small-pox is not carried through the air. The virus 
must be carried from the sick to the well, and whatever can be 
the means of this transfer of virus (usually in clothing) will 
communicate the disease, and it cannot be communicated in any 
other way. An abundance of bland drinks to soothe the irritated 
throat—such as flax-seed tea, barley-water and milk. Chlo¬ 
rate of potassium may be freely used for the same purpose. 
The temperature must be treated as stated under the head of 
fevers in general. 

When the pustules are formed, the skin, especially of the 
face and hands, may be covered with olive oil. It soothes the 
itching and prevents a too hard crust forming. Some cover the 
face with mercurial ointment for the same purpose, to prevent 
pitting. If stimulants are needed, it is not until the secondary 
fever sets in. This is looked upon as a critical period. The 
patient needs to be well fed. If the throat is sore, solid food 
may be out of the question. 

The eyes will need at times special care. The room may have 
to be darkened. A solution may be made of sulphate of zinc, 
two grains to an ounce of distilled water. A few minims of this 
solution may be dropped into the eyes two or three times a day 
to control the inflammation. 

Varioloid 

Is a modified form of small-pox. One who has had small-pox, 
or has been vaccinated, but is not fully protected, if exposed to 
the disease, may become ill with all the symptoms of small-pox, 
but in a modified degree. The eruption makes its appearance, 
there being, however, but few pustules, and these are less likely 
than the pustules of variola to leave scars. No secondary fever 
is developed in varioloid. But little treatment is needed, and 
that little does not differ from that of small-pox. 

V accination—Cow-Pox. 

Cow-pox is contracted from small-pox in the cow. If matter 
be taken from the pustule of a small-pox patient and introduced 
into the cow, in due time the eruption will make its appearance 
upon the udder. Pus taken from a pustule on the udder of 
the cow and introduced under the skin of a human being will 
produce the disease of kine or cow-pox, which is believed to pro¬ 
tect the subject against an attack of true variola. At the point 
where the virus has been introduced, a vesicle appears, which in 
a day or two develops into a pustule. This pustule is depressed 
in the centre. 

The course is precisely the same as in small-pox, only that 
the pustules are confined to the one point where the virus was 
introduced into the system. The fever is insignificant in com¬ 
parison with that attending small-pox. Why the disease should 
be thus modified by passing through the cow, we do not know. 


<5 











































528 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


<2. 


I 


But, knowing that small-pox protects a person from any future 
attack, and knowing that cow-pox is small-pox, we can readily 
understand why cow-pox protects against small-pox. 

If by introducing an insignificant disease the human family 
can be protected from such a loathsome, disfiguring, devastating 
scourge as small-pox, he who opposes it should be considered a 
misanthrope, and should be treated as such by all intelligent 
citizens. 


Vericella—Chicken-Pox. 

Chicken-pox is a contagious but an insignificant disease, 
generally confined to children. The fever is so mild as to need 
no attention. The eruption at first consists of pimples with 
inflamed bases, which develop into blisters, or vesicles, as large 
as split peas, or even sometimes as large as copper coins. 
These become filled with a milky fluid, and finally break and 
dry up into crusts or scabs. The eruption comes out in suc¬ 
cessive crops, so that in a well-marked case it can be seen in its 
various stages at the same time. The eruption lasts about a 
week, and in about another week the crusts fall off. This 
disease, like the other eruptive fevers, protects against itself. 
No treatment beyond good nursing is required. 


Scarlatina—Scarlet Fever. 

Scarlet Fever is a highly infectious malady, attacking 
children chiefly; not because the child is any more susceptible 
to its influence, but because the older children and adults have all 
had the disease or are not susceptible to it. Why some should 
pass through several epidemics without taking it, and then some 
time in after life should contract the disease, we do not know. 

The beginning of the disease is generally sudden. A child 
exposed a week ago has been in perfect health until now. The 
attack begins with a high temperature, headache, vomiting, and 
sore throat. Young children may have convulsions at the 
very beginning of the attack. Within the next twenty-four 
hours a fine red rash may be seen over the chest. Within a few 
hours it may make its appearance on the arms, lower part of 
the abdomen and upper and inner part of the thighs, and be¬ 
come general within the next twenty-four hours. It will take 
three or four days to fully develop. The temperature increases 
with the rash. It may rise to one hundred and six degrees with¬ 
out much alarm—even one hundred and seven or one hundred 
and eight—but if this temperature long continues we may look 
for an unfavorable issue. The eruption begins to fade about the 
fifth or sixth day, and the temperature and pulse should fall 
as the eruption fades. We may expect the rash to disappear 
about the tenth day of the disease. 

This disease may be so mild as to demand no attention, there 
being nothing but a red rash and very little fever. At another 
time the throat symptoms are the only ones of gravity. The 
throat trouble may be of secondary consideration, or the swell¬ 
ing may threaten suffocation. Ulceration of the throat may 
become serious. This form has been called malignant or 
putrid sore throat. 

Treatment. — The patient should be removed from all unpro¬ 
tected persons. Cold water may be used to sponge the patient. 
We must keep down the temperature to the lowest point. 
Aconite and belladonna may be used to lower the temperature. 
Chlorate of potash for the throat (not only as a gargle, but we 


K 


may administer from forty to sixty grains in twenty-four hours). 
The room should be cool and well ventilated. A small quan¬ 
tity of carbolic acid may be put into the water used in bathing. 

When the skin begins to scale off, it will be well to anoint the 
patient with vaseline containing five per cent of carbolic acid. 
The kidneys will need attention, as well as the ears. It is not 
uncommon for a child to get well of this fever and die of dropsy. 
Many deaf persons owe their misfortune to the sequels of scarlet 
fever. Patients convalescing from this disease need as much if 
not more care than during the higher stages of the fever. A cold 
may produce irreparable mischief. 

Diphtheria. 

Diphtheria is a contagious febrile disease, during which an 
ash-colored false membrane forms, generally in the throat. It 
may form in the nose, in the larynx or trachea. The first symp¬ 
tom is usually a chill, followed by high temperature (105 or 106 
degrees Fahrenheit), and more or less swelling of the parts in¬ 
volved, threatening death by suffocation or inability to swallow. 
There is a peculiar odor of the breath of the patient. The 
disease may be communicated by the matter coughed up ; hence 
the necessity of especial care. Handkerchiefs and towels used 
by the sick of this disease should be properly taken care of. It 
is better to use old cloths and burn them. 

This is a disease of all countries, persons, ages, sexes and 
conditions, but children are more liable to be attacked, and it is 
more fatal with them. The mortuary rate is high. 

This disease, in a particular case, may be so mild as not to 
occasion inconvenience to any extent beyond a little sore throat. 
It may be so severe and the swelling so great as to threaten 
death by shock or by suffocation in a few hours. 

The sequels may be serious; by attacking the kidneys, and 
interfering with the proper evacuation of urea, the patient may 
die of uremic poisoning. The throat may become paralyzed, 
so that the patient cannot swallow, the paralysis extending to 
the organs of speech. It may extend also to the limbs. The 
patient, in the majority of cases, recovers from the paralysis 
within four months, if he survives the acute stages of the disease. 
Diphtheria is not to be treated wholly as a local disease. The 
tendency is to loss of strength and death from exhaustion; 
hence tonics should be administered from the beginning. Qui¬ 
nine is well borne. Two grains every hour or two may be 
given, or tincture of iron in doses of ten drops every two or three 
hours in a tablespoonful of water. It will be well to have the 
patient drink this slowly so that it may have a local effect upon 
the throat. If the throat is badly swollen a gargle of tincture 
of iron and water may be used every three or four hours. In all 
cases of diphtheria a physician should see the patient daily. 

Rheumatism. 

Rheumatism is a constitutional disease, characterized by 
certain local manifestations. These manifestations are due to 
inflammation, acute or chronic, of the synovial membrane 
lining the joints, of certain serous membranes, particularly 
those of the heart, and of fibrous tissue elsewhere in the 
body. Rheumatism is classified as acute articular rheuma¬ 
tism and chrotiic rheumatism. 

In Acu 1 e Articular Rheumatism the lining membranes 
of the joints are inflamed. In the course of the disease cer- 


<s~ 






























K 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


/ 


529 


tain complications involving internal organs are liable to arise. 
The parts more likely to become affected are the serous mem¬ 
branes, the endocardium and pericardium lining and surround¬ 
ing the heart. 

The attack usually begins suddenly. Sometimes there is a 
slight amount of fever for a day or two preceding the joint 
affection ; sometimes the pain and tenderness of the joints 
precede the fever, but usually these symptoms appear together. 
The disease may attack any joint of the body, and is indeed 
very seldom confined to one or two. The affected joints are 
swollen, red and extremely tender. Pain is not so great except 
when attempting to move, or when disturbed or jarred. The 
slightest movement causes the most excruciating pain. Swell¬ 
ing is most apparent when the knees, ankles or wrists are the 
joints involved. The swelling is usually in proportion to the 
severity of the inflammation. One joint after another gen¬ 
erally becomes involved. Sometimes upon attacking a new 
joint all tenderness and swelling disappear from the joints first 
involved. The fever ranges in this disease between 102 and 
108 degrees. Profuse sweating is a common symptom. 

The disease very rarely proves fatal. When it does it is due 
to the extension of the inflammation to the heart, and the 
development of pericarditis. Even then the number of deaths 
during the acute attack is very small, but in the fact that the 
heart is so frequently attacked lies the danger of the disease, for, 
as explained under the head of diseases of the heart, the great 
majority of valvular diseases of the heart are due to endocarditis 
developed during an attack of acute rheumatism. Usually, 
however, the lesion of the valves causes no inconvenience until 
a number of years afterward. The heart is more likely to 
become involved, the more intense the disease. Other organs, 
such as the pleura, the peritoneum and the membranes envel¬ 
oping the brain, have been known to suffer inflammation during 
the attack, but it is extremely rare. The head is usually free 


from pain. The duration of the attack varies from ten days to 
five or six weeks. There are sometimes relapses. One who 
has once suffered from acute rheumatism is more liable to sub¬ 
sequent attacks. 

Treatment. — Notwithstanding the popularity of salicylic 
acid, or the salicylate of soda, in the treatment of rheumatism 
during the last few years, we believe that as much or more may 
be accomplished by the use of what has been known as the 
alkaline treatment. The alkali, either bicarbonate of potassa 
or soda, should be given in full doses, every three or four 
hours. Lemon juice may be added to the dose and taken while 
effervescing. As soon as the urine is rendered alkaline (which 
may be told by testing with red litmus paper, which turns to 
blue if dipped into an alkaline fluid), the dose should be greatly 
diminished, and taken thereafter only once or twice a day. 
Tonics are useful. Quinine in two-grain doses may be given. 
Tincture of aconite applied to the swollen joints often affords 
relief. Chloroform liniment or soap liniment is also used for 
this purpose. The salicylate of soda is much employed—per¬ 
haps at this time more than any other remedy. 

Chronic Rheumatism differs from the acute variety in 
the degree of severity of the symptoms, and in their duration. 
In mild cases the patients are able to go about their work, but 
suffer more or less pain in the affected joints. In other cases, 
more severe, the patient is confined to his bed, and frequently, 
with those about their avocations, there is more or less deform¬ 
ity of the joints. 

Treatmetit. —The alkalies may be used in small doses ; also 
the salicylate of soda. Iodide of potassium is sometimes very 
useful, and in malarious districts quinine is to be employed. 

The local applications to the joints here are of more impor¬ 
tance than in the acute variety. Tincture of aconite, tincture of 
iodine and chloroform liniment are very useful. 







































53° 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


-* EMERGENCIES.^ 



Hemorrhage. 

A rapid loss of blood is one of the most alarming experi¬ 
ences in life. Nothing is more startling than the hemorrhage 
from a large vessel, in the case of wounds made with a sharp 
instrument. If the wound is of one of the limbs, the bleeding 
may be easily controlled until a surgeon can arrive. If the 
blood is of a bright-red color, and flows in spurts with the pulse, 
the wounded vessel is an artery, and the blood comes directly 
from the heart. The - artery must be compressed above the 
wound. The best way to do this, in case of the arm, is to tie a 


of the nose into the throat. This last measure is always success¬ 
ful, but a physician should be called to do the operation, as 
a person without experience would be apt to fail. 

Bleeding from the Lungs.— A small amount of blood 
sometimes takes place into the bronchial tubes, giving rise to 
“spitting of blood.” With this variety there in no immediate 
danger from loss of blood. Sometimes, however, in cases of 
consumption, rupture of vessels of considerable size takes place, 
causing a copious hemorrhage. This is sometimes so severe as 
to cause death. The patient should be put to bed at once and 
required to lie quietly upon his back. Twenty drops 
of laudanum may be given every two hours. Also ace¬ 
tate of lead or tannic acid. A lemon may be sucked, 
and in some instances has a most excellent effect. A 
large spoonful of common salt, dissolved and taken 
into the stomach, is said to be very useful in control¬ 
ling the hemorrhage. The patient should be kept quiet 
for several days. 

Accidents. 


Fig. 39. Bandage Applied on Ann to Stop Bleeding. 

The dotted line indicates the course of the artery. 


BRUISES, SPRAINS, DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES. 

A Bruise should be dressed with a cold water band¬ 
age and kept wet. Perfect rest should be given the 


hard knot in a handkerchief; then pass the ends around the arm 
and tie firmly, having placed the knot over the course of the 
artery; then insert a small stick, and tighten the bandage by 
twisting, as shown in Fig. 39. If the wound be of the leg, 
apply the knotted handkerchief as shown in Fig. 40. The 
bandage thus made is correctly applied if the bleeding ceases. 
Otherwise the position of the knot must be changed until the 
bleeding vessel is successfully compressed. 

If the wound is of the trunk, or if the bleeding is not severe, 
the edges should be brought closely together with adhesive plas¬ 
ter, or with a common needle and thread, and the wound filled 
with cobwebs, or any substance favoring coagulation of the 
blood. The patient should be laid down and kept perfectly 
quiet. 

Bleeding from the Nose is caused by the rupture of a 
small vessel of the nasal mucous membrane. Generally, the 
loss of blood is not great, and soon ceases without treatment. 
Occasionally the hemorrhage is so profuse as to greatly weaken 
the patient, and even endanger life. Cold applied to the back 
of the neck, by means of a piece of ice or iron, is useful. 
Plugging the nostrils is sometimes of benefit, but in severe cases 
the blood will then flow backward into the throat. In the most 
severe cases it is sometimes necessary to plug also the opening 



Fig. 40. Bandage Applied on Thigh so as to Stop Bleed¬ 
ing from a Wound Below. 

The black line indicates the course of the artery, 
part. In case of a bruise about the face or eyes, much of the 
discoloration may be prevented by at once applying a cold water 
dressing, or ice, which is better. 












































a 


\ 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


531 


A Sprain, whether it is of the ankle, or knee, or wrist, 
should at once be tightly and thoroughly bandaged, and perfect 
rest should be given the part. A speedy recovery by this means 
will usually result, when any other course may make a cripple. 
In bandaging the knee or ankle the bandage must be applied 
down to the toes, to prevent swelling and stoppage of the cir¬ 
culation. 

In case of either Fractures or Dislocations the patient 
should not be allowed to make an effort, lest he may do himself 
additional injury. A great many times, by attempting to walk 
with a broken leg, patients have thrust the end of the fractured 
bone out through the flesh, thus greatly increasing the danger 
of a serious result. The injured member should be straightened 
out, and the patient placed in the most comfortable position to 
await the coming of the surgeon. 

Bites and Stings. 

Bite of a Mad Dog. —The wound is to be immediately 
sucked either by the patient or another person. No harm can 
result if there are no abrasions or scratches upon the lips, and it 
is a very ready and effective way of removing the poison from 
the wound. Send at once for a medical man to cut or cauter¬ 
ize the wound. If none can be had within a few minutes, any 
person can cauterize the wound with lunar caustic, or, if none 
be at hand, the wound may be burned to the bottom by a small 
red-hot iron. The bite of a dog not mad is usually very pain¬ 
ful, and is attended with considerable inflammation and swell¬ 
ing. Cloths wrung out of hot water may be applied. Later, 
a flax-seed poultice, with a half-teaspoonful of laudanum 
sprinkled upon it, should be applied. 

Bite of a Venomous Serpent should be treated in the 
same way as the bite of a mad dog. Brandy or whisky should 
be given in considerable quantity. 

Stings of Wasps and Bees may be treated by bathing 
the parts with ammonia or hartshorn, diluted with an equal 
amount of water. In case of the honey-bee sting, if there is 
much swelling, a poultice of flaxseed should be applied. 

Burns, Scalds and Frost-Bites. 

In case of Burns or Scalds the parts should be protected from 
the air at once. If a quantity of white oil-paint is at hand, 
cover the burn at once by applying gently a very thick coat 
of the paint. In a little while another coat is to be given. If 
no paint is to be had, apply olive oil and cover with flour. If 
no sweet oil is to be had, lard will do. If no oil of any sort is 
to be had, then cover the part with dry flour. The patient 
should be given a full dose of laudanum or paregoric, or opium 
or morphine. If the burn has been very extensive, a physician 
should now be sent for. 

Incase of Frost-Bite, the circulation must be slowly restored; 
hence great care should be taken not to bring the patient into a 
warm room. The frozen part may be rubbed with snow in 
a cold room, or immersed in very cold water, and kept there 
for two or three hours, until the circulation has been fully 
restored. 

Suffocation. 

Suffocation takes place whenever the air is shut out of the 
lungs; this may be done by compressing the windpipe, as in 
choking or hanging; or filling the lungs with water, as in 


drowning ; or with poisonous gases, as charcoal gas from burn¬ 
ing charcoal, or by the escape of illuminating gas into the 
sleeping-room; or by the poisonous gas in mines and old 
wells. 

In case of strangulation, as by hanging, the pressure upon the 
windpipe is to be instantly removed, and the bands about the 
neck and body loosened. In the case of inhalation of a poisonous 
gas the patient is to be at once removed into the open air ; while 
the drowning person is, of course, to be removed at once from 
the water, and movements made for emptying the water out of 
the lungs. The wet clothes should be stripped off and the 
body wrapped in a warm shawl, blanket or dry coat ; no time 
should be lost in changing the clothing, but efforts at artificial 
respiration should be made at once, and the clothing can be 
gotten off while these efforts are in progress. Artificial respir¬ 
ation should be employed in all cases, whether of hanging, 
drowning, or suffocation by a poisonous gas. The following 
method of Marshall Hall is as good as any other : 

1. Treat the patient instantly on the spot, in the open air, 
freely exposing the face, neck and chest to the breeze, except in 
severe weather 

2. In order to clear the throat, place the patient gently on the 
face, with one wrist under the forehead, that all fluid, and the 
tongue itself, may fall forward, and leave the entrance into the 
wind-pipe free. 

3. To excite respiration, turn the patient slightly on his side, 
and apply some irritating or stimulating agent to the nostrils, as 
vetratrine, dilute ammonia, etc. 

4. Make the face warm by brisk friction; then dash cold 
water upon it. 

5. If not successful, lose no time; but, to imitate respira¬ 
tion, place the patient on his face, and turn the body gently, 
but completely, on the side, and a little beyond ; then again on 
the face, and so on, alternately. Repeat these movements 
deliberately and perseveringly, fifteen times only in a minute. 
(When the patient lies on the thorax, this cavity is compressed 
by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place. When 
he is turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and inspira¬ 
tion occurs.) 

6. When the prone position is resumed, make a uniform and 
efficient pressure along the spine, removing the pressure immedi¬ 
ately, before rotation on the side. (The pressure augments the 
expiration; the rotation commences inspiration.) Continue 
these measures. 

7 Rub the limbs upward, with firm pressure and with 
energy. (The object being to aid the return of venous blood 
to the heart.) 

8. Substitute for the patient’s wet clothing, if possible, 
such other covering as can be instantly procured, each bystander 
supplying a coat or cloak, etc. Meantime, and from time to 
time, to excite inspiration, let the surface of the body be 
slapped briskly with the hand. 

9. Rub the body briskly till it is dry and warm, then dash 
cold water upon it, and repeat the rubbing. 

Avoid the immediate removal of the patient, as it involves a 
dangerous loss of time ; also, the use of bellows, or any forc¬ 
ing instrument ; also, the warm bath, and all rough treatment. 


A®" 















































53 2 


PHYSIOLOGY AND MEDICINE. 


Poisoning. 

In cases of poisoning something must be done at once, before 
a physician can have time to reach the patient. The first effort 
should be to get the poison out of the stomach. This can be 
done by inducing vomiting. This should be done in every 
case, no matter what poison has been swallowed. 

Endeavor to wash out the stomach in the following manner : 
a tablespoonful of common dry mustard is to be added to about 
two quarts of warm water; stir well and give to the patient by 
the tumblerful until he vomits freely. In some cases, half the 
mixture will be required before vomiting is induced. If no 
mustard is at hand, then use the warm water alone. 

The patient should be undressed and put to bed. If the skin 
becomes cold and the breathing rapid, stimulants are required, 
such as bottles of hot water placed at the feet and in contact 
with the body, always taking care not to burn the skin. 

In the case of known opium or morphine poisoning, in addi¬ 
tion to the above the victim should be walked rapidly by a 
strong person on either side. 

Acids (Oxalic, Sulphuric, Nitric).—Give large draughts of 
cooking soda in water, then wash out the stomach as directed 
in general rules. 

Carbolic Acid kills very rapidly. Pour oil into the victim’s 
mouth freely. Apply friction to the surface. Inject diluted 
whisky into the bowels. Children have been seriously poisoned 
by carbolic acid injected into the bowels to destroy pin worms. 
In such cases empty the bowels completely by warm soap suds 
injected into the bowels, and stimulate the victim by whisky 
and water in the stomach. 

Aconite. —Wash out the stomach. Rub the entire surface of 
the body with a coarse towel. Inject a tablespoonful of whisky 
with an equal quantity of water into the bowels. 

Antimony (Hive Syrup).—A draught of sweet oil or milk, 
followed by washing out the stomach. Give diluted whisky by 
the mouth and inject it into the bowels. 

Arsenic (Fowler’s Solution).—Draughts of milk or starch, 
followed by washing out the stomach. Stimulants injected into 
the bowels. 

Alkalies (Potash, Ammonia).—Pour sweet oil or milk into 
the mouth freely; afterward wash out the stomach. 


Belladonna. —Wash out the stomach. Apply friction to the 
surface. Stimulate with whisky. 

Chloral. —Empty the stomach. Artificial heat to the sur¬ 
face. Stimulants by injection. 

Chloroform. —If taken into the stomach, wash it out. If 
respiration threatens to cease, use artificial respiration and ap¬ 
ply heat and friction to the surface. If inhaled, the victim 
should be placed head down while efforts are being made to 
maintain respiration artificially. Keep the body warm. All 
persons should make themselves familiar with methods of in¬ 
ducing artificial respiration, and remember to employ them with 
steady persistency in cases of drowning. 

Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate).—White of eggs, or, if not 
at hand, give milk freely. Wash out the stomach afterward. 

Opium (Morphine).—The greatest difficulty will be experi¬ 
enced in emptying the stomach, which may be facilitated by 
tickling the front portions of the throat with a feather. Com¬ 
pel the patient to walk rapidly if possible. If not, use the most 
vigorous friction to the surface without ceasing. If necessary, 
severe pain should be produced by sharply pinching the thumb 
nail until the patient responds. Hot black coffee. Artificial 
respiration. Children are frequently killed by soothing syrups. 
These should never be given except by medical advice. 

Fainting. 

The cause of Fainting is lack of blood in the brain ; 
hence, the patient, in case of a faint, should be placed in a posi¬ 
tion favoring the flow of blood to the brain. The patient should 
be laid at once flat down upon a bed, a sofa, or the floor, with¬ 
out any pillow under the head ; then cold water can be dashed 
in the face, which will have the desired effect. 

Sunstroke. 

In case of Sunstroke , unfasten and remove all excess of cloth¬ 
ing and dash pails of cold water over the head and chest of the 
patient. As sdon as ice can be procured make an ice-cap of 
towels, and cover the head with ice broken in small pieces. 
This treatment of cold to the head is to be kept up for many 
hours, or even for days in some cases. A physician should be 
called as soon as possible, but treatment should go vigorously 
forward until his arrival. 


































^POSOLOGICAL. TABLE.*- 


Medicines, with Doses for Adults. 


For patients over 20 years of age, the full dose; from 14 to 20 years, X of full dose; 7 to 14 years, X dose; 4 to 7 years, X 

dose ; 3 years, ^ dose; 2 years, X dose ; 1 year, ^ dose. 


Medicine. Dose. 

Arsenic, Fowler’s Solution of.2 to 10 drops. 

Aconite, Extract of..^ to X grain. 

Aconite, Tincture of.1 to 5 drops. 

Aloes, Purified.1 to 5 grains. 

“ Pills of.1 to 4 pills. 

“ Pills of Asafcetida and.1 to 4 pills. 

Asafoetida, Mixture of.X to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

“ Tincture of.X to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

“ Pills of..1 to 4 pills. 

Atropia, Sulphate of.2^0 to fa of a grain. 

Belladonna, Extract of..X *° 1 g ra ' n - 

“ Fluid Extract of.I to 5 drops. 

“ Tincture of.5 to 30 drops. 

Bismuth, Subnitrate of.10 to 30 grains. 

Bromide of Ammonia. 5 *-° 20 gr a i ns - 

“ of Potassium.5 to 20 grains. 

“ of Sodium.5 to 20 grains. 

Buchu, Fluid Extract of.10 to 60 drops. 

Calibar Bean, Extract of.X to 1 g ra i n - 

Calomel.i to 10 grains. 

Camphor, Spirits of. 5 to J 5 drops. 

Camphor Water.1 104 teaspoonfuls. 

Capsicum, Tincture of.10 to 20 drops. 

Castor Oil. X to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Chloral, Hydrate of. 5 t0 3 ° g rains - 

Cinchona, Sulphate of. 5 t° 3 ° grains. 

Cinchona, Compound Tincture of.1 to 4 teaspoonfuls. 

Cod Liver Oil.X t0 1 tablespoonful. 

Copper, Sulphate of. 1 to X grain. 

Corrosive Sublimate. fa to ^ grain. 

Cream of Tartar.5 to 60 grains. 

Croton Oil.1 to 2 drops. 

Digitalis, Extract of.X to 2 grains. 

Digitalis, Tincture of...5 to 60 drops. 

Dover’s Powder. 5 to 10 grains. 

Epsom Salts.X to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Ergot, Fluid Extract of..X to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Gentian, Extract of.. 1 to 5 grains. 

Gilsemium, Fluid Extract of. 5 to 10 drops. 

Hydrochloric Acid, dilute. 1 to 5 drops. 

Hyosciamus, Fluid Extract of. 5 to 20 drops. 

Hyosciamus, Tincture of.X to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Iodine, Compound Tincture of.2 to 5 drops. 


Medicine. Dose. 

Iodide of Potassium.5 to 30 grains. 

Ipicacuanha, Fluid Extract of.2 to 30 drops. 

Ipicacuanha, Syrup of..1 to 4 teaspoonfuls. 

Ipicacuanha, Troches of Morphine and.1 to 10 troches. 

Iron, Reduced.1 to 2 grains. 

Iron, Pyrophosphate of..2 to 5 grains. 

Iron, Tincture of the Chloride of.5 to 30 drops. 

Lactic Acid.15 to 30 drops. 

Laudanum.15 to 40 drops. 

Lead, Sugar of.X to 5 grains. 

May Apple, Resin of.X to X grain. 

May Apple, Extract of.3 to 8 grains. 

Muriatic Acid, dilute.5 to 10 drops. 

Morphine.X to X grains. 

Magnesia, Sulphate of.X to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Mustard, Ground.1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Nitre, Sweet Spirits of.X to 1 teaspoonful. 

Nitro-Muriatic Acid, dilute.2 to 10 drops. 

Nux Vomica, Tincture of.10 to 25 drops. 

Opium, Extract of..X to 2 grains. 

Opium, Tincture of.15 to 40 drops. 

Opium, Camphorated Tincture of.X to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Paregoric.X to 2 tablespoonfuls. 

Potassium, Bicarbonate of.5 to 20 grains. 

Potassium, Bitartrate of.5 to 60 grains. 

Potassium, Bromide of..5 to 20 grains. 

Potassium, Chlorate of.5 to 20 grains. 

Potassium, Iodide of.5 to 30 grains. 

Potassium, Liquor of.2 to 20 drops. 

Pepsin.5 to iograins. 

Quassia, Tincture of.5 to 60 drops. 

Quinine.2 to 10 grains. 

Salicin.5 to 20 grains. 

Senna, Confection of..1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Senna, Fluid Extract of.1 tablespoonful. 

Soda, Bicarbonate of.5 to 30 grains. 

Soda, Salicylate of.10 to 30 grains. 

Squill, Syrup of.X to 1 teaspoonful. 

Strychnia, Sulphate of.2^ to ^ of a grain. 

Turpentine, Spirits or Oil of.5 to 10 drops. 

Valerian, Tincture of.X to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Veratrum Viride, Tincture of.1 to 4 drops. 

Zinc, Oxide of.X to 5 grains. 


V- 


\ 

































































































































DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


Causes. —This disease is an eruptive fever peculiar to the 
horse. Changes of location and certain atmospheric influences 
will induce this disease in young colts and horses under three 
years old. Symptoms.— The first indications are depression of 
spirits, loss of appetite, as in the case of cold; followed by dry 
and clammy mouth, cough¬ 
ing, sore throat, discharge 
from nose of red, slimy mat¬ 
ter, and heavy breathing. 

A hard, painful tumor grows 
between the branches of the 
lower jaw, which grows 
large, and after festering 
bursts, discharging matter. 

During the progress of this 
disease the bowels are cos¬ 
tive, the urine scanty, and 
there is a general loss of 
flesh and strength. 

TREATMENT.-Avoid bleed¬ 
ing and physic. Let the disease 
run its natural course, or fatal 
complications may ensue. Good 

nursing is most important. Steam the nose with hot bran and hayseed three 
times a day. Feed with steamed barley, oats and sliced carrots, and freshly 
cut grass. Give plenty of fresh air, avoiding drafts. Apply warm flaxseed 
meal poultices to the swelling jaw. When the tumor is stubborn, shorten the 
hair and apply blister of i part of powdered Spanish fly, mixed with 6 parts 
of hog’s lard. Give, morning and evening, i dram of carbonate of iron, 
3 drams of powdered gentian, and 2 drams of powdered flaxseed meal, 
into a thick paste with treacle, by placing it on the root of the tongue. 


Causes.—A disease common to young horses in the spring 
and fall. This is recognized as an epizootic disease. Symp¬ 
toms. —It assumes various forms, catarrhal, gastric, bilious, and 
sometimes partakes of a rheumatic or erysipelatous character. 
The form of catarrh is the most common. The signs are dulness, 

loss of appetite, hanging 
head, drooping ears, stag¬ 
gering gait, staring coat, 
quickened breath and pulse, 
coughing, costive and scanty 
urine, dropsical swellings 
under chest and abdomen 
and in the legs. 

TREATMENT.—Good nurs¬ 
ing better than all physic. Bleed¬ 
ing must be avoided. Cover with 
a light blanket and bandage the 
legs. Clysters of lukewarm soap¬ 
suds should be given several times 
a day. If much cough, give 3 
drams of fluid extract of bella¬ 
donna, 1 dram of camphor, 1 
ounce of sweet spirits of nitre, in 
half a pint of cold water, three 
times a day. Frequently offer cold water. Apply liniment of ammonia to 
the throat, and hot water to the chest, succeeded by a mustard poultice. 
When the horse begins to improve, give tonics. Avoid the use of rowels or 
setons. 

GLANDERS AND FARCY. 

Causes.— These are twin diseases, either of which usually 
ends with both forms fully developed. They are caused by 



S) 


e) 


4^-TIE B€ 

General Constitutional Diseases. 


DISTEMPER. 


INFLUENZA. 





















































































DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


~7 

535 


foul air in stables, privation, bad food or contact with glan- 
dered horses. These diseases may result in chronic diseases. 
Symptoms.— Farcy manifests itself in large corded swellings on 
various parts of the body, but especially between the hind 
legs. These tumors, which are called “ Farcy Buds,” suppurate 
and discharge unhealthy-looking matter. Glanders affects the 
nose, extending to the throat and lungs. Pustules form in the 
nostrils; these break and leave ulcers. There is a thick dis¬ 
charge, which encrusts the edge of the nostrils. There are two 
forms of this disease, acute and chronic. Both of these twin 
diseases are highly contagious. 

TREATMENT.—Glanders is incurable. To the “Farcy Buds,” a 
strong solution of chloride of lime, carbolic acid or lunar caustic should 
be applied; or they may be touched with pointed hot iron. This should be 
done in the very earliest stage of the disease. Give the patient internally 
one-half a dram of iodide of copper, or iodide of iron, with half an ounce 
of gentian root, twice a day. Once a fortnight an ounce of aloes with half 


an ounce of saltpeter may be given. Plenty of good, nourishing food, 
exercise and cleanliness will help. Keep such horses separate and disinfect 
the stables. 

RHEUMATISM. 

Causes.—O ften developed from influenza, occasioned by ex¬ 
posure to cold air after coming in heated from work, or to wet. 
Symptoms.— Affects the tendons and ligaments of the body and 
limbs; changes its locality; attended by heat, swelling, pain 
and stiffness. When the loins are affected, called “ lumbago ”; 
when the shoulders, “ chest-founder.” 

TREATMENT.—Take great care to clothe the body, bandage the legs, 
and keep the horse warm and comfortable. Apply friction. Use hartshorn 
liniment or blister of Spanish fly, or insert a seton. Give bran mashes, and 
a dose composed of 6 drams of aloes and 2 drams each of nitre and 
ginger. Then mix 4 ounces of powdered nitre, 2 ounces of powdered 
squills, 2 ounces of powdered colchicum seeds. Divide these into twelve 
powders, and give the horse one three times a day. If the weather be fine, 
let the horse run in the pasture. 


"» 0 <^ 0 «- 


Diseases of the Nervous System. 


INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. 

Causes. — Results almost invariably from local injuries, 
bruises, knocks, or fracture of the skull. Symptoms.— De¬ 
lirium and convulsions, followed by a high fever. The eyes 
bloodshot, the nose red, pulse frequent, breath loud and hard, 
and the pupil of the eye contracted. Extreme dulness follows, 
with loss of appetite and extreme costiveness. 

TREATMENT.—Apply cold water or chopped ice to the head fre¬ 
quently; if this fails, setons or blisters. Give, in the earliest stages, 1 ounce 
of aloes, 20 drops of croton oil, and 2 drams each of nitre and ginger, 
made in:o two balls with flaxseed meal and treacle. Inject blood-warm 
soap-suds. Let the horse be loose in a well-bedded, cool stable. Bromide 
of potassium in doses of 2 drams every three hours. 

MEGRIMS, OR VERTIGO. 

Causes. —May result from an over-full body, or over-work in 
hot weather, or from a collar fitting too tightly to allow of the 
circulation of the blood. Symptoms. —Twitching and shaking 
of the neck, enlargement of the veins of the neck and head, 
unsteady gait, reeling, staggering; sudden insensibility. 

TREATMENT.—The horse should be at once unhitched from the 
vehicle, the throat-latch should be unbuttoned, and cold water dashed on 
the head. 

STAGGERS, OR COMA. 

Causes.—A disease incident to middle age in horses of nar¬ 
row foreheads. Results from overfeeding or long idleness in 
close stables, or feeding on coarse, bulky diet. Symptoms.— 
Comes on slowly; torpid bowels, scanty, highly-colored urine, 
slow breathing. When eating, the horse will suddenly stop 
with the food between his lips. Will put his nose deep into the 
water when drinking. Will stand with his head pressed against 
the wall and will not move; if made to move, staggers. De¬ 
lirium, cramps and convulsions ensue. 


TREATMENT.—A dose of the medicine prescribed for inflammation 
of the brain should be given, with frequent injections per rectum. Walking 
exercise. Setons should be applied to the neck and strong hartshorn lini¬ 
ment to spine and limbs. Smear on the root of the tongue, three times a 
day, physic composed of 15 grains of powdered nux vomica, 1 dram of 
carbonate of iron, 3 drams of powdered gentian root, mixed with treacle. 
Do not bleed on any account. 

SUNSTROKE. 

Causes. —The heat of the sun on hot days. See also “ Me¬ 
grims.” Symptoms. —The horse will droop, grow heedless of 
the whip, perspire and breathe hard. The nostrils will be wide 
open, the eyes red. The horse will drop down and may die in 
convulsions. 

TREATMENT.—Remove harness, apply cold water to head and body. 
Apply vigorous friction and strong hartshorn liniment to the limbs and 
Spanish fly blister to the sides of the neck as a counter-irritant. Injections 
per rectum of 2 ounces of aqua ammonia, mixed with one pint of raw lin¬ 
seed oil. If the pulse fail, 2-dram doses of carbonate of ammonia in 
water, or 2-ounce doses of whisky in half a pint of water. If the convul¬ 
sions prevail, J4-ounce doses of bromide of potassium, or -ounce doses of 
chloral hydrate. 

PARTIAL PARALYSIS. 

Causes. —Blows, bruises, external violence, undue pressure 
of the halter, will often cause palsy of the lips and portions of 
the face. Brain diseases not infrequently ensue. Paralysis of 
half the body may be caused by severe straining of the back, or 
from heavy blows on the loins. Symptoms. —The affected side 
in palsy of the lips or face becomes flabby and wholly motion¬ 
less. Difficulty in drinking as well as chewing food. In 
paralysis of the hinder parts the animal lies down and is 
unable to move. 

TREATMENT.—Paralysis caused by fractured bones pressing on the 
spinal marrow, or from bony tumors, is wholly incurable. In palsy of the 
face apply cold water or chopped ice continuously for twelve hours. Then 


















































53 6 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 




apply hot iron lightly in streaks or dots, followed by Spanish fly blistering, 
or use blister alone over the whole surface that is affected. Repeat this 
treatment every fourteen days. Electricity is sometimes useful where the 
tail has become paralyzed. Give io to 15 grain doses of nux vomica 
twice daily. 

LOCKJAW. 

Causes. —There are two forms. The idiopathic arises from 
exposure to cold or wet, or from unhealthy conditions of the 
digestive organs. The traumatic form is due to wounds or 
other injuries of the body and limbs, especially of the joints or 
feet. Symptoms.— Difficulty in swallowing and turning the 
neck; gradual swelling of the neck and jaws. Chewing be¬ 
comes almost impossible. The whole body becomes affected. 
Head protruding, eyes fixed, saliva flows constantly from the 
mouth. The breathing is quick, bowels costive and urine 
scanty. No appetite, but great thirst. 

TREATMENT.—Remove the animal to a dark, cool, quiet stable. 
Give without delay a dose composed of 1 ounce of powdered aloes and 2 
drams each of nitre and ginger, made into a ball, and to keep the bowels 
open, place between the back teeth once a day 1 dram of solid extract of 


belladonna mixed with half a dram of podophyllin. Apply blankets 
wrung out of hot water over the body. Fresh cold water and thin oatmeal 
gruel should be kept handy. The horse should be kept very quiet. If this 
treatment fails, inject into the mouth three times a day dilute prussic acid, 
first day 15 drops, increasing 5 drops each day, till you reach 100. 

SPINAL MENINGITIS. 

Causes. —This disease results from those causes which induce 
inflammation of the brain. Symptoms. — Excitement, hard 
breathing, quick pulse and intense perspiration. Cramps and 
convulsions, with much tenderness of the back and loins. 

TREATMENT.—When the hinder parts have become paralyzed and 
urine and dung have ceased, the case is incurable. Otherwise application 
should be made to the back and loins of a continuous stream of cold water, 
or ice, succeeded by blisters of Spanish fly. The horse should be placed on 
good, cool bedding and turned over every four or five hours. Sometimes the 
following dose, twice a day, has proved useful : 40 drops of a mixture com¬ 
posed of 1 grain of atropia, 10 drops of diluted sulphuric acid and 8 ounces 
of spring water. Sloppy food, flaxseed tea, and frequent injections of blood- 
warm soapsuds per rectum. If there are convulsions, give, every two or 
three hours, 2 drams of bromide of potassium. If the urine is stubborn, 
it should be withdrawn with a catheter. 


-•o$-o«- 

Diseases of the Organs of Breathing 


CATARRH, OR COMMON COLD. 

Causes.— Exposure to cold and wet. Cold drafts of air. 
Allowing the body to remain wet after washing. Symptoms.— 
Redness of eyes and nose, watery discharge that becomes yel¬ 
low. Dulness, sneezing, coughing, loss of appetite. Chills, 
warmness of skin following. Quickened pulse and breathing. 

TREATMENT. — Place in a cool, well ventilated stable, clothe the 
body well and apply friction to the legs. Give bran mashes or loosening 
food. In each half pint of cold water dissolve 2 teaspoonfuls of nitre. If 
the throat is sore, apply hartshorn treatment. 

NASAL GLEET. 

Causes.— The almost invariable result of neglected catarrh. 
Symptoms.— Discharge from one or both nostrils of a slimy 
matter. General coughing, frequent snorting. Appetite uncer¬ 
tain. Coat staring and the animal hidebound. Becomes poor 
and thin, and often ends in glanders. 

TREATMENT. — Inject into the nose solution y 2 dram sulphate of 
zinc to half a pint of water. Give once a day a ball on root of the tongue 
composed of y 2 dram each of powdered sulphate of copper and sulphate 
of zinc and 3 drams of powdered gentian root mixed up with flaxseed 
meal and treacle. Feed liberally with loosening food. 

SORE THROAT. 

Causes.— Often comes with catarrh or nasal gleet. It results, 
like cold, from exposure. Symptoms. —More or less swelling 
and tenderness of the throat. Cough frequent, dry and painful; 
becomes loose and rattling. Quickening of pulse and breath¬ 
ing. Redness of eyes and nose. Watery, then slimy discharge 
of the nose. Great difficulty in swallowing, the water coming 
back through the nose. 


TREATMENT.—Place the horse in a cool stable where there is no 
draft, cover lightly and apply friction and bandages to the legs. Steam 
the head and put woolen rag round the neck. Give frequent lukewarm in¬ 
jections per rectum. Warm poultices of linseed and bran meal should be 
applied to the throat, and a liniment of 1 part of aqua ammonia and 6 parts 
of oil of camphor. Give three times a day a tablespoonful of an electuary 
composed of 4 scruples of tannin, 3 ounces of brandy and 6 ounces of honey. 
Sloppy food. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Causes. —Often a sequel of sore throat and produced by the 
same causes. An affection of the windpipe, and often reaches 
the lungs. Symptoms. —Much like the foregoing disease. The 
animal dull, poor appetite, great thirst, legs and ears cold. 

TREATMENT.—Treat as for early stage of sore throat. Give, every 
two hours for twelve hours, 10 drops of tincture of aconite root. Plenty of 
fresh cold water, with a little nitre. Mustard to chest and windpipe, or 
blister of 1 ounce each of Spanish fly and oil of turpentine to every 5 ounces 
of hog’s lard; meantime be careful that the horse does not touch the blis¬ 
tered part for six hours. After the aconite, give twice a day a dose of 2 
drams each of muriate of ammonia and nitrate of potassa, and 1 ounce of 
powdered marshmallow root, made into an electuary with a little water. On 
signs of recovery give tonics. 

CONGESTION OF LUNGS. 

Causes.— Frequent in young, fat horses. Brought on by 
hard running, severe exertion or exposure to sudden and severe 
cold. Symptoms. —Quick, loud breathing, wide nostrils, eyes 
bloodshot and nose of deep red or blue color. Legs cold, 
sweating; the horse looks to be in great pain. Pulse faint, but 
quick. 

TREATMENT.—Cool stable, fresh air. Give strong stimulants, 
2 ounces each of tincture of ginger and aromatic spirit of ammonia in half 
pint of water, repeated every hour. Apply whisky or alcohol, with equal 


0) 



































DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


537 


parts of water, with smart friction, to the limbs. A blanket wrung out of 
very hot water will be useful, or bleeding from the jugular vein, except 
where great stupor prevails. Give frequent warm injections per rectum. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

Causes.— Inflammation is generally the sequel of congestion. 
Will surely follow unless there is great care. Symptoms. —Loss 
of spirits, shivering, staring coat, surface of body and limbs 
cold, immediately followed by fever, full pulse, quick breathing, 
hot and clammy mouth, nose and eyes yellowish red. Breath¬ 
ing changes to panting, nostrils wide, fore legs apart, painful 
cough, loss of appetite, dung and urine scanty. 

T REATMENT.—Cool stable. Cover with surcingle, friction and band¬ 
age to legs. Frequent warm water injections. Give tincture of aconite root 
as for bronchitis, mustard poultice to chest. After aconite, give, every 
three hours, i ounce each of sweet spirits of nitre and aromatic spirits of 
ammonia in pint of cold water. Plenty of fresh water, sloppy food, 
newly-cut grass. 

PLEURISY. 

Causes.— Inflammation of the membrane which lines the 
inside of the chest generally accompanies inflammation of the 
lungs. It may be, and often is, caused by exposure to cold or 
wet, sometimes by wounds of the chest or broken ribs. Symp¬ 
toms. —Much resemble those of inflammation of the lungs. 
Breathing is difficult; short, painful cough. Pressure with finger 
between the ribs causes the animal to grunt; fore legs wide 
apart; ridge along the side of the belly. 

TREATMENT.—Same as for inflammation of lungs. Give on the 
third day a laxative, 4 drams of aloes, y z dram of podophyllin, and 3 
drams of nitre, made into a ball. Give, morning and evening, for two days, 
1 scruple of powdered digitalis and % ounce each of nitre and powdered 
juniper berries, as an electuary. Tapping the chest is not wise. When 
recovering give tonics. 


BROKEN WIND, OR HEAVES. 

Causes. — Feeding on dry food, overexertion on a full 
stomach, deranged state of nervous centres. Symptoms. —Dry, 
hacking cough, expanded nostrils, jerky breathing, expulsion of 
air from the lungs difficult. Appetite and thirst greedy, windy 
expansion of abdomen, flatulence. 

TREATMENT.—In confirmed cases there is no relief from the painful 
breathing. Give only nutritive food in small bulk ; cut-hay of the best 
quality mixed with oats, slightly damped. Sliced carrots or turnips. Avoid 
timothy hay. Give, every other day, a meal of sloppy or ^teamed food, 
with a pint of flaxseed meal. Always give the horse a rest after a meal. 

THICK WIND. 

Causes. —Hard breathing through thickening of the mucous 
membrane of the windpipe. Generally the result of repeated 
bronchitis or inflammation of the lungs. Symptoms. —The 
breathing is quick, especially during fast or heavy or up-hill 
work. Cough short and dry. 

TREATMENT.—Generally incurable, but may be much relieved by 
same treatment as for broken wind. Give twice daily 2 drams of fluid 
extract of belladonna and ounce of Fowler’s solution of arsenic, during 
every other week. 

COUGH. 

Causes. —Accompanies all diseases of the organs of breath¬ 
ing, and often remains as a permanent result. Sometimes fol¬ 
lows affections of the liver. Symptoms.— Loud and forcible 
expulsion of air from the lungs. 

TREATMENT.—Dependent on causes. Very difficult to tell what is 
good for a cough. In short, the cause must be removed ; then, and only 
then, will the cough cease. 




Diseases of the Digestive Organs. 


CRIB-BITING, OR WIND-SUCKING. 

Causes. —Often results from idleness. Sometimes is caused 
by, and sometimes the cause of, indigestion. Symptoms. —The 
horse takes hold of anything within reach, and champs and 
produces a grunting sound; or swallows the air — this is called 
wind-sucking. 

TREATMENT.—Place the horse in stall with manger lower than the 
knees, and where hayrack and window are higher than the top of his withers. 
Remove all protruding objects. Place salt within reach. 

THE TEETH. 

Causes. —Bad teeth cause loss of appetite and general weak¬ 
ness of condition. Injury or disease of the jaw causes bad 
teeth. Symptoms. —The horse may be emaciated and hide¬ 
bound before the badness of the teeth is suspected. The pain 
will cause the horse to drop his food. More or less slavering. 
Sometimes an offensive discharge from the nostrils. 

TREATMENT.—Use the tooth rasp. No use to stuff decayed teeth 
with gutta-percha. Better extract the bad teeth and fill up the socket with 
gutta-percha or caoutchouc. 


WOLF TEETH. 

Causes.— These are two small tooth-like nodules, one of 
which is inserted in each upper row of molars. They are of no 
use. Symptoms. —There is a strong belief that these wolf teeth 
produce diseases of the eye; but there is no proof of this. 

TREATMENT.—These teeth generally drop out with the shedding of 
the milk teeth, before the fifth year. Occasionally they remain. It is hardly 
worth while to break them off. They are perfectly harmless. 

LAM PAS. 

Causes. —Appears between second and fifth year, during 
which time the teeth are shed. Results in older horses from 
indigestion or worms. Symptoms.— Swelling, redness and ten¬ 
derness of the gums and the ridges of the palate, with pain in 
masticating. 

TREATMENT.—Do not burn the ridges; make slight incisions with 
penknife, and, when the bleeding has ceased, wash with alum water. Place 
salt handy. 





















































53« 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


LOSS OF APPETITE. 

Causes. —All internal diseases and all painful diseases will 
cause loss of appetite. Diseases of the teeth. Sometimes exists 
without any apparent cause. 

TREATMENT.—Change of diet. A laxative of io ounces ol glauber 
salts in a pint of warm water; add an ounce of ground ginger. Place salt 
handy. Give reasonable exercise. 

INDIGESTION. 

Causes. —Sudden changes of food from green to dry, from 
bulky to reverse. Unsound grain or hay. Too much food with 
too little exercise. Overwork. Bad teeth. Symptoms. —Loss 
of spirits, hide-bound, tongue and mouth coated and slimy; pro¬ 
fuse sweating, appetite irregular. Dung dry, hard and slimy, 
or like cow’s dung, sour and mixed with grain. Horse evinces 
colic signs, as looking round, pawing and switching with his 
tail. Licks the wall or ground; will eat his dirty litter. 
Coughing. 

TREATMENT. — Change diet. Feed frequently steamed or boiled 
food, or pasturage. When very bad, give laxative dose. Place salt, mag¬ 
nesia or powdered chalk within reach. Tonic and alterative medicines, as 
]/ 2 ounce each of carbonate of soda, gentian and ginger; repeat the dose 
morning and evening for a week. Give careful daily groomings and plenty 
of exercise. 

SPASMODIC COLIC. 

Causes. —Exposure to cold and wef, constipation, overfeed¬ 
ing and overwork. Large numbers of worms, intestinal tumors 
and stones. Sometimes from drinking cold water in a heated 
condition. Symptoms. —Sudden uneasiness, pawing with fore¬ 
foot, switching with tail, getting up and down frequently, rolling 
around, grinding of teeth. These symptoms, increasing in 
severity, sometimes are followed by inflammation of the bowels, 
mortification and death. 

TREATMENT.—Dissolve i ounce each of aloes and carbonate of soda 
in y pint of hot water, and add i ounce of tincture of ginger. Apply 
friction to the abdomen, lead the horse beside another in gentle trot. Or 
give every half hour 3 ounces of whisky in y pint of water. Give frequent 
injections of blood-warm soapsuds. 

WINDY OR FLATULENT COLIC. 

Causes. —The same as those of the former disease. Symp¬ 
toms. —Complication of spasmodic colic. The belly is expanded 
with gas. Frequent eructation of wind through the mouth. 
Discharge of dung with gas. 

TREATMENT.—Apply friction to the belly. Injections. Walking 
exercise. Alkalies to neutralize the gases. Give, every half hour, 3 drams 
of aqua ammonia in a pint of cold water. As the pains subside, give the 
dose once an hour till they disappear. A dose of % ounce each of sweet 
spirits of nitre, tincture of ginger and tincture of gentian in a pint of cold 
water, will be found useful. Feed lightly for a time. 

DIARRHCEA. 

Causes. —Sudden change from dry to green food; new hay, 
worms, exposure to cold and wet, bad state of the blood. May 
result from some weakening disease from which the horse has 
hardly recovered. Symptoms. —Frequent and abundant fluid 
discharges mixed with slime, generally accompanied with dis¬ 
charge of wind with great straining. Great thirst; poor appe¬ 
tite. Cold extremities. If neglected, may soon prove fatal. 

TREATMENT.—Ascertain and remove cause. If due to indigestion, 
give laxative dose, 3 to 4 drams of aloes and 1 ounce each of bicarbonate of 


soda and ginger. No exercise. Frequent injections of lukewarm water. 
If this fail, give, every three hours, 1 ounce each of tincture of ginger and 
compound tincture of gentian. 

COSTIVENESS. 

Causes. —Derangement of liver. Too much dry and bulky 
food, want of exercise. Symptoms. —Fewer discharges, the 
dung dry, hard, dark colored. Slimy and stringy with mucus. 
Pains as if from colic. 

TREATMENT.—Change diet to sloppy food. Occasional bran mashes, 
daily exercise, laxative medicines and frequent warm injections. In summer 
give grass. Place salt handy. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 

Causes. —Overfeeding, exposure to cold and wet. Constipa¬ 
tion, poisonous substances. Often follows colic. Symptoms.— 
Great restlessness, loss of appetite, thirst, quick pulse and 
breathing, belly tucked up and hard, legs and ears cold, clammy 
and cold sweat. Often proves fatal. 

TREATMENT.—Pint doses of olive oil every hour, large drinks of 
flaxseed tea. Warm injections every hour. Apply hot blankets to the 
abdomen frequently. No exercise. Ample bedding. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE PERITONEUM. 

Causes. —This disease often co-exists with inflammation of 
the bowels; or may arise from undue exposure or external 
injury, such as cuts, punctures, or the like. Symptoms. —Rest¬ 
lessness, chills and fevers, cold legs and ears, belly tucked up, 
urine and dung scanty; more or less straining, quick and pain¬ 
ful breathing. 

TREATMENT.—Give dose y ounce of aloes, 1 dram of podophyllin, 
2 drams each of nitre and ginger, then, every hour for six hours, 10 drops of 
tincture of aconite root. Give hourly warm injections. Apply hot blanket 
to abdomen, followed by mustard poultice. 

BOTS. 

Causes. —Mostly among horses kept in the country. In the 
summer the gadfly deposits its eggs mostly on the fore leg or 
shoulder. The horse, licking himself, gets the eggs into his 
mouth, which he swallows with his food; they fasten them¬ 
selves to the cardiac end of the stomach, where they remain all 
winter; in the spring they pass out with the dung and in a few 
weeks are hatched. Symptoms. —They not greatly incon¬ 
venience the horse unless they are in such large numbers as to 
interfere with the passage of the food into the intestines. 
Sometimes these bots lodge in the gullet. 

TREATMENT.—Bots in the gullet may be removed by the hand through 
the balling iron. They cannot be removed from the stomach. Keep salt 
handy. 

WORMS. 

Causes. —Various kinds of worms are found in the alimentary 
canal of the horse. Symptoms.— Are not marked unless the 
worms are very numerous. Appetite irregular, sometimes 
ravenous. Loss of spirits, flesh and strength. Hide-bound, 
staring coat. Sometimes coughing, and the passage of worms 
with the dung. 

TREATMENT.—Frequent change of diet. Place salt handy. Give 
morning and evening for a week 1 dram of carbonate of iron, and 3 drams of 
powdered gentian with the food. Then give a purgative composed of 6 
drams of aloes, J4 dram of carbonate and 2 drams each of nitre and ginger. 
Pin-worms may be removed by occasional injections of 2 ounces of oil of 
turpentine and 1 pint of raw linseed oil, which should be done when the 
rectum is empty. 

































X 

DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


Diseases of the Urinary Organs. 


7 


539 


INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 

Causes.— Exposure to cold or wet, unsound food, excessive 
use of nitre, resin, etc., eating injurious herbs with the grass, such 
as ranunculse, blows, strains, etc. Symptoms.— Usual signs of 
fever, quick and hard pulse, frequent breathing, dry and hard 
skin, clammy mouth, redness of eyes and nose; constipation; 
urine scanty, discharged with much pain, slimy and mixed with 
matter and blood. Legs straddling. No disposition to lie down. 

TREATMENT.—Give every hour 10 drops of tincture of aconite root, 
until 6 doses are given. Apply hot cloths to the loins, follow with mustard 
poultice. Give warm injections per rectum every hour. Give all the cold 
linseed tea the horse will drink. A pint of linseed oil may be given every 
six hours, until the bowels become loose; i dram each of camphor and.opium 
and 3 drams of powdered marshmallow-root made into an electuary with 
treacle may be given if the symptoms continue very severe. Sloppy food 
and grass should be given. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. 

Causes.- —Sometimes accompanies inflammation of the bowels 
or kidneys. Due to the same causes that induce inflammation of 
the kidneys; or to the internal use of Spanish fly. Symptoms.— 
Mainly those of inflammation of the kidneys. More or less 
sexual excitement. Irritation of digestive organs. 

TREATMENT.—Same as for inflammation of the kidneys. Omit laxa¬ 
tive doses of oil. 


RETENTIVE URINE. 

Causes. —Spasms of the neck of the bladder, paralysis of the 
bladder, stone or tumor in neck of bladder or in urethra, injury 
of the urethra.- Symptoms.— Frequent and ineffectual attempts 
to urinate, with signs of spasmodic colic. Through the rectum 
the bladder may be felt full of urine. 

TREATMENT.—If due to a stone, this should be removed by surgical 
means. Give frequent warm water injections and draw the urine from the 
bladder by catheter. Give every half hour i ounce of laudanum and x / 2 
ounce each of fluid extract of belladonna and aromatic spirits of ammonia 
in y 2 pint of cold water. Apply hot blankets to loins and abdomen. 

DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING. 

Causes.— New oats, new hay or musty food, too free use of 
nitre or resin, poisonous plants among grass or hay. Exposure. 
Symptoms.— Frequent and copious discharge of clear and al¬ 
most inodorous urine. Loss of appetite, spirits and strength. 
Costiveness, dry tongue and skin, great thirst, redness of eyes 
and nose. 

TREATMENT.—Entire change of food. Give linseed tea instead of 
water to drink, with a little magnesia or carbonate of soda in it. Give thrice 
daily a ball composed of l / 2 dram each of iodide of potassium and alum, 3 
drams of linseed meal, and mix with treacle. 


'•o<0>o*' 


Diseases of the Eye. 


SUPERFICIAL INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. 

Causes. —By cold and damp, by hayseed or particles of dirt, 
by a stroke of a whip, or from inflammation of the membrane 
which lines the inner surface of the eyelids. Symptoms.— 
Swelling of the eyelids, free flow of tears, scum on the eyeball 
and dislike of light. 

TREATMENT.—Remove hayseed or dirt, sponge the eye and eyelids 
with warm milk and water. Place the horse in a darkened stall, and apply 
three times a day a portion of a mixture of 2 drams each of laudanum and 
fluid extract of belladonna and 1 pint of rain water. 

SPECKS OR FILMS ON THE EYE. 

Causes. —Generally the result of inflammation of the eye or 
of wounds on the eye-ball. Symptoms. —Extended spots of 
dull-colored or whitish appearance, which interfere with sight 
and often cause the horse to shy. 


teeth, and is peculiar to coarse-bred horses. Symptoms.— Often 
affects only one eye at a time. Signs of fever are often mani¬ 
fest. Eyelids red, copious discharge of hot tears. White of 
the eye red with blood-vessels. Great dislike of light. Urine 
scanty, costive and poor appetite. 

TREATMENT.—Place the horse in darkened stall, give purgative dose, 
bathe the eyes frequently with warm milk and water. Apply between the 
lids portion of a mixture of x / 2 ounce of Goulard's extract, 1 ounce of fluid 
extract of belladonna and 1 pint of distilled water. Loosening food in small 
quantities. 

CATARACT. 

Causes. —Results from repeated attacks of periodic ophthal¬ 
mia. May also result from old age. Symptoms.— In the pupil 
of the eye a white speck or white lines, or sometimes the pupil 
will look dull and almost white. 

TREATMENT.—No treatment can do any good. 


TREATMENT.—In the early stages blow into the eye once or twice a 
day a portion of 1 part of calomel and 2 parts of white sugar finely pow¬ 
dered; and apply twice a day with camel’s-hair brush a portion of a solution 
of 3 grains of nitrate of silver in an ounce of distilled water. If these specks 
result from a wound, they are not generally removable. 

PERIODIC OPHTHALMIA. 

Causes. —This disease sometimes is called moon-blindness, 
and is often caused by want of ventilation and drainage in the 
stables. Is often hereditary, sometimes comes with shedding 


K- 


AMAUROSIS. 

Causes. —Due to some disease of the brain or optic nerve. 
Results from concussion of the brain, from falls or bruises. 
Symptoms. —A sudden change from darkness to strong light 
causes no expansion of the pupil. The eye has a peculiar 
glassy appearance, and yet the horse is blind. Lifts head and 
feet high. Ears are constantly moving. 

TREATMENT.—Useless unless the cause can be wholly removed. 











































540 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


Diseases of the Skin. 


SURFEIT. 

Causes.— Sudden atmospheric changes, exposure, high feed¬ 
ing, perspiration too suddenly checked. Symptoms. — Flat 
swellings appear on head and neck, shoulders and sides. Con¬ 
siderable itching. Swellings often disappear very suddenly. 

TREATMENT.—Blanket the horse, give bran mashes, steamed food. 
Bathe affected parts with a solution of ounce of oxide of zinc in i pint of 
soft water. Among the food may be given, morning and evening, i table¬ 
spoonful of Fowler’s solution of arsenic. 

MANGE. 

Causes.— Filth, privation, poor food, contact with mangy 
horses, or with harness or halter used by mangy horses. Symp¬ 
toms.— Pimples and blisters, singly' or clustered, especially on 
the neck and withers, rump and tail. Hair mats and falls off. 
The skin becomes rough and wrinkled. 

TREATMENT.—Give loosening food and a purgative composed of 5 
drams of aloes, 1 dram of calomel and 2 drams of nitre, made into a balil. 
In summer, green food. After cleaning the skin with soapsuds, apply a 
solution of 1 ounce of bicarbonate of potash in pints of soft water. 
Give, morning and evening, among the food, 1 tablespoonful of Fowler’s 
solution of arsenic. Attend to the cleanliness of horse and all its surround¬ 
ings with special care. 

HIDE-BOUND. 

Causes.— Exposure to bad weather; chronic diseases, de¬ 
rangement of the organs of digestion, and poor food. Symp¬ 
toms.— The skin dry and rough and lies tight to the ribs; the 
coat has lost its gloss and is staring, and the animal is in a poor 
condition. 

TREATMENT.—The simplest and most effective treatment is to avoid 
the causes. 


CRACKED HEELS, OR SCRATCHES. 

Causes.— Want of cleanliness, cold and wet, derangement of 
digestive organs. Symptoms.— Cracks in the skin of the heels, 
generally of the hinder limbs, accompanied with more or less 
swelling, heat, redness and pain. 

TREATMENT.—Attend to cleanliness. Poultice with bran, linseed 
meal and powdered charcoal in equal parts. Apply oxide of zinc ointment, 
or an ointment of 1 part of sulphur, 2 parts of tar and 3 parts of simple 
cerate. Give loosening food, among which may be mixed 2 drams of nitrate 
of potassa, morning and evening. 

WARTS. 

Causes.— A morbid stale of the skin due to excessive vascu¬ 
larity of the underlying skin. Symptoms.— Hardening of the 
cuticle, with development of tumors. 

TREATMENT.—When small may be removed with knife or shears. 
Larger warts with narrow base may be removed by strong waxed thread 
tied tightly round the base. Warts having a broad base may be removed 
with a knife, and the bleeding stopped by the touch of a hot iron, or by 
dressing with tincture of iodine or butter of antimony. In all cases be care¬ 
ful not to touch the healthy skin. 

LICE. 

Causes.— Neglect of cleanliness. Contact with lousy horses. 
Will often come in blankets, brush, currycomb, or anything that 
has been used on lousy horses. Nearness to the hencoop will 
often bring hen-lice. Symptoms. — Restlessness. Switching 
viciously with tail, etc., etc. 

TREATMENT.—Attend thoroughly to the cleansing and grooming of 
the animal. Wash well with soapsuds and make an application with a stiff 
brush of a solution of 2 drams of borax in 20 ounces of warm water, to 
which, when cold, add 14 ounces of acetic acid. Burn all the hairs that 
come off in grooming, and keep the hens away from the stable. 


••o^o*- 


Diseases of the Feet and Legs. 


FOUNDER, OR LAMINITIS. 

Causes.— Inflammation of the vascular and sensitive laminae 
of the foot, caused by sudden changes of temperature, over¬ 
exertion on hard roads, too much cold water, standing in snow 
or ice, or may result fiom rheumatism, strangles, etc., etc. 
Symptoms.— Sudden fever, great heat and tenderness of feet, 
shifting of the fore feet. Inability to stand on fore feet when 
the hinder feet are lifted up. Costiveness, thirst and great dis¬ 
position to lie down. 

TREATMENT.—Remove shoes, cut down rim of hoof till the sole 
and frog touch the ground, but do not pare away any of the sole or frog. 
Put the feet in poultices of linseed meal and bran. If much tenderness pre¬ 
vails, scarify the skin above the hoof and place the feet in hot water to 
induce bleeding. Give 5 drams of aloes and 1 dram each of podophyllin 
and capsicum. Give, every hour for six hours, 10 drops of tincture of 


aconite root. If this fails, thin down the sole at the toe and make an incision 
deep enough to start bleeding, and put the foot in warm water. Apply large 
blister round the pastern. Loosening food, or fresh-cut grass. 

WOUNDS IN THE FEET. 

Causes.— Nails, iron or glass getting into the feet. Some¬ 
times through nails going in wrong direction by clumsy shoeing. 
Symptoms.— Lameness, bleeding, hot feet, the horse is feverish 
and rests a good deal on his toe. 

TREATMENT.—Remove theshoe and take out the nail, or iron or glass. 
Poultice with linseed meal and bran for a day or two. Do not use anti¬ 
mony of butter or nitric aoid. If th'e poultice fails, apply equal parts of 
tincture of myrrh and tincture of aloes. 

QUITTOR. 

Causes.— Fistula of the coronet, following abscess in the foot, 
may be caused by corns, pricks, bruises, or when gravel or dirt 






































DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


541 


gets into fissures between the sole and the wall. It may also 
result from treads and overreachings. Symptoms.— Lameness, 
more or less swelling; heat and tenderness and discharge of 
matter in some instances. 

TREATMENT.—Remove the cause and then poultice the foot. If caused 
by a corn, cut it down. Inject to the mattering point three times a day for 
the first two day's, and then once daily, a portion of a solution of a scruple of 
corrosive sublimate in one ounce of alcohol. Sometimes blisters are useful. 

CRACKS IN THE HOOF. 

Causes. —Dryness and softness in the hoof, alternating, faulty 
shoeing, too much rasping of the wall. Symptoms.— A crack 
in the wall of the hoof, generally from above downward. 

TREATMENT.—The edges of the crack should be rounded off, without 
cutting into the depth of the crack. Cleanse the parts and poultice, the shoe 
of course being removed. In extensive cracks the edges may be held together 
by rivets. To prevent dirt getting in, fill the crack with shoemakers’ wax. 
Apply a light bar shoe, if the split extends the length of the hoof. Remove 
the bearing of the wall of the hoof from the split backward if the split is in 
the quarter near the heel, otherwise about half an inch each side of the split. 
Apply mild blister to the coronet. 


CONTRACTION. 

Causes. —Contraction exists with most chronic diseases of the 
feet, or results from them. Long idleness will bring it on. 
Imperfect rasping and shoeing. The foot may be oblong, 01- 
shaped like a mule’s. SYMPTOMS. —The heels are drawn together, 
often to the extent of overlapping, the frog diminished, hard and 
dry. Sometimes the contraction is only on one side of the 
hoof. 

TREATMENT.—Remove the shoes and give the horse rest. Place on 
moist earthen floor, give liberty out of doors on soft ground. Pasturage if 
summertime. Apply hoof ointments. 

NAVICULAR DISEASE. 

Causes. —Diseased condition of the navicular bone caused by 
overwork, concussion, bruises of the sole, improper shoeing, and 
the same causes that produce contraction. Symptoms.— Largely 
the same as those of contraction. Horse points the foot for¬ 
ward. A short, tripping gait, with tendency to stumble, lame¬ 
ness abating when the animal is driven a distance. Undue 
heat may be noticed at the quarters and heels. Sweeny or 
wasting of muscles. 

TREATMENT.—Similar to that suggested for contraction. The applica¬ 
tion of blisters, setons and firing often useless; the insertion of a seton through 
the heel, emerging through the frog, is preferable. Great care, however, is 
required. Nerving, by which sensibility of the parts is removed, is the last 
resort, but not often successful. 

CORNS. 

Causes.— Faulty shoeing, or by letting over four weeks pass 
between shoeing or resetting of the shoes. May occur at both 
inside and outside heels. Symptoms. —Lameness, great heat, 
tenderness. Walks on the heel more than the toe. Flinches if 
the foot is tapped with anything. On removing the shoe the 
horn is found to be discolored. In severe cases there is swell¬ 
ing of the coronet, with formation of matter. 

TREATMENT.—Remove the shoe and apply poultice. If much lame¬ 
ness or tenderness and swelling, pare down the corn to the quick, but be care¬ 
ful not to start blood. If matter is found, apply poultice again. If the case 
is very obstinate, apply a bar shoe. After some oakum or tow dipped in tar 
has been placed in the cavity of the corn, be careful to rest or renew the 
shoeing every three or four week.,. 


TREAD AND OVERREACH. 

Causes. —Bruises or wounds of the coronet or the heels may 
arise from the horse treading on the coronet with the fallow foot 
or the coronet of the hinder foot with the shoe of the fore foot 
in backing with a heavy load; clumsiness or stumbling will 
cause these wounds. Symptoms. — Swelling with or without 
abrasion of the skin, the underlying parts may be more or less 
cut or bruised. 

TREATMENT.— Cleanse the parts with warm water. Clip the hair 
short round the injured parts and clear away shreds of skin. Apply warm 
poultice. In slight cases apply a coat of tar; when more serious apply a 
mixture of 1 part each of Goulard’s extract and laudanum and J/j a pint of 
soft water. If in healing proud flesh should appear, apply powdered 
sulphate of copper, or tincture of iron, or powdered sulphate of zinc. 

THRUSH. 

Causes.— A diseased condition of the frog of the foot may be 
caused by the horse standing in decaying filth or in manure and 
urine, or from excessive paring of the frog; diseased state of the 
heels. Symptoms.— More of less lameness, tenderness of the 
frog and heels, falling away of portions of the frog, discolora¬ 
tion of the horn. 

TREATMENT.— Place the horse on a dry floor; remove all decayed 
parts; be careful not to cut away any of the sound parts or to draw blood. 
Clean out all matter and dirt once a day and insert a little powdered sulphate 
of zinc, or sugar of lead, or calomel, and cover with oakum dipped in tar. 
The horse, if not lame, may be worked, but only on dry ground. 

RINGBONE. 

Causes. — Enlargement of the pastern bones, from deposit of 
bony matter; maybe caused by bad food, bruises or knocks, or 
may be hereditary. Symptoms. — Inflammation of the investing 
membrane of the bone, with more or less swelling of the neigh¬ 
boring parts; more or less lameness, especially on hard ground. 

TREATMENT.— Rest, cold applications, blisters, or firing with hot 
iron, or both firing and blistering. This will not remove, but may relieve 
the horse. 

SPAVIN. 

Causes. — Sprains of the hock, hard work, concussions. 
Symptoms. — May exist without being seen. This is called 
“ occult spavin,” or may be seen on the lower part of the inner 
side of the back joint. Lameness most perceptible when the 
horse first starts; gradually decreases as he moves on. Wears 
the shoe on the spavined limb more than the other. Rests 
his foot on his toe. 

TREATMENT.— Rest, cold applications, seton or firing. If firing is 
resorted to, apply a blister at the same time. When improved, give the 
horse liberty and pasturage. 

SPLENT. 

Causes. —Concussion, bruises, or knocks on the shank bone, 
a tendency to bony enlargements. Symptoms. — One or more 
small bony enlargements on the inner side of the shank, between 
the shank and splent bone. These become united in time. 
When near the knee they produce lameness. Ileat, swelling 
and tenderness of the adjacent parts. 

TREATMENT.— Rest, cold applications, constant stream of water for 
one or two days. Blister or firing. When the swelling goes down and the 
tenderness and lameness remain, make an incision lengthwise through the 
membrane which invests the bone. Splents disappear as the horse grows 
old. 


























































542 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


SPRAINS OF THE BACK TENDONS. 

Causes. —Sprains of the tendons and ligaments from back of 
the knee down to the foot may occur from overwork, rapid 
work on hard roads, or from leaping or galloping. Symptoms. 
—Lameness, swelling, heat and tenderness. Rests the foot on 
the toe, and has an uncertain, shambling gait. In old cases 
thickening of the tendons and ligaments or knotty tumors along 
the cords. Crooked knees often the result. 

TREATMENT.—Rest, cold applications. Blistering or firing, or both. 
Long rest after. Three months in pasturage. 

SHOULDER LAMENESS. 

Causes. —Spraining of the muscles of the shoulder-blade may 
occur from over and hard work, sudden starting and pulling at 
heavy loads, pulling in deep and heavy ground. Sometimes 
due to rheumatism. Symptoms. — Local tenderness. The 
horse favors the affected limb, carries it stiffly forward. In 
severe cases there is difficulty in lifting the foot from the ground. 

TREATMENT.—Rest and hot fomentations. After which apply strong 
hartshorn liniments, mild or strong blisters, as the case may suggest. Setons 
may be used, but not firing. Afterward give the horse only light work to do. 

SWEENY. 

Causes.— A wasting of the muscles of the shoulder alone, 
or including the muscles of the fore limb. This may result from 
diseases of the lower parts of the limbs. In young horses just 
put to work this disease is not uncommon. Symptoms. —The 
affected limb presents a shrunken appearance, loss of strength 
and activity in the limb and general lameness. 

TREATMENT.—In young horses treat as for shoulder lameness. Then 
give only light work in breast harness or padded collar. Nothing will avail 
if the horse is worked hard. 

CURB. 

Causes. —Sprain of the tendon that passes over the point of 
the hock and downward may be caused by compelling the horse 
to back with too heavy a load, or from frequent rearing. Symp¬ 
toms. —More or less hard or soft swelling, heat, tenderness and 
lameness; bulging below the point of the hock, especially 
noticeable from side view. 

TREATMENT.—Rest, continued cold or hot applications. Follow by 
blistering, or firing and blistering. Afterward give liberty in pasturage. 
Apply shoe with low toe-piece and high heels. 

WINDGALLS. 

Causes. —Puffy enlargements about the fetlock-joint, and 
about the hock-joint, which have various names, as “ thorough- 
pin,” “ bog-spavin ” and “ wind-galls,” are an increase of the 
joint oil, by which the joint-cap becomes distended. They 
generally arise from too much hard work. Symptoms. —Fluc¬ 
tuating hard tumors, more or less movable, beneath the skin. 

TREATMENT.—Rest and wet bandaging. Steep bandages in decoc¬ 
tion of white-oak bark. If the windgalls are old and hard, blister or fire, or 
both. 


LAMENESS OF THE HIP. 

Causes.— Slips and falls, or severe efforts of the limbs in 
heavy soil, or in galloping or leaping. Symptoms.— Leg carried 
forward in stiff, dragging manner. The horse shows pain when 
the leg is lifted forward and upward. In severe cases there is 
wasting of the muscles. 

TREATMENT.—Rest and cold application. Strong blister over large 
surface, or insert one or two setons ; give liberty out of doors. 

STIFLE LAMENESS. 

Causes.— A dislocation of the stifle-cap is peculiar to young 
horses, and may be due to a relaxed state of the ligaments con¬ 
nected with the patella. Sudden sliding on a slippery floor may 
cause it. Symptoms.— A hard protuberance as big as a small 
closed hand on the side of the stifle-joint. In moving the horse 
drags the affected leg and limps on the other three. By disloca¬ 
tion of the patella inward, the leg is held forward and upward. 

TREATMENT.—Push the knee-pan in its place while some one brings 
the leg forward and upward, then place the horse on a level floor and pour a 
stream of cold water on the part for an hour, then bathe with strong oak- 
bark decoction. When there is much relaxation apply pitch plaster, or blis¬ 
ter. A shoe with an upward curved projection of the toe will be found use¬ 
ful in protracted cases. 

CAPPED HOCK AND CAPPED ELBOW. 

Causes.— Capped hock is generally caused by kicking against 
the siding of the stall, or while in harness, or from blows; some'- 
times due to a sprain of the tendon. Capped elbow is caused 
by the horse bruising the point of the elbow with the shoe in 
lying down. May result also from blows. Symptoms.— Swell¬ 
ing, with more or less of heat and tenderness, but not often with 
signs of lameness ; the swelling containing bloody fluid. Repe¬ 
tition of the injury may induce inflammation, and suppuration 
may ensue or the swelling become hardened. 

TREATMENT.—Apply warm fomentations, then blister. When there 
is much accumulation evacuate the contents. Make a large opening, then 
treat it as in the case of open wounds. If abscess forms, treat as for abscess. 
In the case of capped elbow, alter the shoe and apply a leather pad while 
the horse is in the stable. Hardened tumor at the elbow may be removed by 
excision with the knife, after which treat as for open wounds. If the en¬ 
largement at the point of the hock is due to sprain of the tendon, apply a 
high-heeled shoe without toe-piece. 

SWOLLEN LEGS. 

Causes.— Result from protracted external and internal dis¬ 
eases, glanders and farcy, exposure to wet, cold or filth. 
Symptoms.— Lameness, stiffness, pressure with fingers leaves in¬ 
dented marks, which will soon disappear. The swelling may 
extend from the feet up to the body, or may be confined to the 
leg below the hock. 

TREATMENT.—Ifthe horse is diseased this swelling will continue as 
long as the disease. If it remains after the disease, tonics should be admin¬ 
istered internally ; decoctions of oak-bark, bandaging, friction, exercise and 
good food should be given. If the swelling continues, give morning and 
evening % a dram of camphor, 2 drams each of nitrate of potassa and linseed 
meal, made into a ball with treacle. 


£ 


A 


























DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


543 


Wounds and Bruises. 


BROKEN KNEES. 

Causes. —Striking the knee against body, falling, blows. 
Symptoms.— Laceration of the skin, exposing the tendons, or 
even the bones, or laying open the joint, swelling, heat, tender¬ 
ness, bleeding, or escaping of joint oil. 

TREATMENT.—Rest and cold applications, removal of shreds. Flaps of 
skin should be saved and united by means of plaster. Be careful to remove 
the hairs from around the wound. Leave one ortwo openings for the escape 
of matter. In shght cases bathing should be succeeded by a solution of i part 
each of Goulard’s extract and laudanum and 15 parts of soft water. Apply 
linen bandage. W hen much laceration exists, together with exposure of the 
ligaments or bones, the horse should be kept from lying down, and the body 
supported by a sling. Apply poultices, succeeded by the above solutions 
with light bandaging. In the case of open joint, treat as recommended be¬ 
low. If the horse is restless and feverish, give 10 drops of tincture of aconite 
every hour until six doses have been given. Give loosening food. 

OPEN JOINT. 

Causes.— Bruises by falls, kicks or knocks. Injuries by nails, 
broken glass, etc., etc. Symptoms.— Heat, swelling, tenderness, 
flow of pale yellowish fluid, of the thickness of the white of an 
egg. Indisposition to rest on the affected limb, and fever, 
sometimes inflammation, sets in. 

TREATMENT.—Secure the horse in a sling, give physic ball and 
aconite as for broken knee. If much laceration of skin, unite edges by plas¬ 
ters, after clipping hairs short and removing dirt, leaving openings for 
escape of matter. Apply a stream of cold water for day or two, succeed by 
blistering if the wound is a punctured one, or apply poultices saturated with 
a weak solution ofcarbolic acid, and thereafter strong astringent solutions by 
means of wads of tow or oakum secured by light linen bandage. To prevent 
movement of the joints, which is most important, apply splints of light 
flat sticks, secured by separate bandages. Coagulated joint oil must not be 
removed from the orifice. Give loosening food. 

WOUNDS. 

TREATMENT.—Depends upon the extent and nature of the wound. 
First cleanse the wound thoroughly. If a large blood-vessel is severed, 
secure the ends and ligate them. Be sure to clip the hairs short round the 
wound. If the wound be thoroughly attended to and cleansed, without loss 
of time, it will heal without much trouble. If sticking-plaster is not sufficient, 
unite the edges with stitches not drawn too tightly, and then apply a solution 
of 1 part of carbolic acid to 25 parts of water. Unite lacerated wounds by 
stitches, leaving opening below for escape of matter. Apply above solution or 
equal parts of tincture of myrrh and tincture of aloes, or Friar’s Balsam. 
The same treatment may be applied to bruised wounds. To punctured 
wounds apply first bathing and warm poultices. If matter becomes penned 
in, be sure and relieve it; enlarge the opening. If there is much fever or pain, 
give 10 drops of tincture of aconite root every hour for six hours. Give 
loosening food. Apply alum if proud flesh appears. 

BRUISES. 

Symptoms. —More or less swelling with abrasion of the skin. 
Heat, tenderness and interference with ordinary functions of 
the injured organs. Extravasation of bloody water under the 
skin, festering or sloughing. 

TREATMENT.—Warm fomentations, diluted tincture of arnica. Make 
incision if there is evidence of accumulated fluid. If festering ensues, treat 
as for abscess. If sloughing of tissues, apply yeast poultices, solution of 
chloride of zinc, or bichloride of mercury. 


ABSCESS. 

Causes. —The result of local inflammation caused by bruise, 
or presence of some foreign body, such as a nail, splinter, etc. 
The result of internal diseases, as strangles or influenza. Symp¬ 
toms. —Swelling, heat, tenderness, and more or less fever. The 
swelling, which at first is hard and diffused, generally becomes 
soft; if the abscess is located immediately under the skin there 
will be some pointing and loss of hairs at the place where the 
abscess will break and discharge its contents. If situated be¬ 
neath horn, sinews, or other resisting parts, the contents are apt 
to burrow in various directions and produce fistula. 

TREATMENT.—Remove all foreign bodies or dirt. Warm bathing, 
warm poultices if necessary, succeeded by blistering. When mature make 
incision with sharp knife into the ripest part of the tumor ; be careful not to 
injure the nerves or blood-vessels. Deeper abscesses may be emptied by 
means of a trocar. 

SADDLE AND HARNESS GALLS. 

Causes. —Ill-fitting saddle or harness. 

TREATMENT.—Discontinue the use of ill-fitting saddle or harness. If 
the horse must be used, pad the harness, or remove portions of the stuffing 
from the collar or make indentations with a hammer to correspond with the 
location of the galls. Keep clean, sponge sweat and dirt from harness and 
from the horse daily. Bathe the horse with dilute tincture of arnica or 
spirits of camphor. Rest for awhile. 

POLL EVIL. 

Causes. —Halter pulling, hitting the poll against a low door 
or any other object; hard knocks. Symptoms. —Heat, tender¬ 
ness, with painful swelling, resulting in abscess and fistula. 

TREATMENT.—Remove the halter and let the horse go loose in a box 
in a stall. In the beginning, cold applications, succeeded by blister. When 
fluctuation can be detected make free incision to liberate matter, and apply 
solution of 1 grain of chloride of zinc to each ounce of water, or a solution 
of 1 part of carbolic acid to 25 parts of water. If fistula has formed, lay it 
open by free incisions lengthwise with the neck ; remove all diseased sur¬ 
faces, scraping off decayed portions of bone, if such are found, insert wads 
of tow soaked with above solutions. In case of sloughing, apply a solution of 
l / 2 dram of chloride of zinc to each 6 ounces of water. 

FISTULOUS WITHERS. 

Causes. —Ill-fitting saddles or harness, bruises or knocks. 
Symptoms. —The same as in poll evil. 

TREATMENT.—The same as in poll evil. Fistulas should be freely 
explored with the knife. When deep, insert setons through the various 
canals, pushing the seton-needle through the same and out through the skin. 
Thus dependent openings are made for escape of matter ; then inject reme¬ 
dies for poll evil. Remove pieces of decayed bones. No cure possible as 
long as decay of bone exists. 

SPEEDY CUT. 

Causes. —Hitting the lower part of the inner side of the 
opposite knee with the hoof or edge of the shoe. Symptoms.— 
Swelling, heat, tenderness, with some lameness. 

TREATMENT.—Cold applications continued during one to two days 
with bandaging. Then applications of a lotion of 1 ounce of Goulard’s ex¬ 
tract and x / 2 pint of water. If much accumulation of fluid in the swelling 















































544 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


withdraw with small trocar, inserted through the lowest part. If swelling 
does not subside apply blister. If abscess forms, lay the tumor open and use 
carbolic acid solution, i part to 25 of water. To prevent speedy cut, apply 
knee-cap, and rasp off the sharp edges of the shoes. 

STRIKING OR INTERFERING. 

Causes.— Faulty action, resulting from faulty formation, or 
weakness, faulty shoeing or fatigue. Symptoms. — Abrasion 


of skill, bruising and wounding, swelling and tenderness on the 
inner side of the fetlock or the shank of either the fore or hind 
legs, oftener the latter. Lameness, sometimes followed by in¬ 
flammation and abscess. 

TREATMENT.—Treat as for bruises, wounds and abscesses. Find out 
with what part of shoe or foot the horse strikes the opposite limb, remove or 
straighten the part of the shoe that strikes, leave out nails and rasp the hoof 
to correspond. If this fails, apply pads. 


■ 0 <> 0 .' 


4-HOBMEl CATTLES 

General and Miscellaneous Diseases. 


BLACK QUARTER, OR BLOODY MURRAIN. 

Causes.— A form of anthrax to which young cattle kept in 
high condition are subject, resulting from rich pasturage, ill- 
drained, or change from rich to poor pasturage. Symptoms.— 
This disease is very swift in its progress, generally ending in 
death in twelve, twenty-four, or thirty-six hours. Lameness in 
one or both hind quarters. Head and neck outstretched, heat, 
dry muzzle, red eyes, mouth open, high pulse, quick breathing, 
poor appetite, restless and stupor, tenderness and swellings 
which crackle under the touch. Gangrene of the skin and 
sloughing. Urine scanty, high colored and bloody. Dung 
fetid and blood-streaked. 

TREATMENT.—Bleeding at the beginning of the disease, purgative 
of an ounce each of common soda and Barbadoes aloes, dissolved in J 4 a 
pint of hot water, together with an ounce of oil of turpentine and a pound of 
Glauber salts, given in one dose in % gallon of thin gruel, to cattle from 
eight months to a year and a half old ; half of this to cattle from eight 
months to a year and a half old, and a third of a dose to younger ones. 
Plenty of salt water injections per rectum. Then give every hour ]/ 2 a 
dram each of muriatic acid and nitric acid mixed in a pint of cold water. 
Plenty of fresh cold water to drink. Remove to cool, shady place out of 
doors. Scarify the tumors deeply, and frequently apply solution of 1 part of 
chloride of lime to 20 parts of cold water. Separate sound from sick ones, 
and remove them to high land or wood land. Insert seton in dewlap of all 
young stock, and give access to plenty of salt and pure drinking water. 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

Causes.— Hereditary predisposition, faulty state of the blood, 
debilitated condition, constant inbreeding. Symptoms.— Dull¬ 
ness, frequent husky cough, poor appetite, diarrhoea and costive¬ 
ness alternately; milk thin and blue, swelling, lameness, bar¬ 
renness. 

TREATMENT.—Generally incurable. Give liberal food, ground, 
steamed or boiled, mixed with flaxseed meal, potatoes and cut hay. Give 
tonics, an ounce of tincture of iron and tincture of gentian in a pint of water 
once or twice daily. In case of diarrhoea treat as advised for that complaint. 
If costive give a pint of treacle daily in ground food. When external tumors 
are large, blister; when fluctuating, blister and open them, and apply a weak 
solution of carbolic acid or diluted tincture. Being unfit for breeding pur¬ 
poses, and the milk being poor and unhealthy, such animals should be fitted 
for the shambles. • 


RHEUMATISM. 

Causes.— Exposure to draught, cold and wet; often a sequel 
to other diseases. Symptoms.— Loss of appetite, dulness, 
lameness of the back, tenderness and swelling of the loins, or 
joints of the limbs. The disease changes from one place to an¬ 
other, more or less fever, scanty urine, costiveness, hurried 
breathing, quick pulse, thirst. 

TREATMENT.—Place the animal in a warm, dry, well bedded stall. 
Blanket the body and bandage the limbs. Give in one dose a pound of 
Epsom salts dissolved in a pint of hot water ; add thereto an ounce of ground 
ginger and a pint of treacle. Give every two hours 10 drops of tincture of 
aconite root, until six doses are given. Apply to the tender parts for several 
hours rags wrung out of very hot water, rub dry and apply hartshorn lini¬ 
ment, or in chronic rheumatism, blister or insert seton. Give good food and 
salt. 

FOUL IN THE FEET. 

Causes.— Low and wet grounds, dirty stables, or injury from 
foreign bodies. Symptoms.— Lameness, pain, swelling of the 
heels and discharge of fetid matter from the cleft between the 
hoofs; ulceration and proud flesh. 

TREATMENT.—Cleanse the parts most thoroughly, poultice with 
equal parts of linseed meal, bran and charcoal; then apply three times a day, 
by means of a feather, a portion of a mixture of 2 ounces of oil of turpentine, 
y 2 ounce of sulphuric acid and 1 ounce of olive oil. Carefully remove de¬ 
cayed portions of horn. Fill the cleft with wads of oakum or tow saturated 
with equal parts of tar and tallow melted together. 

WARBLES. 

Causes.— A species of gadfly deposits its eggs beneath the 
skin along the back of the cow, during the summer. Symp¬ 
toms.— Swellings or tumors appear having a small orifice in the 
centre. When present in large numbers they cause considerable 
irritation, but do little or no harm. 

TREATMENT.—Remove by squeezing them out through the orifice. 

RINGWORM. 

Cause.— A tendency, especially among young cattle, to para¬ 
sitic growths. Symptoms.— A dry, white scurf appears in small 
spots, gradually enlarging, and forming round patches denuded 









































K 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


545 


of hair. All the surrounding hair looks shaggy and broken. 
Usual during winter and spring, affecting mainly the head and 
neck. Is contagious. 

TREATMENT.—Clear the patches of all broken hairs, cleanse the skin 
with warm soapsuds, and apply either a light coat of tincture of iodine or a 
mixture of equal parts of tincture of iodine and oil of tar. Be most careful 
about cleanliness. 

MANGE. 


portion of a mixture of equal parts of oil of tar, oil of turpentine and raw 
linseed oil. On the day after each dressing cleanse the skin with soft soap 
and warm water. If the cow is in poor condition or debilitated, give every 
evening during a fortnight J 4 ounce of Fowler’s solution of arsenic and i 
ounce of tincture of iron in a pint of thin gruel. Feed liberally and attend 
to cleanliness of the animal and the stables. 

LICE. 






Cause. —Filth and carelessness; contact with mangy cattle. 
Symptoms. —Patches of denuded skin and broken hair along 
back and tail. Skin covered with pimples or small sores and 
scabs. The animal continually rubbing herself. Appetite poor. 

TREATMENT.—Separate diseased from healthy cattle. Thoroughly 
wash the skin with soap and water and dry it. Apply every other day a 


Causes. —Filth, poverty and confinement. 

TREATMENT.—Dust the body with finely-sifted wood ashes once or 
twice a week, and give a thorough brushing the following day, or apply with 
a stiff brush once or twice a week a mixture of kerosene with water, in the 
proportion of a gill of kerosene to each gallon of water well shaken together. 
Groom regularly. Give clean bedding and limcwash the woodwork. 


•o^o- 


Diseases of the Organs of Breathing. 


CATARRH. 

Causes. —Sudden changes of weather; draughts of cold air; 
exposure. Symptoms.— Watery flow from the nose, which be¬ 
comes thick and mattery; dulness, loss of appetite and cud, 
quick pulse and breath, coughing, tears, and decrease of milk. 

TREATMENT.—Place the cow in a comfortable, cool stable. Cover 
the body with a blanket. Give from 6 to io ounces of Glauber’s salts dis¬ 
solved in a pint of hot water, to which add a pint of treacle. Steam the 
nose with hot mashes placed in a deep bag fastened to the horns. Give every 
three hours 4 ounces of solution of acetate of ammonia with two ounces of 
sweet spirits of nitre. Loosening food and plenty of linseed tea. 

BRONCHITIS. 

Causes. —The result of neglected catarrh, or the causes of 
catarrh. Symptoms. —Frequent, painful, hoarse cough, quick 
pulse and breath, breath hot, poor appetite, loss of cud, coat 
staring, costive, discharge from nose, difficulty in swallowing 

TREATMENT.—Comfortable quarters. Blanket the body, steam the 
nose and give laxative as for catarrh. Apply friction to the limbs and back. 
Give every two or three hours 4 ounces of solution of acetate of ammonia 
with 2 drams of chlorate of potassia. Apply hartshorn liniment (1 part to 4) 
to the throat and along the windpipe. Give frequent blood-warm injections 
of soapsuds or salt water. Linseed tea, warm mashes or steamed food. If 
much weakness on recovering, give morning and evening an ounce each of 
tincture of iron and tincture of gentian in a pint of gruel or linseed tea. 

BRONCHITIS FROM WORMS. 

Causes. —Calves and young stock are liable to suffer from the 
presence of a species of thread-worm in the windpipe, which 
are taken in with the food and water. Symptoms.—A frequent, 
dry, husky cough, dulness, loss of appetite, loss of cud, quick 
pulse and breathing, loss of flesh and general weakness and loss 
of flesh. Often a soft swelling under the jaws. Death often 
supervenes from suffocation. 

TREATMENT.—Put theanimal in a closed room and cause it to inhale 
chlorine gas or the fumes of slowly burning sulphur. Repeat this daily as 
long as the cough lasts. Let the animal inhale chloroform, but not enough 
to produce insensibility. Give thrice a day 1 to 2 drams of oil of turpentine, 
with 1 to 2 ounces of linseed oil. If the animal on recovery is very weak, give 
tonics, 1 to 2 drams of tincture of iron and an ounce of tincture of gentian 


in a gill of linseed tea or gruel. When the cough has entirely ceased place 
the animals on high and dry pasturage free from clover. 

PLEURISY. 

Causes.— May follow catarrh, bronchitis, or co-exist with 
them, or with inflammation of the lungs. Penetrating wounds 
or broken ribs may cause it. Symptoms.— Dulness, loss of ap¬ 
petite, loss of cud, dry muzzle, inspiration of air short, expiration 
prolonged and grunting, short, hacking cough, clammy mouth, 
quivering over shoulders and chest. 

TREATMENT.—Give laxative dose of salts as for catarrh. Apply 
mustard poultice with oil of turpentine to the whole chest, or a blister made 
of 3 ounces of powdered cantharides and 5 ounces each of oil of turpen¬ 
tine and olive oil. Put coat of oil to the blistered surface daily. Secure the 
cow so that she cannot interfere with her mouth with the blistered part for 
at Last six hours after the blistering. Give every three hours an ounce 
of fluid extract of belladonna, 1 ounce of sweet spirits of nitre and 4 ounces of 
solution of acetate of ammonia in ]/ 2 a pint of linseed tea. When the symp¬ 
toms abate give every four hours 1 dram of iodide of potassium and 1 ounce 
each of tincture of gentian and sweet spirits of nitre. Give steamed food 
and linseed tea. Give tonics later. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

Causes.- —-The same as those already cited in diseases of the 
organs of breathing. Sometimes co-exists with or is a sequel to 
pleurisy and bronchitis. Symptoms. —Dulness, hanging head, 
dry muzzle, clammy mouth, loss of appetite and cud, hard, 
quick breathing, discharge from nose growing slimy and thick, 
much thirst, costive, urine scanty and dark. 

TREATMENT.—Cool, comfortable stable, with fresh air, but no 
draught. Blanket the body. Apply mustard poultice or blister to the chest 
as in pleurisy, and give the same laxative medicine and internal treatment. 
Frequent injections of blood-warm soapsuds. Steamed food and linseed 
tea. 

COUGH. 

Causes. —Generally is the forerunner of all diseases of organs 
of breathing; may co-exist with them and remain after them. 
Chronic cough is generally the result of tubercular deposits in 
the lungs. 

TREATMENT.—With the cure of the disease the cough will generally 
cease. 


/ 


7 










































546 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


Diseases of the Organs of Digestion. 


LOSS OF CUD. 


DIARRHCEA. 


Causes.— In most internal diseases of cattle the functions of 
digestion are interfered with considerably. The acts of regurgi¬ 
tation and remastication, or “ chewing the cud,” become sus¬ 
pended. The cow is said, popularly, to have “ lost her cud.” 

TREATMENT.—Treatment must of course vary with the nature of the 
disease. 

FAULTY TEETH. 

Symptoms.— Loss of appetite. The animal slow in eating, 
drops partly-chewed food out of the mouth, slavering, fetid smell 
from the saliva. 

TREATMENT.—Proceed as recommended in the case of faulty teeth in 
the horse. 

CHOKING. 

Causes.— Pieces of turnip, corn cob, apples, potatoes, etc., 
lodging in the gullet. Symptoms.— Great distress, coughing, 
slavering, continued efforts at swallowing. Any fluid poured 
into the mouth immediately returns. If the lodgment is in the 
neck part of the gullet it can be felt by examination. 

TREATMENT.—Give a little oil and attempt by manipulation to re¬ 
move the obstruction. If this fail, apply a gag with a hole in the middle and 
fastened by strings over the head. Through this insert a flexible probang 
or rattan covered with leather, and having a thick cup-shaped end, or the 
thick end of a flexible and smooth whip handle. Press gently but steadily, 
without jerking, on the obstruction. If these methods fail, a physician 
should make an incision lengthwise in the neck. Give the animal sloppy 
food after. 

BLOATING. 

Causes. —Rich pasturage, clover when wet, overfeeding, in¬ 
digestion. Symptoms. —Swelling of abdomen, especially on left 
flank, a drum-like sound when struck by the hand, escape of 
gas through the mouth, difficult breathing, mouth frothy, eyes 
staring, back arched, grunting and moaning. 

TREATMENT.—Give every half hour an ounce of aqua ammonia in 
a pint of cold water. After twelve hours, if bloating lasts, give 2 drams of 
chloride of lime in a pint of cold water hourly. Give afterward purgative 
dose as advised for black quarter. In urgent cases plunge the trocar into 
the left flank inward, downward and forward, inserting it midway between 
the last rib and the haunch bone and eight inches from the bones of the 
loins. 


Causes. —Damaged food, impure water, exposure, sudden 
change from green to dry food. Co-exists with various diseases, 
a sequel to exhausting diseases. Symptoms.— Frequent evacu¬ 
ation of watery dung with fetid odor. Appetite poor, legs and 
horns cold, loss of milk, thirst. 

TREATMENT.—Changeoffood ind water. Give first a quart of olive oil 
with 2 ounces of laudanum. After three to four hours, give 2 ounces each of 
powdered catechu, ginger and gentian in a pint of linseed tea to cattle over 
two years old, half the dose to stock under two years old, and one-fourth to 
one-third to younger stock. Repeat the dose thrice daily till the discharges 
diminish. Give linseed tea to drink and nourishing food. In chronic 
diarrhoea give morning and evening, 1 dram of ammoniated sulphate of cop¬ 
per, dissolved in half a pint of cold water. 

DIARRHOEA IN CALVES. 

Causes. —Withholding the cow’s first milk from the new-born 
calf; giving milk in large quantities from the pail when cold 
and sour. Symptoms.— Almost entire loss of appetite, dis¬ 
charge of thin, whey-like dung, restlessness, bloating, gnashing 
of the teeth and stupor. 

TREATMENT.—Give 2 to 3 ounces of castor oil with 3 to 4 drams of 
laudanum; after 4 hours give 2 drams of compound chalk powder with 
opium, 1 dram of powdered gentian, 1 ounce of peppermint water and 3 
ounces of starch emulsion. Twice or thrice daily. 

FARDEL-BOUND; DRY MURRAIN. 

Causes.— The third stomach may become impacted from the 
eating of coarse and indigestible food in large quantities, such as 
corn stalks, smutty corn, withered grass, or grass in seed. SYMP¬ 
TOMS.— Gradual loss of appetite, loss of cud, dulness, often 
diarrhoea followed by costiveness. Pulse and breath quickened. 
The brain becomes affected, stupor, delirium, frenzy, running 
about wildly and bellowing. The disease may end fatally in a 
day or may continue two weeks, ending in inflammation of the 
stomach. 

TREATMENT.—Give purgative dose as advised for black quarter, and 
repeat half such dose every six hours At every intervening hour give half 
a gallon of linseed tea with an ounce of ground ginger; or a pint of linseed 
oil or treacle. Inject blood-warm soapsuds, or salt water, per rectum. If 
no relief after twenty-four hours, continue with linseed oil in pint doses. 
Walking exercise should be given. After recovery, sloppy food, amongst 
which mix a small handful of ground willow bark, morning and evening. 

oyo.- 


Diseases of the Generative Organs. 


ABORTION. 

Causes.— Fright, blows, falls, overdriving, eating grass con¬ 
taining ergot, hoar-frosted grass, bad smells, mow-burned or 
musty hay. Sometimes assumes an epidemic form. A cow that 
has once aborted is liable to do it often. 

PREVENTION.—Remove the aborting cow from the herd, together 
with the calf and the afterbirth, from the field or stable, and disinfect the 
stall with chloride of lime or powdered copperas. Ascertain the cause. If 
due to ergotty grass, remove the cows to better pasture ; if to bad hay, dis¬ 
continue its use. The bull should not go loose among cows that are in calf. 


MILK FEVER. 

Causes.— Natural to heavy milkers. Occurs mostly in sum¬ 
mertime. Keeping the cows in too high a condition; feeding 
too liberally before and directly after calving. Symptoms.— 
Soon after calving, the cow may lose her appetite and appear 
dull, with signs of fever; horns hot; muzzle dry; bowels cos¬ 
tive ; pulse and breath quick; restless movements with the hind 
legs; the udder hot and distended with milk. Cow staggers 
about and falls to the ground. Eyes glassy, legs cold, and gen¬ 
eral stupor. 






























DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


/I 


547 


TREAT MENT.—Place the cow in a cool, shady place well bedded. Give 
purgative dose. Follow up every half hour with stimulants, as l / 2 ounce of 
aromatic spirits of ammonia, and i ounce each of tincture of ginger and 
sweet spirits of nitre, given in a pint of cold water or linseed tea. Apply 
cold rags to the head, or a bag filled with chopped ice and sawdust. Apply 
blister along the spine, and friction with equal parts of water and alcohol to 
the limbs. Keep the udder free. In case of much bloating insert the trocar 
in the left flank. Give frequent injections of soapsuds. On recovery give 
tonics, as i scruple of powdered nux vomica, i dram of powdered sulphate 
of iron, and i ounce of powdered gentian in a pint of thin gruel or linseed 
tea, twice or thrice daily during the week. 

RETENTION OF THE AFTERBIRTH. 

Causes.— Poor condition ; want of tone and contractibility of 
the womb; too early closing of the neck of the womb. SYMP¬ 
TOMS.— Portions of the afterbirth may protrude through the ex¬ 
ternal parts, or may be a discharge of slimy matter, more or less 
fetid. If retained long considerable irritation maybe caused by 
putrefaction of the afterbirth. The cow then becomes feverish 
and loses appetite. Fatal results may ensue from blood-poison¬ 
ing. 

TREATMENT.—When retained longer than twenty-four hours give i 
pound of Epsom salts dissolved in one pint of water and add to the solution a 
pint of treacle and an ounce of ginger. When the bowels begin to move the 
afterbirth may also be discharged; if not, introduce a carefully oiled hand 
and arm and loosen it from its attachments, but do not use any force. If 
attended with fetid discharge make injections into the womb of i part of 
chloride of lime in 35 parts of water. Give loosening food. 

EXPULSION OF THE WOMB. 

Causes.— Results from difficult calving, and especially when 
undue force has been used. 

TREATMENT.—Before returning the protruding womb cleanse it with 
warm water and remove any portions of the afterbirth. An assistant on each 
side should hold a sheet, upon which the womb is lifted up. The operator 
places his closed hand against the bottom of the womb, and by steady pres¬ 
sure pushes the protruding part within itself, and follows this up till the 
womb is completely restored to its proper place. Place a bag filled with corn 
or sand over the loins if the cow is disposed to strain. Place the cow in a 
narrow stall, then litter under her hind feet so that she stands with the heels 
of her hind legs on a level with the knees of her fore legs. A truss made of 
two ropes twisted in the middle should be applied over the external parts, an 
end of each rope passed over the back and fastened to a girth, and the two 
other ends after passing down along each side of the udder, should also be 
fastened to the girth. 


GARGET, OR CAKED UDDER. 

Causes.— Not stripping the udder clean at each milking; 
exposure to cold and wet; bruises. Symptoms.— One or more 
of the quarters may be hot, tender and swollen; the cow fever¬ 
ish and costive, loses appetite and cud, milking painful, milk 
mixed with blood or matter, gradual hardening of the bag, and 
formation of tumors filled with matter. 

TREATMENT.—Frequently remove the milk, apply warm poultices in 
bandage fastened over the loins, and leaving holes for the teats to protrude. 
If milking is difficult, use milk tube; then apply hartshorn liniment with 
friction. When abscesses form they should be lanced when mature and 
basilicon ointment applied to the wounds. Give a laxative dose. Loosen¬ 
ing food. If hard swellings remain, apply with friction by the palm of the 
hand frequently a portion of a liniment made of I ounce of aqua ammonia, 3 
ounces of olive oil and 1 dram of iodine. Recovery will be slow. 

SORE TEATS. 

Causes.— Rough milking, bruises, warts, frost-bite, cow-pox. 
Symptoms.— The presence of cracks, fissures and scabs; rest¬ 
lessness and pain at milking, milk sometimes streaked with 
blood, lower part of the udder hot and tender, teats raw and 
sore from cow-pox, nodules and blisters of pinkish color. 

TREATMENT.—Bathe with warm water, poultice; for sores and 
cracks, use Friar’s balsam. Milk with tube in all cases of sore teats. In 
the case of cow-pox, give internally 8 ounces of Glauber’s salts dissolved in 
1 pint of hot water, and add thereto 1 ounce of ground ginger. Warts may 
be clipped off and ointment of 1 part of white lead and 4 parts of lard. 
Wash the teats with soap-suds. 

BLOODY MILK. 

Causes.— Inflammation, or internal lesion of the udder, sud¬ 
den change to rich feeding, eating of acrid plants, rough milk¬ 
ings. Symptoms.— Besides the symptoms accompanying dis 
eased conditions of the udder and teats, if such exist, the milk 
is more or less streaked with blood while it is being drawn, and 
when allowed to stand, the blood falls to the bottom. 

TREATMENT.—If due to diseased conditions of the udder or teats it 
will cease with the cure of these. When due to noxious plants, change pas¬ 
turage. When due to unknown causes, give morning and evening 34 a dram 
of powdered camphor, and 3 ^ an ounce each of powdered oak-bark and gin¬ 
ger in 34 a pint of gruel, or J 4 a dram of tannin and 3 drams of powdered 
gentian in 34 a pint of gruel. 


• 0 ^* 0 ' 


EEF 


TURN-SICK. OR STAGGERS. 

Causes.— The presence in the brain of a cyst or bladder 
worm, occurring in the spring and summer, among young sheep, 
and on low, wet lands. Symptoms.— The head held high and 
to one side. Loss of spirits and appetite, loss of cud, more or 
less stupor, restlessness, stumbling gait, pale bluish appearance 
of the eyes, tendency to wander in circle. The skull-bones 
become thin and yield to the touch. 

TREATMENT.—If a soft spot be found on the skull, cut a flap of the 
skin back, remove a small portion of the bone ; open the bladder and, hold¬ 


ing the sheep firmly, turn the back of the head down. When the fluid has 
escaped, seize the head of the sac and withdraw it; replace the flap of skin 
and secure with pitch plaster and put a hood over the head. Give loosening 
food for ten days. 

GRUBS IN THE HEAD. 

Causes.— The presence of the eggs of the gad-fly within the 
sinuses of the forehead. During the summer months the gad-fly 
deposits its eggs about the nostrils of the sheep; crawling up the 
cavities of the nose, they remain till next summer. Symptoms. 

























































548 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


—Irritation, discharge of matter from the nose, sneezing and 
coughing. 

TREATMENT.—Open the cavities of the head with a small trephine 
and remove the eggs by injecting luke-warm water. 

CATARRH AND BRONCHITIS. 

Causes. —Exposure to cold and wet, especially in spring and 
fall, cold nights and warm days. Symptoms. —Coughing, 
sneezing, discharge from the nose, loss of appetite, quick breath¬ 
ing. 

TREATMENT.—Place the animal in comfortable quarters. Give 4 
ounces of Glauber’s salts dissolved in half a pint of hot water and add yi an 
ounce of tincture of ginger. Then give thrice daily 1 ounce of acetate of 
ammonia, 2 drams of fluid extract of belladonna and 3 drams of sweet spirits 
of nitre, mixed with a gill of linseed tea. Loosening food. Keep the nose 
clean with wet sponge. Apply liniment of ammonia to the throat. 

BLOATING. 

Causes. —Same causes as in cattle. Symptoms. —Expansion 
of abdomen on left side, swelling gives a drum-like sound when 
tapped with fingers. Drowsy. Quick breathing. 

TREATMENT.—If no knife at hand and a river near, plunge the sheep 
in and let him swim awhile ; or insert carefully a small trocar into the left 
flank and keep it there while gas escapes. The use of a penknife is 
often dangerous. Use same remedies of medicine as for bloated cattle. 

DIARRHCEA. 

Causes. —Sudden change from dry food to grass, exposure to 
cold and wet; most frequent amongst lambs; tuberculosis. 
Symptoms. —Frequent discharge of liquid dung, loss of appetite 
and flesh, emaciation. 

TREATMENT.—Give 2 to 3 ounces of castor oil with 2 to 3 drams of 
laudanum. One-third to one-half a dose for lambs. Afterward give, morn¬ 
ing and evening, j4 an ounce of compound chalk powder, 2 drams of 
powdered gentian root, 3 ounces of peppermint water and 2 ounces of starch 
emulsion, mixed together. One-third to one-half a dose for lambs. Give 
1 part of white of eggs and 6 parts of water, well shaken together ; may be 
given in unlimited quantities. Keep the animals in-doors. Give access to 
salt. 

ABORTION. 

Causes. —May occur at any period of gestation, but gen¬ 
erally when the ewe is about half gone. Among the causes 
are a too free use of salt amongst the food; excessive feeding 
on roots, especially frozen turnips; ergot or spurred ege in the 
hay and grasses; timothy grass is often full of this; sudden 
fright, worried by dogs; jumping over ditches; rushing thrpngh 
narrow doors or gates. 

PREVENTION.—Avoid the causes. Stop feeding with ergotty hay. 
Remove to good pastures. Remove aborting sheep with dead lambs, and 
afterbirth, if the abortion occurs while stabled, disinfect with chloride of 
lime. Give the sheep a mild laxative, such as advised for catarrh, and feed 
with loosening food. 


FOOT ROT. 

Causes. —Wet and low pastures; filthy barnyards. Symp¬ 
toms. —Lameness, swelling of the heels and coronet, where 
the hoofs are more or less detached. 

TREATMENT.—Pare away all loose and detached horn. Be careful 
not to inflict any wound. Cleanse and bathe with warm water. Dip the 
foot in tar and place the animal on well bedded floor. Repeat the tar coat¬ 
ing if necessary. If proud flesh appear, apply a coat of tincture of iron. 
Sprinkle air-slaked lime on the floor. 

WOUNDS AND BRUISES. 

TREATMENT.—Thoroughly cleanse the wound, remove all dirt, and, 
if there is much bleeding, apply strong solution of copperas, or tincture of 
iron, by means of a wad of tow. If the wound is deep, clip the wool off all 
around the wound. If the wound discharge, use Friar’s Balsam or equal 
parts of tincture of myrrh and tincture of aloes. If there is too much sprout¬ 
ing of flesh, apply powdered sulphate of zinc or tincture of iron. Use poultices 
freely, and apply equal parts of arnica and water. Attend, above all things, 
to cleanliness. 

FRACTURES. 

Symptoms. —The limb swings and twists around, and cannot 
support the weight of the body; the animal listless; swelling, 
pain and fever. 

TREATMENT.—If the bone is broken in several pieces, and has broken 
through the skin, and the soft, fleshy parts have become bruised, treatment 
is useless ; the animal should be at Notice killed. Less complicated fractures 
will yield to rest, though the limb will be deformed. Adjust the fractured 
ends to their proper place ; then bind the limb with a strip of cotton or linen, 
add cotton wadding, and then apply light wooden splints ; but do not bandage 
too tightly. The bandage should remain on the limb from four to six weeks, 
the animal being kept quiet and well fed. Bandages may be made of stiff 
pasteboard or cotton soaked in starch. 

SCAB. 

Causes. —The presence of minute insects may occur 
through contact with scabby sheep, posts, trees or fences where 
such sheep have been rubbing. Filth is the main and chief 
cause. Symptoms. —Frequent scratching and rubbing; the ap¬ 
pearance of rough, hard, red pimples and scabs, mainly along 
the neck, back and sides. 

TREATMENT.—Tobacco wash is the most effectual. For one hundred 
sheep, take 25 pounds of coarse tobacco and steep it in as many gallons of 
boiling water. Stir till cold, and then strain. Add to this fluid 75 gallons of 
water; then take 6 pounds of soft soap, dissolve in warm water and add to 
the strained liquor before the cold water is added. The sheep should be 
dipped in this, all except the head. Repeat the dipping in ten days. Cleanse 
sheds and yards. Burn all loose wool. 

TICKS. 

Symptoms. —This wretched little insect grows quickly and is 
very tenacious, is mainly found on the neck and shoulders, 
causing great irritation. 

TREATMENT.—They should be picked off with the fingers when 
possible. Tobacco wash will prove useful; or mix equal parts of coal oil 
and lard oil; make furrows in the wool, three inches apart, along the neck, 
back, sides and quarters, and smear a portion into the skin. Repeat this 
once a month. Shearing time is the best time to remove ticks. 






























K 


DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 


549 




INK 



EPILEPSY. 

Causes. —Irritation of digestive organs, resulting from too 
much or improper food. Symptoms. —Dulness, eyes blood¬ 
shot, quick breath, running about as if blind, foaming, crying, 
convulsions. 


TREATMENT.-—Care in the matter of food. Plenty of sour milk and 
unripe fruit. See that water is pure. Give them liberty, and treat as for 
worms. 

COUGHING. 

Causes. —Exposure to cold and wet; worms. Symptoms.— 
Quick breathing and painful coughing. 

TREATMENT.—Dry, comfortable quarters. Change of food. If cough 
is stubborn, give morning and evening a dram of sulphuret of antimony 
and camphor, and i dram of powdered liquorice root mixed with treacle, 
and place on the roof of the mouth. If resulting from worms, treat for 
worms. 

SNIFFLE DISEASE. 


Causes. —Resultant from catarrh, exposure, bad drainage or 
scrofula. Symptoms. —Inflammation, swelling of the nose, 
nose drawn to one side, difficult breathing, constant sniffling, 
voiding bloody mucus. Loss of appetite. 


TREATMENT.—Good quarters, sloppy food. Give three times a day J/j 
:i dram of muriate of ammonia and 8 grains of camphor in a teaspoonful of 
treacle. Apply along the nose a portion of one part each of laudanum and 
Goulard’s solution, with 12 parts of water. Give frequent injections per 


rectum. 


MALIGNANT SORE THROAT. 

Causes. —Filthy, ill-drained, close styes, bad food, or con¬ 
tagion. Symptoms. —Loss of appetite, coughing, swollen throat, 
hot mouth, difficulty in swallowing, red tongue, discolored 
skin. 

TREATMENT.—The disease makes rapid progress and often proves 
fatal. Scarify the swelling about the throat and tongue, touch the wounds 
with carbolic acid, then poultice frequently. Give 10 grains of tartar emetic 
in a little water, then a laxative. Give acidulated water to drink. Keep 
separate. 4 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 

Causes. —Exposure, bad drainage, general bad management, 
filthy styes. Symptoms. —Coughing, chills,'quick breath, blood¬ 
shot eyes, open mouth and protruding tongue. 

TREATMENT.—Give clean, dry quarters. Give 10 grains each of tar¬ 
tar emetics and powdered white hellebore in a little gruel, to act as an 
emetic. Give three times a day a powder made of ^ a grain of tartar 
emetic, 5 grains of powdered white hellebore, and 10 grains of nitre. If 
vomiting ensues, omit a dose. Apply to the chest a liniment of equal parts 
of aqua ammonia, olive oil and oil of turpentine. 


TREATMENT.—One to 2 ounces of olive oil, with 1 t02drams oflauda- 
num. Four hours after, morning and evening, give 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls of 
a mixture of 1 ounce of powdered prepared chalk, J4 an ounce of powdered 
catechu, 2 drams of powdered ginger, ^ a dram of powdered opium and J4 
a pint of peppermint water. Change diet and keep the animals warm. 

WORMS. 

Symptoms. —Changeable appetite, loss of flesh, diarrhoea or 
costiveness, vomiting and coughing, palsy of the hinder quar¬ 
ters. 

TREATMENT.—Flour of sulphur given freely in sloppy food is most 
useful. For pigs under three months old, a teaspoonful is a dose; for older 
ones, a small tablespoonful. It may be given four days in succession, morn¬ 
ing and evening. It may be repeated every other week. Give sour milk, 
buttermilk, sliced raw onions, green fruit and acorns. Swine should always 
have access to charcoal, wood ashes and salt. 

HOG CHOLERA. 

Causes. —Filthy, ill-drained styes, impure water, unsound 
food, contagion. Symptoms. —Stupor, hanging head, cough, 
quick breathing, vomiting, excrements very fetid, sometimes 
blood-streaked, great thirst. 

TREATMENT.—There is no very satisfactory method, and even those 
who recover are worth little or nothing. Best to burn and bury the diseased 
ones. Remove all the healthy swine and thoroughly disinfect the styes. 

KIDNEY WORM. 

Causes. —A paralyzed condition of the hind quarters, due as 
much to large number of worms in the intestines and constipa¬ 
tion as to worms in the kidneys. Symptoms. —Poor appetite, 
diarrhoea or costiveness, shaking of the hinder quarters, inability 
to support the body. 

TREATMENT.—Give laxative of 2 or 3 drams of powdered castor oil 
seeds, mixed among a small quantity of gruel early in the morning. Inject 
salt water. Apply liniment of cantharides to loins. Give thrice daily 15 
grains of powdered ca mphor, 4 grains of powdered nux vomica, and a 
grain of ginger mixed with treacle smeared oh the tongue. Half this dose 
for pigs under four months old. Sloppy food, sour milk, pure water. 

RHEUMATISM. 

Causes. —Exposure to cold and wet, miserable styes, want of 
drainage, cold draughts of air. Symptoms.— Heat, tenderness 
and swelling of joints or of the loins; stiffness, lameness, un¬ 
willingness to move, costiveness, loss of appetite. 

TREATMENT.—Provide comfortable, well-bedded dry quarters. Give 
sloppy food. Give a dose of oil as for diarrhoea. Apply liniment of am¬ 
monia or tincture of cantharides to the affected parts. Mix among the food, 
morning and evening, a teaspoonful of cod liver oil. 

LICE. 


DIARRHOEA. 

Causes.—S udden changes of food, bad food, worms, expo¬ 
sure, impure water. 


Causes. —Filth, privation, confinement, contact with lousy 
hogs. 

TREATMENT.—Brush over, once a week, with a mixture of 1 part of 
kerosene and 5 parts of water, or mix 1 part of benzine, 6 parts of soft soap 




\ 











































DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 




55° 


and 15 parts of soft water. Thoroughly cleanse and lime-wash all parts 
with which the hogs have been in contact. Burn old bedding; lime-wash 
the floors. Feed well, and place charcoal and sulphur in a corner. 


SOWS EATING THEIR PIGS. 

Causes. —Disordered state of nerves; feeding the hogs on 
offal from slaughterhouse; too close confinement. Symp¬ 


toms.— The sow, after farrowing, becomes excited, violent, and 
acts as if crazy, roots in the ground, rummages her bedding, 
looks around wildly, and in this state eats her pigs. 

TREATMENT.—Remove the afterbirth as soon as expelled, secure 
the pigs and cover them with thin paste powdered aloes and water. When 
the sow cools down, let her pigs come to her; the aloes will disgust her. A 
good method also is to create nausea immediately after farrowing; to do 
this, give 8 grains of tartar emetic and 20 grains of powdered root of white 
hellebore, and repeat the same after two hours. 


•o^o* 


General Suggestions of Great Value. 


Many of the diseases that affect our domestic animals might 
be prevented by attention to a few common-sense considerations. 
The three essentials of good health for animals as for men are : 
fresh air, wholesome food and pure water. The ventilation of 
the stable is of the utmost importance. There is a process of 
natural ventilation outside of the stable, and if stables were 
more thoroughly ventilated animals would live longer and en¬ 
joy better health. Thousands of animals have been killed by 
filthy stables. 

Dampness in the stable is an enemy of a most insidious 
character. Proper and efficient drainage is essential to a healthy 
home for animals. 

Every stable should be supplied wdth a closet large enough to 
contain all utensils, such as buckets, forks, brooms, shovels, 
etc., etc. There should be a place for everything; harness, 
saddles, blankets, etc., etc. Nails, hooks, pegs or shelves 
should never be seen in the walls. Many accidents happen 
and much danger is often done by buckets and other utensils 
lying about. If the horse happens to get loose, it is better that 
there be no buckets to kick and no nails or pegs to harm itself 
against. 

It is very important, whether the horse is shod or not, that the 
blacksmith have it in hand every four weeks. Especially is this 
important when the horse is young. The feet once spoiled 
through neglect are spoiled for life, in the majority of instances. 
Special care should be exercised concerning the feet of colts. 

Medicines are given to animals in the form of balls, electu¬ 
aries, powders and liquids. For cattle and sheep powders and 
liquids are best, the powders being mixed with the food. In 
giving medicine to a horse, the horse should be untied and 
backed up into his stall. The man who gives the medicine 
should stand on the right side of the horse; he should grasp 


the tongue with the left hand, while, with the index finger and 
the first two fingers of the right hand, the ball should be passed 
along the roof of the mouth and dropped on the back part of 
the tongue; this done, the hand should be quickly withdrawn 
and the mouth held closed. A balling iron is hardly needful 
if ordinary care is used. Electuaries are placed upon the upper 
portion of the tongue by means of a strong wooden ladle. 
Fluids should be given from a long necked bottle, and should 
be given in small draughts, while the tongue is held down or 
forward. The head should not be held too high. Violent 
pinching of the throat is dangerous and is not necessary. If 
the horse wants to cough while the medicine is being given, do 
not for a moment attempt to restrain him. The same rule applies 
to cattle and sheep. A small shoe forms the best vehicle for 
giving fluids to swine. Place the shoe in the animal’s mouth, 
pour the fluid through the instep and the animal will suck it in. 

The treatment of diseases for mules and asses is the same as 
for horses, only that the doses should be smaller of course. The 
doses prescribed for sheep will answer for goats. 

The horse’s pulse may be felt at the edge of the lower jaw 
bone, three inches forward of the angle of the jaw, or on the 
inner side of the fore-arm, and in the middle of the inner side 
of the tail. This applies to the other domestic animals. The 
heartbeats may be felt on the left side, just behind the elbow. 
In a good state of health the pulse beats from 35 to 40 a min¬ 
ute in the horse; in the ass and mule, from 40 to 45; in 
horned cattle, from 40 to 50; in the sheep, the goat and the hog, 
from 70 to 80 per minute. Any material increases of the pulsa¬ 
tions should be regarded with suspicion. 

Do not forget that the best motto for the stable is 
FRESH AIR, WHOLESOME FOOD, PURE WATER. 



































MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 



flOR MODERN IJMJIKS. 

With Plans and Estimates. 

HILE the aim of this department is to give a practical ex¬ 
position of the science of Architecture as modified by 
modern thought and necessity, and more especially in its 
relation to the building of country homes, a brief introductory al¬ 
lusion may be made to the general principles of architectural beauty, which, 
though founded upon ideas evolved and matured by the ancients, are to-day 
the main sources of inspiration for the builder who seeks to render what he 
builds beautiful as wel'l as convenient and comfortable. Many as may be the 
styles of architecture, the science is divided into five great original divisions, 
known as the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan and Composite orders. Of 
these, the three first named are of Greek origin; the last two are Roman 
adaptations of the former, the Composite order being a rich and glowing union 
of the Ionic and Corinthian, while the Tuscan is merely an elaboration of the 
Doric. With the political partition of the Roman Empire came a division of 
its architecture into the Byzantine, which became tinged with orientalism, indicated in its richness of color and decoration, and 
the Early Christian and Romanesque, both of which are more simple. Among other styles which strongly influence modern 
building are the Gothic, and the Renaissance, which is a revival of Grecian architecture adapted to modern requirements. Other 
styles, which are very seldom resorted to, are the Egyptian, marked by sloping walls, great solidity, and ornamentation in hiero¬ 
glyphics and the lotus-flower; the Assyrian, of fantastic design, with huge flights of stairs and lengthy terraces; the Chinese, char¬ 
acterized by curling eaves and a succession of roofs tapering one above the other; the Indian, exemplified by temples cut from 

the solid rock, and the Moorish, richest of all in its combination of 


light colors and elaboration of minute and beautiful details. 



PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. M 


A commendable tendency of the times is to combine in all things beauty and utility. A house is the physical exponent of the 
standing and character, the tastes and aspirations of its owner, and nothing is more worthy of a man’s thought and at¬ 
tention than the structure and its surroundings which he calls his home. In building a modern home in the country, it being al¬ 
ways understood that harmony of outline and proportion is sought in connection with more indispensable requirements, the follow- 

















































































































































































































































£> 



-— / 

MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


ing excellencies must be constantly aimed at: Convenience of 
arrangement; facility of construction and repair; protection 
from heat in summer and cold in winter; means of ventilat¬ 
ing and warming; conformity with the surrounding scenery. 
These are the leading ideas which should guide the builder, 
and, as the cpiestion of convenient arrangement has an external 
as well as an internal application, the first matter to receive con¬ 
sideration will be 

The Choice of a Site. 

In making the selection the things to be avoided should re¬ 
ceive attention. Among these are a location on the north or 
west side of a hill, and proximity of sluggish streams, marshes, 
bogs, swamps, the miasma from which will poison the at¬ 
mosphere and certainly entail liability to disease upon those 
breathing it. The steep side of an evenly rising hill offers an 
objectionable posi¬ 
tion when other hills 
of equal height and 
like conformation 
surround it, cutting 
off the necessary 
amount of sunlight. 

The principal rooms 
of the house should 
be so located as to 
be well exposed to 
the sun’s rays. The 
dining-room should 
get the benefit of the 
morning sun; the 
principal chamber 
and the sitting-room 
should be located so 
as to invite the sun¬ 
shine through both 
the morning and the 
afternoon. Either 
the morning or the 
afternoon sun should 
be secured for the 
other rooms, parlors, 
etc., while the kitch¬ 
en, bath-room, store¬ 
rooms, etc., can be 

given the locations which are least favored with solar rays. 

An elevated site presents many great advantages. It in¬ 
vites the sunlight to come early and stay late. It places at com¬ 
mand a sweeping view of the surrounding country. It insures 
the presence of pure and salubrious atmosphere, and gives the 
best facilities for draining. With such a site, protected from 
the western and northern winds by belts of timber or thatches 
of higher ground, as near an approach as is possible to absolute 
comfort and healthfulness, as far as location can govern them, will 
be secured. 

Conformity with the surrounding scenery is an object that 
should not be overlooked. When possible place the house 
so that the occupant, no matter which way he will direct his 
glance, may be greeted by a pleasant landscape, whose natural 

/ 


advantages can be greatly improved by the planting here and 
there of trees or shrubs. These, too, may be advantageously 
employed in the ornamentation of the actual site of the build¬ 
ing, care being taken that they should not be placed too near 
the building so as to swell the volume of dampness to an un¬ 
healthy extent. 

Building a Home. 

After the farmer has made up his mind that he will build a 
home, the next thing to be definitely settled is the kind of a 
house he intends to erect. Whatever changes in the main plan 
are to be made are accomplished easily and at no expense be¬ 
fore the actual building has been begun. Therefore let the 
builder thoroughly embody in his plans what he wants in his 
house, where he wants it and how he wants it, before he even 
goes so far as to stake out the foundation. In this preliminary 

work, which will be 
found to be full of 
pleasure, an inval¬ 
uable adviser will be 
found in the wife 
who is to preside 
over the home when 
it is finished. Her 
keen intuition and 
ready inventive fac¬ 
ulty will find a quick 
solution for any of 
the agreeable puz¬ 
zles which arise from 
time to time in plan¬ 
ning a house. Con¬ 
venience of arrange¬ 
ment, which is the 
creator of home 
comfort, must be 
studied at every 
point when the work 
of building the home 
on paper is in prog¬ 
ress. These desid¬ 
erata should in no 
instance be made 
subordinate to ap¬ 
pearance. With the 
exercise of a little ingenuity both comfort and beauty may be pre¬ 
served in combination. In the question of facility of construc¬ 
tion and repair many local issues will of course take part. 
Availability and cost have a good deal to say on this subject. 
Other tilings being equal, stone provides the handsomest and 
most durable building material, as well as the most artistic, 
its unembellished surface always harmonizing with the 
scenery which surrounds and the foliage which enfolds it. 
Next comes brick, which, though lacking the lasting power and 
beauty of stone, presents points of utility and permanence of 
great value. Lastly, wood claims attention, and on its behalf 
are urged its cheapness and dryness, its general healthfulness, 
its facility of ventilation, the readiness with which it is worked, 
and its pronounced capability of ready ornamentation. The 





































































































V 

--- 



MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 

553 


only offset to all these advantages is supplied in its perishable 
nature; but with care this may be greatly modified. No home 
presents a more cheerful exterior than that of wood painted in 
the bright and cheerful tints now in vogue. A propos of paint- 
* n S> a great mistake is occasionally made by the owners of 
wooden buildings when they seek to have the surfaces con- 
veited into a supposed imitation of stone or brick. At a dis¬ 
tance the imposture may succeed, but a closer view dispels the 
thin illusion, and the cheap effect creates anything but the im¬ 
pression which has been aimed at so awkwardly. 

As a general, a very general rule, the publishers of such 
books as have hitherto attempted to handle the question of 
modern architecture in a practical way have been content to 
supply their readers with some good general advice on the sub¬ 
ject of the selection of the location and material of a house, 
after which they bring the subject to a sudden and unsatisfactory 
ending, by advising the intending builder, when he has got thus 
far, to employ an architect and entrust to his judgment and dis¬ 
cretion, paid for by a large percentage on the actual cost of the 
house, the completion of the structure. Such is not the inten¬ 
tion of this book. It has given the house-builder advice on the 
subjects mentioned, and, having led him up to the point where 
planning ends and construction begins, it will not there leave 
him. In the plans and specifications to be found further on are 
provided clear and comprehensive data, by following which 
any farmer, with the assistance of one or more competent car¬ 
penters, will be able to construct the house which he has 
planned. 

Before these are brought under consideration, an estimate, 
showing just 

How the Money Is Applied 

in the building of a $1,500 house, will provide an idea of the 
cost of the various materials used in its construction, and will 
form a reliable basis of calculation for houses of less or greater 
cost: 

Excavation, 45 yards at 15 cents.$ 6.75 

Brick-work, 13,600 at $S.oo,. 10S.S0 

Joists,. 63.00 

Flooring, 2,000 feet. 80.00 

Rafters. 57.00 

Studding and framing,. 10S.00 

Sheathing, 4,500 feet,. 103,50 

Weather-boarding, 2,500 feet. 125.00 

Shingles and shingling, 1,900 at $5.00. 95.00 

Gutters and cornices, 196 feet feet at 30 cents. 5S.S0 

Doors, with hardware, 13 at $S.oo. 104.00 

Windows, complete, 14 at $7.50. 105.00 

Bases, 460 feet at 6 cents,. 27.60 

Porches and stairs,. 58.00 

Painting and glazing,.... 139.00 

Galvanized iron and tin work. 63.00 

Lathing and plastering, S68 yards at 20 cents. 173.60 

Grates and mantels,. 30.00 

Sundries,. 33.00 

Total, including labor, etc.,.$i»539,o5 

Water. 

A full supply of water is of essential importance, and the near¬ 
er it can be brought to the house the better; and best of all if it 

]C 


can be introduced right into the house. In hilly localities a 
spring may be found whose elevation will enable its waters to 
flow through the whole house. Failing such a convenient ally 
of domestic comfort, a hydraulic ram may be employed to force 
the water through the system of pipes with which the house is 
supplied. The ventilation of water is essential, and for this 
purpose cisterns should be left exposed and uncovered. With¬ 
out good drinking-water good health will be unattainable. Sev¬ 
eral simple but reliable tests of its quality are given, among 
which the following are worthy of attention: Good drinking 
water cooks vegetables well, especially the dry kind, such as 
peas and beans. To the eye it should be limpid; to the nose, 
scentless; to the taste, insipid. After drinking in moderation 
no sensation of weight should be felt in the stomach. If the 
water fulfils all these conditions it may be relied upon as excel¬ 
lent. Avoid the use of rain-water caught on the roof and saved 
in cisterns, as, being impregnated with dust, soot, and other 
impurities, it is necessarily impure. By filtration it can be ren¬ 
dered drinkable, and it is a good plan to build your cistern in 
two compartments, separated one from the other by a water¬ 
tight wall of brick, with a space left in the bottom for a box fill¬ 
ed with alternate layers of gravel, sand and powdered charcoal. 
The water will be filtered by passing through this box, and be 
made safe and pleasant for use. 

When it is decided to have a 

Cellar 

care should be taken to so construct it that the dangers arising 
from foul air, through bad ventilation and lack of the purifying 
sunlight, are reduced to a minimum. A cellar which is 
intended for the storage of vegetables through the winter should 
not be connected with, certainly never directly beneath the 
dwelling. In any case it should be kept scrupulously clean, as 
the foul gases given off by decomposing vegetables are highly 
detrimental to health. 

A few dollars expended on an 

Ice-House 

will be found to be one of the best investments the farmer ever 
made. Up to within comparatively few years ice was invariably 
stored underground, but recently it has been found that the 
crystal coldness can be as well preserved in a house built above 
ground, provided only that it is constructed on a plan which 
secures non-conduction of heat into the interior. A very good 
plan for an efficacious ice-house, to cost only $25, can be given: 
It should be built of boards with double walls filled with saw¬ 
dust, or chaff, or fine straw. A large ventilating window is 
placed at each end at the top; these windows should always be 
open. Care should be taken that all the saw-dust is pressed 
solid, so that no cavities are left. An ice-house with one apart¬ 
ment, 8 by 10 feet, and 6 feet high, will keep ice enough for a 
moderate family. To build such a house will be required 216 
square feet of inch-thick weather-boarding, $3.60; 132 feet of 
rafters, 10 feet long, 4 by 2 inches, $1.80; 103 feet of slats, 7 
feet long, $2.10; two doors, $2.00; shingles, 1,150, $2.90. 
Total, $25. The employment of materials which are non¬ 
conductors of heat and the securing of proper drainage are the 
great points to be looked after in building an ice-house. 


\ 


-L 

























































554 


MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


A $3,000 PRIZE COTTAGE.—ELEVATION. 


The American Architect, in 1883, offered a prize for the best 
original plan of a cottage approximating in cost $3,000. A large 
number of architects entered the competition, but the juiy de¬ 
cided that the accompanying designs, by W. E. Chamberlain, 
of Cambridgeport, Mass., were incontestably worthy of the first 
place. While there is nothing that can be called eccentric in 
the architecture, it is a fresh and unexpected conception. There 
is a certain distinction which removes the design from the or¬ 
dinary type, suggesting that the occupant of this cottage has 
more social prestige than his neighbors. 

The plan provides a piazza which is partially roofed for sum¬ 
mer, while a vestibule to the hall answers the requirements of a 
winter dwelling. The parlor and dining-room communicate 
with each other and with the hall. The kitchen has an ample 
porch, which would, perhaps, better have been utilized for a 
shed or wash-room. There is a cellar under the whole house. 
A furnace is depended upon to heat the various rooms, except 
the parlor and dining-room, which have open fireplaces. By 
changing the position of the back stairs in the second-floor 
plan to the left side of the kitchen, some valuable space might 
be gained. The main stairs continue up in a tower to the attic, 
where another room is obtained. 


The house is supposed to be built in Allston, Mass., near 
Boston. Labor is as cheap there as anywhere. The Boston 
market is at hand, railroad accommodation easy, and stone¬ 
work cheap. 

The cellar walls are of 18-inch rough stone up to grade, and 
then 18-inch brick wall up to sill. 

Walls of first story covered with pine “siding,” broad hori¬ 
zontal sheathing 10 inches wide. 

Above second-story floor-beams shingles everywhere, left 
untouched by paint or stain, to become gray with time. 

Rough boarding and lower floors of hemlock. Frame of 
spruce. Plaster, two-coat work. No wainscoting or hard-wood 
finish. Mill windows and doors. 

Sizes: Sills, 4 inches by 6 inches; plates, 4 inches by 6 
inches; wall-studs, 2 inches by 4 inches, 16 inches on centres; 
partition-studs, 2 inches by 3 inches, 16 inches on centres; first- 
floor beams, 2 inches by 9 inches; second-floor beams, 2 inches 
by 10 inches (the reason for this is that the second story pro¬ 
jects in two places, and has many unsupported partitions to 
carry); third-floor beams, 2 inches by 8 inches ; rafters, 2 inches 
by 8 inches. 


<1 A $3,000 PRIZE COTTAGE. t> 































































































































First Floor- 



Cellcur* 


Estimate of Cost. 

Except for stone and brick work, the prices quoted for material are cost prices, not counting labor or builder’s profit, which 
will be found added at the end. On the lower floor, without including piazzas, there are 817 sq. ft. At $3.50 per sq. ft, the 
house would cost $2,859.50. This, with piazza-work and the architect’s commission, would bring the figure very near $3,055.55, 
as computed. 


Excavation, 5,500 cu. ft. =1204 cu. 

yds., ® 2 i<t .$ 44.SS 

Cellar Wall (stone) 40 perch, fa) 

$3.5° (laid). 140.00 

Brick Foundation (8 in. thick) with 
vault, piazza piers, and 2 cellar piers, 

15S cu. ft. (24 bricks to a foot); 3,792 

bricks, $20 per M. (laid). 75.84 

Chimneys, 9,380 bricks,® $20 (laid).. 187.60 


Frame. 


sq. FT. 


Sills, plates, outer walls and in¬ 
ner partitions.2,790 

First floor.1,288 

Second floor.1,480 

Third floor. 300 

Second-floor ceiling-joists. 648 

Attic ceiling-joists. 220 

Roof. 1,166 

Total, ® $16.7,892 126.27 

Rough Outside Boarding. sq ft . 

First floor.1,311 

Second floor.1,197 

Third floor. 384 

Roof.1,405 


Outs, Windows. 
First floor, 14 
Second “ 12 

Third “ 4 

30 ® 22 sq. ft. 
Total, ® $13. 


4,297 

/ 

. 660 


• 3,637 47- 2 8 


Rough Lower Floors. SC( ft _ 

First floor.6oS* 

Second floor.700 

Attic.250 


Total, ® $13.1,558 20.25 


Outer Covering. SC( ft 

First floor, siding ® $30.964 

Second floor, shingles.816 

Third and gables, shingles.424 

Roof.t, 40 S 


2S.92 


Total.2,645 

120 ft. to 1 ,000 shingles, 22 M., @ $3.75. 82.50 

Windows, 24 large, including sash, 
glazing, weights, line, sash-fast, 
frame architraves and blinds, ® $5.50 132.00 

7 small ones, ® $3.25. 22.75 

Doors, 28, including hardware, thresh¬ 
olds and architraves, ® $6.50. 182.00 

Stairs, all told. 140.00 

Nails . 35-°o 

Upper Floors, i,6ii ft., ® $30. 48.33 

None in garret. 

Plaster (including lathing). 

Walls. sq.ft. 

First floor.2,473 

Second floor. 3,352 

Third floor. 712 


Total.6,537 


Outs. sq. ft> 

Lower floor, 3 outer doors.85 

“ “ 11 inside doors.484 

“ “ 13 windows.195 

Second “ 10 doors.440 

“ “ 12 windows.180 

Third “ 3 doors.132 

“ “ 3 windows.45 

Total.1,561 

6 , 537 —1, 56 i = 4,976 sq- ft —553 sq. yds., 

® iS(J.$ 99.54 


Ceilings. 

Plumbing (bath-room and sink only) 

Gutters, 75 ft., ® 12^. 

Conductors, 60 ft., ® iof?. 

Plaster Band on exterior (architect 

to do the “scratch-work”). 

Furnace. 

Painting (on outside, the lower story 
and all mouldings will be painted; 

shingles left as put on). 

Labor. 

Two Fireplaces (owner already has 
tiles). 


30-25 

150.00 

9.00 

6.00 

8.00 

150.00 


125.00 

700.00 

50.00 


Total.$2,641.14 

Builder’s Profit, 10 $. 264.14 

Architect’s Commission, 5 54 . 150.00 

Other Expenses. 150.00 

Total.$ 3 , 055-55 


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MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 




Ofl $2,500 HOUSE. I> 


This structure is in the Queen Anne style, now becoming so 
popular, and presents a neat and attractive appearance. The 
conventional main hall 


and stairway are dis¬ 
pensed with, and in¬ 
stead there is provided 
a vestibule entrance out¬ 
side the house, from a 
part of the veranda. 

This makes the stairs 
less conspicuous, with 
approaches at the foot 
from two directions, in 
that way serving well 
for general use from the 
main house and as a 
private stairway from 
the rear extension. 

The exterior presents 
an angular and pictur¬ 
esque appearance. Pro¬ 
tection from storms is 
afforded the windows 
and entrances by the 
extensive veranda and 
other projections. De¬ 
sirable shade is also fur¬ 
nished by the same means. The roofs are of dark slate, and a 
cresting of ornamental iron along the main ridges, properly 
connected with ground 
rods, serves as a protec¬ 


1KONT ELEVATION. 


tion against lightning. 
The window openings, 
having a single light of 
plain glass in the lower 
sash, contain in the upper 
one several smaller tinted 
lights, which, in a variety 
of pleasing colors, pro¬ 
duce a most cheerful ef¬ 
fect. 

In the first story the 
height of ceilings is ten 
feet. There are four good- 
sized rooms, each with 
outlooks at their sides and 
ends. The main entrance 
is from the front veranda, 
through a good-sized ves¬ 
tibule, which is lighted at 
the side by a cluster win¬ 
dow of tinted glass, and 
has side and end doors 
opening to the parlor and 


SIDE ELEVATION. 


sitting-room. The parlor has four windows, facing three direc- on sheathing. The main roof is of dark slate, laid on sheathing 


tions, each protected from storms, and agreeably shaded by the 


and tarred felt. The veranda roofs are also slate, laid on 


veranda. There is a large open fire-place, and doors commun¬ 
icating with the sitting and dining-rooms. The sitting and din¬ 
ing-rooms adjoin each 


other through sliding 
doors, which admit of 
their being used togeth¬ 
er, as occasion may re¬ 
quire. The kitchen is 
convenient, well-lighted, 
has a large fire-place, 
with range, and adjoins 
a pantry. The rear en¬ 
trance, or porch, is also 
reached through a door 
from the sitting-room. 
The stairs to the cellar 
and to the second story 
are placed between the 
dining-room and kit¬ 
chen, and may be reach¬ 
ed from each direct. 

In the second story the 
height of ceiling is nine 
feet. This story has a 
central hall, three cham¬ 
bers, three closets and 
a trunk-room. The stairs 

to the attic are placed above those of the first story. 

The height of ceiling in the attic is three feet at the plates or 

sides, and follows the raf¬ 


ters to the full height of 
seven feet. A hall and 
three chambers may be fin¬ 
ished on this floor, with the 
doors and windows placed 
in the centre of the ends 
of each. 

The cellar equals the 
first story' in area. It has 
an outside entrance, five 
windows, and stairs lead¬ 
ing to the first story'. 
Height of ceiling, 61 feet. 

The foundations and 
chimneys of this house 
are of hard brick, laid in 
good mortar. The frame 
is of sawed spruce, with 
siding, for the body, of 
clapboards laid on thick- 
nessed sheathing and 
building felt. The gables 
and frieze courses are of 
red-wood shingles, also 


o 


























































































































































































G) 


MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


557 


inverted pine flooring. The flooring outside is of 1 1 by 41-inch 
T and G pine; inside, of ig by 7-inch T and G spruce. The 
windows have plank frames, with 15-inch sash, glazed with sec¬ 
ond quality French glass. The doors are of seasoned pine, 
panelled and molded. The inside finish is clear pine, reeded, 


with blocks. The inside walls and ceilings are hard-finished 
on two coats of brown mortar, and the principal rooms of the 
first story have neat stucco cornices. The painting is two-coat 
work, of selected colors. The designs for this structure are 


from the American Agriculturist. 




SECOND FLOOR. 


Estimate of Cost. 


160 yards excavation, at 25 <p per yard.$ 40.00 

15,000 brick, foundation and chimneys (complete),at $15 perM. 225.00 

32 feet blue stone, steps and sills, at 30J t per foot. 9.60 

1,000 yards plastering, at 30 )t yer yard.300.00 

210 stucco cornices, at io<p per foot. 42.00 

5,000 feet timber, at $20 per M. 100.00 

100 joists, at 16 $ each. 16.00 

250 wall strips, at ii(? each. 27.50 

4,500 feet sheathing, at 3^ per foot... i 3 S-°° 

450 clapboards, at i6(? each. 72.00 

21 bunches shingles, at if 1.50 per bunch. 31.00 

24! squares slate, at $9 per square. 220.50 

950 feet outside flooring, at 5 <fj per foot. 47-5° 

2,650 feet inside flooring, at 45? per feet. 106.00 

5 cellar windows, at $3 each. i 5 -°° 


23 full-sized windows, at $S each.$184.00 

11 half-windows, at $5 each. 55-°° 

29 doors, at $7 each.». 203.00 

3 stairs, at $10 each. 30.00 

Veranda and porch finish. 50.00 

5 kegs nails, at $4 each. 20.00 

4 closet finish. 20.00 

Mantels. 3 °-°° 

Tin gutters and leaders. 20.00 

Carting. 20.00 

Painting. 180.00 

Carpenters’ labor (not included above). 240.00 

Pump, sink and incidentals... 60.00 

Total, complete.$2,499.60 


/ 


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\ 



rsr 


553 


MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


DWELLING-HOUSE.—Design I. 



Ql 


As long as the argument is indisputable that there is in a 
square house, in proportion to the amount of outside covering, 
more room 
than in one 
of almost any 
other form, a 
large major¬ 
ity who are 
about to 
build seem to 
have deter¬ 
mined to a- 
dopt that 
shape. The 
dwelling here 
illustrated 
was built on a slight elevation. 

PLAN OF PRINCIPAL STORY. 

A, veranda, 6 by 25; B, hall, 10.6 by 15; C, parlor, 15 by 
19.6; D , sitting-room, 15 by 19.6; E, book-closet; F, bed¬ 



room, 10.6 by 15; G, G, closets; H, dining-room, 12 by 22; /, 
/, china-closets; J, back porch, 6 by 7.6; K ' veranda, 5 by 22 ; 

L, kitchen, 11 
by 1 2.6; M, 
sink; JV, cis¬ 
tern - pump ; 
O , cup¬ 
board; P, 
pantry, 7.6 
by 8; Q, stair- 
w ay to cel¬ 
lar ; B, stair¬ 
way to back 
chambers; S, 
wood - room. 

THE SECOND STORY. 

The upper floor of this structure comprises a hall, three 
chambers, four closets, stairway to attic, two bed-rooms, bath¬ 
room, store-room and balcony. 


V 


T 


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MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


559 


A RURAL GOTHIC FARM-HOUSE—Design 2. 


In this plan for 
a rural home, with 
the exception of 
the cornice on the 
gables and a few 
cheap brackets, 
there is no orna- 
mentation to 
cause an unneces- 
sary outlay of 
money, and noth¬ 
ing likely to get 
out of repair, as 
is often the case 
with the flimsy 
ornaments attach- 
ed to so many 
modern cottages. 

This house is in 
the Rural Gothic 
style, a style 
which, with its 
broken outline, its 
verandas and bay 
windows, ex¬ 
presses no small 



A RURAL GOTHIC FARM-HOUSE. 


monotonous ap¬ 
pearance of that 
side of the build¬ 
ing, and balancing 
in a degree the 
mass of the other 
side. 

The main roof 
rises at an angle of 
45°; the wood- 
house part is onc- 
story; roof, one- 
fourth pitch. The 
inside is finished 
appropriately, 
plain and neat. 
The lower story is 
nine feet high in 
the clear; the up¬ 
per story, finished 
to collar-beams, is 
eight feet six 
inches. The cellar 
under kitchen and 
dining-room is 
well lighted, and 


amount of domestic and home feeling. 




B, E, B, Bed-Rooms ; C, Chamber, c, c, Closets; P, Passage. 


P, Parlor; D , Dining- Room; K, Kitchen; B, B, Bed-Rooms; C, 

Closet; E, Bath; P, Pantry; V, V, Verandas; \V, Wood-house. 

The house was planned for a family who aim to do their own 
work; therefore utility, compactness and economy of labor were 
first considered. Yet the external appearance is quite picturesque 
and truthful. The part containing the two bed-rooms, bathing 
and clothes-room is quite economically obtained, it being a lean- 
to addition, one story high, with a flatfish roof. Above this is a 
gabled window, with its stool resting on this roof. This gable 
rises to the height of the main roof, thus breaking the otherwise 


the chimney, standing in the centre, is furnished with open¬ 
ings for ventilation. With this arrangement the cellar can be 
kept sweet and wholesome. The rooms are warmed by stoves. 
Fire-places may be easily built in the dining-room and kitchen, 
if desired. The bathing-room is easily accessible, it being con¬ 
nected with the kitchen bed-room, which renders it a convenient 
and useful apartment. 

The cost of this house, with alight timber frame, clapboarded, 
lined on the inside with inch lumber, then furred with strip lath, 
lathed and plastered with two coats finish, is about $1,100. 


V 





















































































































































































































•v 


G\ 


5 6 ° 


MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


A RURAL GOTHIC COTTAGE—Design 3. 






RURAL GOTHIC COTTAGE. 


This is an admirable de¬ 
sign for internal conven¬ 
ience. The plan of the 
first floor shows the kit¬ 
chen and one bed-room on 
the same floor with the 
living-rooms. The kitchen 
is a wing added to the 
rear, and is one story in 
height. The situation on 
which this dwelling is 
placed has a prospect in 
one direction only, and 
the front, shown in the 
elevation, commands this 
view, the rear being nearly 
hidden by trees. On this 
front are situated two 
pleasant apartments, each 
17 by 20 feet, opening from 



GROUND PLAN. 


the vestibule or entrance 
hall by large double doors, 
which, when fully opened, 
will throw these two rooms 
and the vestibule into one 
large apartment. Some ele¬ 
gance is conferred on the 
parlor by the bay-window, 
which is balanced by a 
double window opposite, 
in the dining-room. The 
living-room, or library, 
commands a pantry of 
convenient size, in the rear 
of which is a closet open¬ 
ing into the hall. This 
hall is of ample size to 
serve as a dining-room. 
There is a glazed back 
door opening to the rear 


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MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 



of the house, and a door opening into the kitchen passage, b, on 
the right. The hall also receives light from the window over 
this door, in the second story. This passage is formed by run¬ 
ning a solid partition across the kitchen building, so as to admit 
of two doors, in order to prevent smells—one an ordinary door 
opening into the hall, and the other a fly or spring door opening 



into the kitchen. This partition also gives room for two closets, 
one for the kitchen and another for the bed-room. The eleva¬ 
tion of this cottage will admit of great irregularity and pictur¬ 
esqueness of outline, and is productive of beautiful effects. A 
very pleasing mode of covering the roof is shown in the eleva¬ 
tion. This cottage should be built of brick. 




GROUND PLAN. 


SECOND STORY. 


RURAL COTTAGE—Design 4. 


The accom- 
panying plan of 
a rural cottage 
was awarded a j 
premium which 
was offered some 
few years ago. 
The outside ap- 

l 

pearance is at¬ 
tractive, light 
and pleasant, 
and is not over- j 
ornamental, a 
great fault with 
many modem j 
houses. The ' 
rooms are large 
and most con- I 
veniently arrang¬ 
ed, every room of 
the ground floor 
being pleasant 
enough for a 
parlor or a liv¬ 
ing-room. 


GROUND PLAN. 
D. A.,dining-room, 18 feet9 inches by 


RURAL COTTAGE. 


15 feet \ Parlor, 18 feet 9 


by 11 feet; F\ servants’ bed-room, 12 feet 6 
6 inches; G, passage, 3 feet 6 inches in width. 


SECOND STORY. 

A, bed-room, 
14 feet 5 inches 
by 11 feet 9 
inches; B , 
chamber, 18 feet 
9 inches by 15 
feet; C, C, 
halls; D, bed¬ 
room, 9 feet 6 
inches by 11 feet; 
E, bed - room, 
14 feet 6 inches 
inches by 14 feet 


inches by 14 feet 
6 in. ; Library , 
15 feet by 14 feet 
6 inches; Kitch¬ 
en, 12 feet 6 
inches by 13 feet 
6 inches; IVash- 
Room, 12 feet by 
8 feet; Hall, 6 
feet 5 inches in 
width. 



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A SOUTHERN COTTAGE. 

This design is intended to be built of frame, and the roof to be shingled. It should stand at such a distance from roat ^ as 
to afford sufficient space for ornamental shrubbery, walks, etc. The cost of the building should fall within the limits of $2,000. 
Upon the principal floor the porch gives access to the hall, which opens into the parlor and dining-room; the kitchen is well 
placed, and ample in size. The second floor contains a hall and three liberal-sized chambers, hirst floor: 1, porch, 2, hall, 
10J by 15 feet; j, parlor, 125 by 20 feet; 4, dining-room, 15 by 18 feet; 5, kitchen, 12 by 12 feet; 6, back porch. Second floor 
7, hall, iol by 15 feet; 8 , chamber, 125 by 20 feet; 9, chamber, 15 by 18 feet; 10, chamber, 12 by 12 feet. 






























































































































































































MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


AN ORNAMENTAL COTTAGE.—Design 6. 


AN ORNAMENTAL COTTAGE. 


This is a good design for a lodge or a seaside or summer cottage, and looks extremely well among the trees of a camp-ground. 
The porch is large and roomy; the living-room is of good size, well lighted by a square bay window. The kitchen is well supplied 
with closets. The second floor contains three bed-rooms, very conveniently arranged, and each provided with a closet. The two 
down-stairs rooms and the large front bed-room are supplied with open fire-places. The estimated cost is from $1,200 to $1,600, 
according to locality and style of finish. 



CL 

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UN 

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R 

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GROUND FLOOR. 









































































































































































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5 6 4 


MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


COTTAGE.—Design 7. 



COTTAGE. 


The elevation and ground plan here given of this cottage fully explain it. The upper story consists of four bed-rooms and a 
bath-room. Cost, $i,Soo. Ground plan: i, porch; 2, lobby; 3, drawing-room; .y, library or boudoir; J, outside porch; 6, 
dining-room; 7, kitchen ; S, scullery. Note—No .3 might be used as a conservatory. 






































































































MODERN ARCHITECTURE 


✓ 


5 6 5 




A CHEAP FARM COTTAGE —Design 8. 



A CHEAP FARM COTTAfiE, 


This plan is appropriate for a 
hilly or mountainous region. It is 
in the French style of roof, and al¬ 
lied to the Italian in its brackets 
and gables and half-terraced front. 
The body of the cottage is 22 by 
20 feet, with 12-foot posts, the roof 
has a pitch of 50 0 from a horizon¬ 
tal line, in its straight dimensions, 
curving horizontally towards the 
eaves, which, together with the 
gables, project 3 feet over the 
walls. The terrace in front is 5 



feet wide. On the rear is a wood- 
house 18 by 16 feet in area, open 
at the house end and in front, with 
a roof in the same style as the main 
house, and posts 8 feet high, 
standing on the ground, 2 feet be¬ 
low the surface of the cellar-wall, 
which supports the main building. 
The plan of the interior arrange¬ 
ment any builder can follow. The 
construction of this cottage may be 
of stone, brick or wood, either 
producing a fine effect. 









































































































«*■ 


fj 


•s. 


K 


566 


MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


A SUBURBAN COTTAGE—Design 9. 


. 


7 


10 




A, front veranda, io by i6feet; 

B, hall, 7 by 20 feet; C, parlor, 
12 by 18 feet, with bay window, 4 
by 9 feet; D, dining-room, 15 by 
20 feet; i?, library, 12 by 15 feet, 
with square bay window, 4 by 8 
feet; F, kitchen, 11 by 12 feet; G, 
pantry, 8 by 8 feet; H, store-room, 
10 by 12 feet; /, coal-room, 7J by 

8 feet; K, wash-room, 75 by 8 
feet; Z, veranda, 8 by 16 feet; M, 
veranda, 4 by 30 feet; N, cistern, 

9 feet in diameter; O, well; c, c, 
closets; s, j, shelves; b, bath; f, 
back stairs; t, sink; p, pump. 
Second floor—Hall, 7 feet wide; 

C, C, C, C, closets; D, linen 
closet; E, attic stairs; F, ser¬ 
vants’ bed-room, 11 by 20 feet; 
G, garret; B, bed-room, 15 by 15 
feet; //, bed-room, 12 by 15 feet; 
K, bed-room, 12 by 18 feet. Cost 
of this building, $2,500. 



FIRST FLOOR. 


SECOND FLOOR. 


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MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


567 


HORSE AND CARRIAGE HOUSE—Design 10 


4 


% 




JMK 

fE=T=rzZL 


Wl- 



a ^ 






HORSE AND CARRIAGE HCL'SE. 


£ 




This is to be built of brick, with stone basement eight feet 
deep It is therefore designed for a side hill, unless the base¬ 
ment is dispensed with, which would be poor economy, 

S is the stable part, with double stalls for six horses. C is 
carriage-room for three 
or four light w agons or 
carriages. D is a cir¬ 
cular drive eight feet 
wide. F is an octagonal 
fountain eight feet in 
diameter //, //, are 
harness-rooms. C Z, 

C Z, closets. Z is lad¬ 
der to loft. 

The hay is cut and 
fed from the second 
story. A circular pine 
cistern, surrounded by 

sawdust, occupies one comer of the second story, and supplies 
the fountain through a small iron pipe. The orifice of this 
should be drawn down to a minute hole in order to save the 
water and yet keep it changing continually. There should 



also be a stop-cock near the cistern to shut off the water in 
cold weather. 

The dimensions are: Main part, 24 b)' 26 feet; wings, 16 by 24 
feet; height of basements, 8 feet; first story, 10 feet; second 

story, 8 feet to plates. A 
cupola with double win¬ 
dow's and flat roof, with 
staff in the centre, will 
be an elegant feature. 
Eaves should project 
two and a half feet. 
Roof not more than 
quarter pitch. Cost, 
about $1,000. 

This is designed more 
especially for city resi¬ 
dents, and those farmers 
in villages and near 
large towns who can af¬ 
ford ample accommodations for man and beast. Many would 
object to the drive and fountain, and yet the small space on a 
single floor that they occupy does not make them a costly luxury^ 
while the air of elegance that they convey could ill be dispensed 
with by one who has a generous regard for taste. 































































































































































































































7 


A SUBSTANTIAL FARM BARN.—Design II. 



A SUBSTANTIA!- FARM BARN. 


r. 


—yim 9 - 
c 


A 

15X21 




// 


A 

25X21 


B 

26X50 


This plan is a convenient as well as a substantial one. As seen 
in the elevation, the bam is built upon a side hill which slopes 
to the east. There are three 
distinct floors. The main 
building is 50 by 80 feet, and 
one wing 40 by 40 feet. The 
basement floor is divided in-- 
to several departments, each 
well furnished for the pur¬ 
pose for which it is designed. 

B is the manure pit, C, a 
small cistern ; D, a root cel¬ 
lar ; E, a pen for calves ; F, 
under the wing at the south 
end of the main building, is 
fitted up with a number of 
roomy stalls for cows. Each 
of the departments has a 
door, g, g, g, g, opening to 
the stock yard. 


This is used for 

VI 

12X12 3 


D 

21X50 




PLAN OF BASEMENT FLOOR. 


K 


II II II II II II 1 1 M 1 . »l II 

minium 

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V r r 

-1 

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=1 

- • 

rf—< 

K 

'll 1 1 

I 

v / 

. 




20X10 


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1 L 


M 


R 



yox/o 

f - 

30X10 


TTTiTTTiTTl 

- 1 



PLAN OF SECOND STORY. 


OF SECOND FLOOR. 

vehicles, etc. Along the whole length of 
the east side are stalls for 
horses provided with hay¬ 
racks, K, K, K, K, K. L, L, 
are two finished rooms, which 
are used as harness-rooms; 
M, a large room for putting 
away all the machinery and 
tools used about the farm; 
O, P, loose horse-boxes; R, 
a stairway leading to the 
basement or ground floor; 
S, a stairway leading up to 
third story ; T, V, trap doors. 
The structure is well sup¬ 
plied with windows, and is 
light and comfortable for 
both man and beast. 


-X 




( 5 " 











































































































































































































































































































































































































































MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


5 6 9 


GRAIN AND STOCK BARN—Design 12. 



GRAIN AND STOCK BARN. 

This plan is a combined grain and stock barn. The grain bins are n£xt north of the stables and form part of the partition 
between the stables and main floor. They are four feet in width and have a capacity for 500 bushels. The bottom of the bins slopes 
towards the main floor, and is ten inches above it. The bins have a free circulation of air on every side. The excavation for the 
structure, including that in the yard, is, at the southwest corner, about three feet in depth, and graded to a slope of one foot 
in forty feet, the natural slope being one in ten. A trench is dug three feet wide artd one foot below the grade, and filled with 
broken stone, that serves as a drain, upon which the foundation rests. The foundation walls are built of stone. The first floor is 
divided into stables. A stairway leads to floor above, and there is also a place for harness. The forage for horses is put into 
tubes above. The floor is double and is made tight. The manure is dropped through a trap-door to shed. The cost of the en¬ 
tire structure is about $1,200. 



DESIGN 13—A CONVENIENT BARN. 
















































































































































































































































57° 


MODERN ARCHITECTURE. 


71 


A CONVENIENT BARN.-Design 13. 

This is the plan of a very convenient barn. The stone wall is laid in mortar and painted. The frames are all made of square 
timber and joists. The basement is dry, sills two feet from the ground. Grain bins so arranged that you can get to anyone of them, 
capable of storing over 3,000 bushels, and four root bins, which will store 800 bushels, where they can be seen at any time. The 
basement story is 8 feet; barn posts 18 feet long. The long shed is 25 feet wide and 64 feet long ; posts, 20 feet. East shed posts 
9 feet long. Enter the barn from the north, with team on upper floor. 

A SHEEP BARN AND SHEDS—Design 14. 


The necessity of 
furnishing shelter for 
sheep in a northern 
climate is, we sup¬ 
pose, universally ac¬ 
knowledged, but how 
much is necessary for 
the comfort and 
health of the ani¬ 
mals, and how this is 
best obtained, is an 
open question. The 
accompanying en¬ 
graving of a sheep 
barn is taken from 



Randall’s Sheep 
Husbandry. With 
those open ends 
closed, it seems to be 
a very convenient ar- 
rangement. The 
barn proper is used 
mainly for storing 
hay, and the wings 
should be made of 
sufficient size to af¬ 
ford the necessary 
room. 


^NOTEWORTHY suggestions* 



Having introduced to the reader the specific plans, etc., which 
will guide him in the erection of a home, a few general words 
of advice and suggestion will be in order. 

It will be well to remember that no architect allows himself, when 
planning a house, to be guided by any cast-iron set of rules. 

A house is a good deal like a suit of clothes, of which a fair fit may 
be obtained at the ready-made store, while, if close-fitting and stylish 
garments are wanted, the man’s measure is taken and the articles 
made to order. In the country care should be taken not to make the 
house too high. Ground is cheap, and a home in the country which 
spreads over a goodly extent of ground has a certain air of elbow- 
room and capacity about it that the most magnificent four-story city 
dwelling fails to possess. 

When building projections, window sills, etc., take care to provide 
a “ deep molding” underneath, so that rain-water will drip off. Oth¬ 
erwise it will gather up the dust upon them and run down the walls, 
leaving mouldy streaks behind. 

Where there is no plumbing in the house, the best place for the 
bath-room is next to the kitchen. Have the range placed against the 
bath-room partition and place a large tin boiler on the back of the 
range. From the back of the boiler carry a faucet through the parti¬ 
tion to open over a bath-tub. By this means the carrying of water to 
and fro is dispensed with. To discharge the water from the bath, run 
a small pipe to a distance of twenty feet from the house and let it end 
there in a large hole filled in withloose stones and covered with earth. 
The water when discharged into this hole will soak away into the 
ground and do no harm, as it is not polluted. 

To avoid rats or fire spreading through a house it is advisable to 
put one course of bricks in mortar at each floor level in all the fur- 
rings and partitions. 

For the finest effect of foliage use trees and shrubbery as a back¬ 
ground and flanking for the principal building. Too many large trees 
in the foreground cut off the view; besides, they keep out the sun¬ 


shine, prevent free atmospheric circulation, and injure the house by 
concentrating upon it dampness and shade. 

When a low site for a dwelling cannot be avoided be careful to have 
a thorough system of under-draining. See that the cellar-wall is 
raised considerably above the ground and that enough soil is spread 
around the house to make a yard which will shed the water readily. 
In a case of this kind every sanitary advantage offered by sun, soil, 
shelter and prospect should be carefully improved. 

A square house includes more space within a given length of wall 
than any rectangular shape. 

Of the whole house the front, and of the front the main entrance, 
should show the most pains in the direction of ornamentation. 

Care in the disposition of rooms will save thousands of steps to 
those who do the house-work. Kitchen and dining-room should al¬ 
ways be adjoining apartments. The dining-room is the place for the 
china closet. A wood-shed connecting with the kitchen by a covered 
way is a great convenience in inclement weather. 

A multiplicity of closets is an invaluable boon to the housewife. 

Frame houses exclude the cold much better if the studding is 
covered with tongued and grooved sheathing, and this in turn by 
tarred paper, the weather-boarding being placed over the whole. The 
sheathing and weather-boarding should be fitted closely around door 
and window frames, and the tarred paper allowed to lap over a little 
where a crack is likely to occur. 

Where ingrain carpets, usually a yard wide, are to be used, the eco¬ 
nomical cutting will be helped by having either the length or breadth 
of each room some multiple of the width, as fifteen feet, eighteen feet, 
etc. 

The difference between slate -roofing and shingles is about two cents 
per square foot, and where the former is used the difference in outlay 
purchases practically everlasting durability, a fire-proof roof, and 
purer rain-water in the cistern. 

If free from sap, shingles will last from twenty to thirty years. 

An attic, running the full length of the house, with windows at both 
ends, will prove a fine drying-room in bad weather. 


O 









































































T 7 


THE LAWS OF ETIQUETTE. 


571 










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“ Cjoc) iiiat| jo-tcjiue jiiw, Gut an)fmja^M(»» fia> 
no j’otgiixmeaA -uv fieaueiv or eat: t(Y.’ — Hawthorne. 


On manners, refinement, good breeding, and even the forms 
of Etiquette, we are forever talking. We judge our neighbors 
severely by the breach of written or traditional laws, and choose 
our society, and even our friends, by the touchstone of courtesy. 
The importance, therefore, of a thoroughly systematized code of 
manners, in this day of rapidly widening circles of society, can 
scarcely be overestimated. Men are continually rising from the 
workshop to that position of prominence which great wealth, in 
this country particularly, invariably insures. A few words as to 
the value of good manners may not be out of place, since it is 
too often the habit of those who have most need of them to 
undervalue their importance. 

The true spirit of good manners is very closely allied to that 
of good morals. No stronger proof of this assertion is required 
than the fact that the Messiah himself, in His great moral 
teachings, so frequently touches upon mere manners. He 
teaches that modesty is the true spirit of decent behavior, and 
openly rebukes the forward manner of His followers in taking 
the upper seats at banquets and the highest seats in the syna¬ 
gogues. In condemning the habits of the Pharisees, it was not 
their scrupulous cleanliness that He objected to, but their attach¬ 
ing too much importance to mere form. As to the philosophers, 
although they were seldom distinguished for fine manners them¬ 
selves, they did not fail to teach the importance of them to 


others. Socrates and Aristotle have left behind them a series of 
ethics that might easily be turned into a “ Guide to the Com¬ 
plete Gentleman;” and Lord Bacon has written an essay on 
manners, in which he reminds us that a stone must be of very 
high value to do without a setting. Johnson doubtless con¬ 
sidered himself one of these unset gems when he made such a 
speech as “ Sir, you are a fool,” and unfortunately Johnson has 
too many imitators among those of greatly inferior value. 

The motive in cultivating good manners has too often been 
misrepresented by writers upon this subject. Chesterfield states 
the motive for politeness to be a desire to shine or to raise one’s 
self into a society supposed to be better than one’s own. It is 
unnecessary to state that Lord Chesterfield’s good manners, fine 
as they appear, have not the ring of the true metal about them. 
Another and very excellent definition of Etiquette is : “A shield 
against the intrusion of the impertinent, the improper and the 
vulgar.” But a man’s best and only right motive in the culti¬ 
vation of good manners should be to make himself better than 
he is, to render himself agreeable to every one with whom he 
has to do, and to improve, if necessary, the society in which he 
is placed. With these objects in view, it is plainly as much a 
moral duty to cultivate one’s manners as one’s mind, and no one 
can deny that a man is a better citizen for being a gentleman in 
the sense that true courtesy makes the gentleman. 














































































































HE art of expressing one’s thoughts in dear, simple, elegant 
English is one of the first to be attained by those who would 
mix in good society. You must talk, and talk fairly well, if you 
would not altogether fail of producing some kind of impression 
upon society. To have something good to say, and to say it in 
the best possible manner, is to ensure success and admiration. 

The first thing necessary for the attainment of this valuable accomplish¬ 
ment is a good education. An acquaintance with the current literature of 
the day is absolutely essential to a good talker. A perfect familiarity with 
the English language, its grammar, pronunciation, etc., is indispensable. 
Those who have to contend with a lack of early advantages in this respect can 
supply the deficiency by private study, and close observance wherever good 
English is spoken. Above all should they avoid associating with those who 
express themselves incorrectly and vulgarly. 

Nothing is so infectious as a bad accent or incorrect form of speech. 

All affectations of foreign accent, mannerisms, exaggerations and slang 
are detestable. 

Equally to be avoided are inaccuracies of expression, hesitation, and undue 
use of French or other foreign words, and anything approaching to flip¬ 
pancy, coarseness, triviality or prevarication. 

The voice should never be loud, no gesticulation should accompany the 
speech, and the features should be under strict control. Nothing is more 
ill-bred than a half-opened mouth, a vacant stare, a wandering eye or a 
smile ready to break into a laugh at any moment. Absolute suppression of 
emotion, whether of anger, laughter, mortification or disappointment, is one 
of the most certain marks of good-breeding. 

Next to unexceptionable grammar, correct elocution, and a frank, easy 
bearing, it is necessary to be genial. If you cannot be animated, sympathetic 
and cheerful, do not go into society. Dull and stupid people are but so 
many clogs to the machinery of social life. 

The matter of conversation is as important as the manner. Tact and 
good feeling will, in people of sound sense, indicate the shoals and quick¬ 
sands to be avoided in conversation, but for safety's sake it will be best to 
enumerate a few of them. 

Complimentary speeches should be avoided, unless, indeed, so delicately 
put as to be scarcely discernible. Flattery is suggestive of snobbery, partic¬ 
ularly if it be paid to people of great wealth and high position. It induces 
disgust on the part of the receiver, and insincerity on that of the giver. 

The habit of “fishing” for compliments is notably vulgar, and it is one 
in which a certain class of vain young people are very apt to indulge, espe¬ 
cially among themselves in private. It indicates vanity in the angler and 
begets contempt on the part of the one who from interested motives nibbles 
gently at the bait. 

All “slang” is vulgar. This fact cannot be too forcibly impressed upon 
the minds of the young people of this day, as the alarming prevalence of 
slangy conversational phrases is enough to cause our decorous forefathers 
and mothers to rise in their graves. 


Many of the daughters of our most wealthy and influential citizens have an 
idea that their position will excuse or gloss the vulgarity of a " cant” phrase 
now and then. Nothing was ever more erroneous. No position, however 
high, can excuse the vulgarity of this practice, and it is a grand mistake also 
to imagine slang to be a substitute for wit. I refer particularly to this habit 
among young ladies, as it is more reprehensible in them than in the opposite 
sex, although it indicates bad breeding on their part as well. 

Scandal should be avoided above all things. It is a sin against morality 
as well as good taste. 

Punning is a most objectionable habit in society. An inveterate punster 
is an intolerable bore, and unless a pun amounts to a positive witticism it 
should never be propounded in company. 

Long arguments should be avoided in general company. They become 
tiresome to the hearers. Always endeavor to change the subject after it has 
continued a reasonable length of time. 

Religion and politics are two subjects to be avoided in general conversa¬ 
tion. People usually have strong prejudices on both these points, and it is a 
rule of good breeding to respect the prejudices of those about you. 

Never interrupt the speech of another. This is an unpardonable sin 
against good breeding. 

A good listener is more to be desired than a good conversationalist. In 
order to be a good listener you must appear to be interested, answer appro¬ 
priately, briefly and to the point, and give your companion generally the 
impression that you are in perfect sympathy with, and highly entertained 
by, what he is saying. 

Avoid pedantic displays of learning. 

All topics specially interesting to gentlemen, such as the farm and business 
matters generally, should be excluded in general society. 

The expression of immature opinions is always in bad taste. Persons, 
young or old, should not attempt to criticise books or art unless positively 
certain that their knowledge of the subject is sufficient to justify the criticism. 

Be very careful of introducing long-winded anecdote into the conversation. 
Nothing is more awkward than to find an array of bored faces when one is 
not more than half through a long story. 

Repartee should be indulged in only moderately. Otherwise it may 
degenerate into flippancy, a habit much to be condemned in a certain class 
of young ladies who think themselves unusually clever, or, as our American 
word goes, “ smart.”' 

In using titles, such as “General,” “Doctor,” etc., you must always 
append the surname if you are a stranger or any other than a most intimate 
friend. For example, you should say, “What did you observe. Doctor 
Gray? ” not, “ What did you observe, Doctor?” Names should be used as 
little as possible, and never familiarly. Few solecisms give greater offense 
than a liberty taken with a name. 

In addressing a person of title in England, “ My Lord” and “ My Lady” 
are seldom used except by servants. The Prince of Wales may be addressed 
as “ Sir,” and the Queen as “ Madame.” A Frenchman, however, what¬ 
ever his rank, is addressed as “Monsieur,” and a Frenchwoman, whether 


/ 


3 



















































RULES OF PRESENTATION. 


573 


r 


duchess or dressmaker, as “ Madame.” It would be as ill-bred to omit to 
say Monsieur, Mein Herr, and Signor, in France, Germany and Italy, 
respectively, as it would to say, Sir, Ma’am and Miss, as the servants do in 
this country. 

The great secret of talking well is to adapt your conversation to your 
company as skillfully as may be. 

People take more interest in their own affairs than in anything else which 
you can name. A wise host or hostess will, then, lead a mother to talk of 
her children, an author of his book, an artist of his picture, etc. Having 
furnished the topic, you have but to listen, and acquire a reputation for being 
amiable, agreeable, intelligent and well-bred. 

If you would not be unpopular, do not always be witty, no matter what 
your natural abilities may be in that line. People do not like to be always 
outshone. 

Do not too officiously supply a word or phrase if a speaker hesitate for a 
moment; he will think of the one he wants or supply another in good time. 

Never correct a fault in pronunciation or in facts, in company or in pri¬ 
vate, if you wish to retain a friend. 

Avoid such colloquialisms as “ says I,” “you know,” and other senseless 
repetitions that might be mentioned. Never speak of a person as “ a party,” 
nor refer to absent persons as “ he” or “ she.” Give the name of the lady 
or gentleman referred to. 

In telling a joke, do not laugh yourself before the point is reached. If the 
joke be original, do not laugh at all. 

In tete-a-tete conversation it is ill-bred to drop the voice to a whisper. 

Egotism is always in bad taste. Allow others the privilege of proclaiming 
your merits. 

Never speak of personal or private matters in general company. 

Avoid as much as possible beginning a conversation with stale common¬ 
places, such as, “ It is a fine day,” “ The weather is charming,” etc. 


Do not speak slightingly of the city or neighborhood in which you may be 
visiting. By offending the prejudices of those about you, you render your¬ 
self extremely disagreeable. 

Avoid all excitability and dogmatism in conversation. Nothing is more 
annoying than to converse with an arrogant, loud-speaking person. 

Always yield the point in conversation if you find the argument is likely 
to become violent. 

Avoid lavishing praise on the members of your own family. It is almost 
as bad as praising yourself. 

It is exceedingly bad taste to parade the fact that you have travelled in 
foreign countries, or that you are acquainted with distinguished or wealthy 
people, that you have been to college or that your family is distinguished for 
gentility and blue blood. 

In speaking of husband or wife, do not use the surname alone. To say 
“ I was telling Brown,” is extremely vulgar. Always prefix the Mr. 

Always endeavor to contribute your quota to the general conversation. It 
is as much your duty to entertain as to be entertained. Bashfulness is as 
much to be avoided as too much assurance. 

N ever ask questions of a personal nature, such as what a certain article cost, 
or why so-and-so did not go to the opera. They are decidedly impertinent. 

Look at the person with whom you are conversing, but do not stare. 

Avoid loud laughter in society. 

If you carry on the thread of a conversation after the entrance of a visitor, 
you should always recapitulate what has been said before his or her arrival. 

Remember that “ an excellent thing in woman is a voice low but sweet,” 
and cultivate a distinct but subdued tone. 

Emerson says: “ You cannot have one well-bred man without a whole 
society of such.” Elsewhere he says; “It makes no difference, in looking 
back five years, how you have dieted or dressed; but it counts much 
whether we have had good Companions in that time — almost as much as 
what we have been doing.” 





WHERE is very little ceremony about a presentation to the Chief 
Executive of the United States. On public occasions you will 
simply be presented by the master of ceremonies, while at any 
other time, by sending in your card, you will secure the desired 
interview. 


THE COURT OF ENGLAND. 


The wives and daughters of the clergy, of military and naval officers, of 
physicians and barristers, can be presented. The wives and daughters of 
general practitioners, and of solicitors, of merchants, and of all business 
men, with the exception of bankers, are not entitled to be presented. No 
divorced woman can be presented to the Queen. 

A lady must be presented by another lady, and a gentleman by a gentle¬ 
man. In seeking a lady for a sponsor, it should be remembered that, the 
higher her rank and social standing, the better for the one presented. 

Any lady who has once been presented at court can present others. 

All wraps are left in the carriage before entering the palace. 

As her name is called by the Lord Chamberlain the lady advances toward 


the throne. If a peeress, the Queen kisses her forehead; if a commoner, 
she kisses the Queen’s hand. 

On leaving the royal presence, you must back out. 

A stranger must have the credential of the American Ambassador in order 
to be presented at the English court. 

THE PAPAL COURT. 


Foreigners obtain access to the Pope through their Ambassador. 

Ladies very seldom have private audience of the Pope. 

The lady’s toilette, be the audience public or private, must always consist 
of black dress, long black veil and white gloves. 

When the Pope enters the gallery where those to be presented are collected, 
they fall on their knees, and do not rise until bidden. 

Gentlemen kneel on one knee, and do not rise until desired to do so. 

The proper form of address in English is “ Your Holiness.” 

It is best to consult some local authority upon the etiquette of many petty 
courts, as the rules are frequently much complicated. 

The lady must always be in full dress, and the gentleman in black clothes, \ 

white cravat and gloves. 





























































ETIQUETTE OF INTRODUCTIONS. 


HE exact form to be used in making introductions varies with 
circumstances. Still, a few set rules may be given as a guide to 
the doubtful. 

When introducing a lady and gentleman, you would say, 
bowing to each as the name is mentioned, “ Miss Jackson, allow 
me to present 
to you my friend Mr. Ar¬ 
thur.” Remember always 
to mention the lady’s 
name first, as the gentle¬ 
man is presented to the 
lady; not she to him. 

In introducing two gen¬ 
tlemen to each other, or 
two ladies to each other, 
the name of the elder or 
superior in position should 
be first mentioned. The 
usual form is: ‘‘Mr. Blair, 

I make you acquainted 
with Mr. Collins. Mr. 

Collins, Mr. Blair.” The 
repetition of the names 
is unimportant, although 
usually done. 

When the parties intro¬ 
duced are the possessors 
of titles, you should al¬ 
ways give them the benefit 
of their titles in the intro¬ 
duction. For example: 

" Professor Snow, I make 
you acquainted with the 
Reverend Mr. Hall.” You 
might then add: ‘‘Mr. INTRODUCTION IN 

Hall is Rector of the 
Holy Trinity, of Phila¬ 
delphia. Professor Snow 

is one of the honorable faculty of Washington University.” 

You can easily shorten the ceremony of introductions when they are so 
numerous as to become wearisome, by simply saying, “Mr. Smith, Mr. 


Brown.” The gentlemen, having then been sufficiently introduced, can 
begin conversation upon any topic that may suggest itself immediately. 

In introducing a number of gentlemen to one, you mention the name of 
the single individual but once; as, “Mr. St.John, allow me to introduce 
Mr. Black, Mr. White, Mr. Chew and Mr. Gibson,” indicating each gentle¬ 
man by a bow as his 
name is mentioned. 

If the introducer desire 
to assist those whom he is 
introducing to a better ac¬ 
quaintance, he may facili¬ 
tate matters by explana¬ 
tory remarks such as the 
following : “ Mr. Pierson, 

I make you acquainted 
with Mr. Johnson.” Turn¬ 
ing to Mr. Johnson : “Mr. 
Pierson is largely inter¬ 
ested in the flour and feed 
business in New York, 
and is visiting St. Louis 
with a view of inspect¬ 
ing her great elevators." 
Turning to Mr. Pierson: 
“Mr. Johnson is presi¬ 
dent of the St. Louis Ele¬ 
vator Company, and can 
give you all the informa¬ 
tion you desire.” Mr. 
Pierson and Mr. John¬ 
son will thus find them¬ 
selves furnished with a 
kindred topic, and be¬ 
gin to talk “grain” at 
THE DRAWING-ROOM. once. 

A full introduction of 
this kind is often of great 
assistance to young ladies 
afflicted with shyness, and by suggesting to them a subject of conversation 
at once removes that awful pause which is so apt to ensue in such a case 
after the bows, and sets them at ease at once. 


S), 


a) 


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e) 































































































ETIQUETTE OF SALUTATION. 


575 









"N a rude state of society every salutation was an act of worship. The 
commonest acts, phrases and signs of courtesy with which we arc now 
familiar, date from those earlier times when the inferior demonstrated 
his allegiance by acts of servility. Our modern bow is a modified 
» prostration. Rising and standing are acts of homage. Removing the 
'T ' 1 glove on shaking hands is a custom handed down from feudal times. 

FORMS OF SALUTATION. 

Theforms of salutation common in America are bowing, hand-shaking, kiss¬ 
ing, and words of address. 

Acquaintances of every 
degree of intimacy, from 
the closest to the slightest, 
are entitled to a bow. 

It is an act of discourtesy 
to refuse any one, no mat¬ 
ter how lowly his station, 
the recognition of a bow. 

When recognizing their 
gentlemen acquaintances, 
ladies should make a 
graceful inclination. It is 
the privilege of a lady to 
recognize the gentleman 
first. 

To a casual acquaint¬ 
ance it is not necessary 
to do more than bow, but 
an intimate friend should 
be more cordially greeted. 

Never fail to return a 
bow. It is extremely rude 
to refuse to recognize a 
salutation of this kind. 

A pleasant, cordial man¬ 
ner, without undue fa¬ 
miliarity, in recognizing 
acquaintances, conduces 
greatly toward a genial 
and friendly feeling, and 
is therefore worthy of cul- SALUTATION 

tivation. The custom of 

nodding to every one you meet, in thinly settled neighborhoods, is a very 
pleasant one, as it evinces kindliness of feeling, and should be generally 
followed out. 

If a gentleman is smoking when he meets a lady, he should remove the 


cigar from his mouth in bowing. None but a boor will puff a cloud of 
tobacco smoke in the face of a lady who is honoring him with a salutation. 

Etiquette requires a gentleman to raise his hat from his head in bowing to 
a lady. If passing on the street, the hand farthest from the lady should be 
used in removing the hat. 

If on horseback, the gentleman seizes whip and reins in the left hand, 
and uses the right for making the salute. 

When a gentleman, accompanied by a friend, meets a lady acquaintance, 
the friend should bow also, whether acquainted with the lady or not. 

A gentleman should return a bow made him on the street, even if he does 

not recognize the person 
saluting him. It maybe 
a mistake, but it is only 
courteous to spare the per¬ 
son saluting as much em¬ 
barrassment as possible. 

On meeting a number 
of persons together, with 
some of whom you are 
slightly, with others inti¬ 
mately, acquainted, you 
should greet all alike. To 
gush exuberantly over one 
and bow stiffly to another, 
would be making a dis¬ 
tinction that could not fail 
to be remarked, and might 
wound the feelings. 

A gentleman should not 
bow from a window to a 
lady, but if a lady recog¬ 
nize him from a window, 
he should return the salu¬ 
tation. It is best, how¬ 
ever, for a lady to avoid 
such recognitions as much 
as possible. It is not in 
the best taste for a lady to 
sit sufficiently near her 
windows to recognize and 
be recognized by those 
passing on the street. 

IN THE STREET. A gentleman, if brought 

into close proximity with a lady in a hallway, on a stairway, or anywhere 
of the kind, should recognize her presence by a bow. In going up stairs, 
the gentleman should precede the lady. In coming down, the gentleman 
should give the lady precedence with a bow. 















































































WHEN ¥0 KISS. 

d-b 

HEN young persons are leaving for a journey or meeting after 
absence, it is correct to exchange a kiss with near relatives, 
such as parents or guardian, but in any other case, or among 
adult people, it is not considered in good taste to salute by 
kissing in public. It attracts attention, and whatever has a tendency to 
draw remark is to be avoided in public places. 

The kiss is a common mode of salutation among ladies at private houses, 
but it is not permissible upon the street or in public conveyances. 



NETIQUETTE OF HAND-SHAKINGS 

'N her own house a lady should give her hand to every guest. 

It is a lady’s place to extend the hand first. 

Offer the whole hand to shake. Grasp the hand extended in return 
firmly in yours and hold for the space of a second, accompanying the 
movement by inquiries after the person’s welfare. 

Do not return a cordial grasp by a limp and lifeless one. 

Do not offer two fingers in lieu of the whole hand. Nothing is more con¬ 
temptibly snobbish than that. 

Do not grasp a hand as though you desired to maim its possessor for life. 
Some over-cordial people are to be dreaded because of their too vigorous 
clasp. 

It is possible, too, to hold a hand so long as to make the situation embar¬ 
rassing. After a sufficient time for cordiality, drop the hand altogether. 

When both parties are gloved, it is not necessary to remove the glove, but 
if one only has a glove on, the other should remove his or her glove as well. 


unless the act of removing the glove would cause an awkward pause, in 
which case it would be sufficient to say simply, " Excuse my glove.” 

In the same way, the left hand should never be offered unless the right 
be otherwise engaged, in which case you would say, “ Excuse my left hand.” 

In making all salutations, deliberation of movement is necessary to good 
breeding. All quick, nervous movements are signs of a bad manner, and are 
apt to lead persons into error through acting in too great haste. 



FORMS OF ADDRESS 

LWAYS give titles whenever the person addressed possesses one. 
1|\\ If you address a Justice of the Peace, call him “Squire;” if a 
member of the bench, address him as "Judge.” Do not forget 
to address your newly elected Senator by his title. People like to 
hear them, and it is only properly respectful on your part to give them. 

The presiding officer of a public body should be respectfully addressed as 
“ Mr. President,” or, if a Judge, as “ Your Honor.” 

Such forms of address as “ Hello, old fellow,” or “ old boy,” should never 
be used. They indicate vulgarity and ill-breeding. The most effective 
rebuke to such a form of address is a quiet, respectful mode of reply, which 
cannot fail to make the boisterous person ashamed of himself. 

Always give to children and servants their full Christian names. When 
visiting at a friend’s you should make it your business to ascertain these and 
make use of them. 

Never address boys or girls as “ Bub ” or “ Sis.” Children are sensitive 
to ridicule, and feel the vulgarity of such expressions. 

Husbands and wives should address each other by their Christian names in 
the family circle, but among strangers the titles Mr. and Mrs. should be used, 
both in speaking to and of each other. 





I# 


LWAYS treat the clerks respectfully, and do not make them more 
j) trouble than is necessary. 

Do not expect a clerk to leave another customer to wait upon 

fiM v° u - 

/ j) 0 no t keep a clerk waiting while you chat with some friend. 

p) 0 no t take hold of a piece of goods while another person is 
examining it. 

Do not inform the clerk that you can get better goods or cheaper at some 
other store. If you are not satisfied say simply that the article does not suit 
you, and leave the store. 

It is better to be perfectly frank in shopping. If you do not intend pur¬ 
chasing, but only desire to examine the goods, say so; there will be a better 
feeling established than if you deceitfully lead the clerk into supposing that 
you want to buy. 


A little politeness is never thrown away, even upon clerks. A pleasant 
"Thank you for your trouble” is only courteous, even though it is their 
business to throw down goods. 

Never attempt to "beat down” prices. First-class stores have but one 
price, and any other kind should not be patronized by genteel purchasers. 

Lounging on the counter, loud talking, laughing, or handling the goods 
roughly, all indicate ill-breeding and should be carefully avoided. 

It is better to pay cash for all purchases ; but if that is not convenient, do 
not fail to settle the indebtedness promptly at the time agreed. You will 
thus establish your credit, and save yourself the mortification of being 
dunned. 

Strict honesty requires that you immediately rectify any mistake in change 
or goods that may have been made. Your character will suffer by even the 
slightest meanness or dishonesty. 


4 


V 


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C) 




























































J? v> 


n 


ETIQUETTE OF VISITING. 


577 





1 


EVER make a visit on a general invitation. If persons really 
desire you to make a visit, they will make the invitation special 
'/JlrJJ and set the time. An effusive cordiality in extending invitations 
is not always to be taken at its face value, 
i.'oiij- Should you visit a city where a friend is residing, go" first to a 
GTy'b hotel. Thence make a short call upon your fiiend, and if your 
visit is desired the opportunity is afforded for a particular invitation. 

In making a visit, even to relatives, it is best to write and announce your 
coming, giving as near as possible the exact day and hour of your arrival. 
A prepaid telegram announcing arrival of train will afford them the oppor¬ 
tunity of meeting you at the depot, and thus make the beginning of your 
visit agreeable. 

Answer all invitations to visit immediately, whether you accept or not. 


-few-HINTS TO GUESTS * 



TATE upon arrival the length of time you intend staying, so that 
your host may make his plans accordingly. 

V i! Conform your actions as much as possible to the rules of the 
house in which you are visiting, such as to the hours of rising, 
eating, etc. 

If no limit has been set to your visit, do not let it exceed a week, and three 
or four days is usually long enough. 

Let your visit interfere as little as possible with the routine work of the 
household. The visitor who does this the most effectually is usually the 
most welcome. 

Always ask to be excused while reading letters or papers in the presence 
of others. 

Should you desire to go alone to shop or transact business, take those 
hours of the day in which your friends are otherwise engaged. 

Never invite a friend who may call upon you to remain to a meal. This 
is an unwarrantable liberty in the house of another. 

Be careful not to use your friend’s house as a mere hotel, coming and going 
at your own convenience without consulting that of your entertainer. 

Should you break or injure any article where you may be, have it immedi¬ 
ately repaired or replaced. 

Never make unfavorable comment about your friends’ friends, nor, indeed, 
criticise unfavorably anything which you know them to favor or admire. 

A lady guest should not accept invitations that do not include the hostess, 
nor should the hostess accept any that exclude the guest. 

A husband may be supposed to be included in an invitation to the wife, 
but not children and servants, unless they be specially mentioned. 

In case of sickness arising during your visit, it would be best to take your 
immediate departure, unless you could be of material assistance. 

Be sure to pay any cash outlay that may be made by your friends on your 
account, such as paying for baggage, repairs, etc. Have your clothes 
laundered out of the house. 

It is not well for a lady guest to receive too many visits from gentlemen, 
nor to accept any invitation from them without consulting her hostess as to 
her views upon it, and whether her going would be perfectly satisfactory 
to her. 

Always treat with care and consideration the servants, the children, the 
horses, and the property generally, of those whom you are visiting. 


Never betray any family secret that may eome to your knowledge through 
visiting in a house. 

Should you take a child with you on a visit, be exceedingly watchful that 
it does not spoil the furniture with greasy fingers or break costly bric-a-brac , 
or do any of the thousand and one mischievous tricks that tend to render a 
child — unless exceedingly well-trained — the most unwelcome visitor in the 
world. 

Whatever entertainment may be offered you by your host or hostess should 
be entered into with spirit and zest by the guest. The company or amuse¬ 
ment may not be just to your liking, but it is only a proper return for your 
friend’s efforts to appear to be entertained, even when you are not. 

A welcome visitor is one who does not hesitate to assist the hostess in any 
light household task. If there be few or no Servants, the visitor should 
always keep her own room in order. If, however, the hostess refuse to 
accept any assistance, do not insist upon it. 

Smoking is a habit not agreeable in every household, and gentlemen 
visitors should ascertain the feelings of host and hostess upon this point 
before indulging too freely in the “ weed.” 

An act of courtesy that usually suggests itself to a thoughtful guest is the 
bestowal of some gift as a memento of the visit. This may be some piece of 
her own handiwork, if a lady guest, or flowers, a piece of jewelry, or any¬ 
thing small, pretty and artistic. 

Gifts may be presented with most propriety to the hostess, the baby or the 
youngest child. It is right, too, to remember any servant who may have 
been particularly attentive. 

The religious views and observances of your friends should be carefully 
respected. If family prayers and grace at meals is the order of the house¬ 
hold, you should always give the most reverent attention. It is only courte¬ 
ous for you to attend church with your host and hostess. If, however, your 
own religious prejudices will not allow that, go your own way, quietly and 
unostentatiously. , 

Always write to your hostess immediately upon your return home, thank¬ 
ing her for her hospitality, and expressing great enjoyment in your visit. 
Ask to be remembered to all the family, recalling each by name. 


rixRULES FOR HOST AND HOSTESS^* 

”EET your guest at depot with carriage if possible. 

Attend to securing the baggage and having it sent to your 
4 VV till residence without troubling your guest about it. 

-A / ikSL Be sure to have a comfortable room awaiting your visitor. See 
that it is supplied with every convenience for the toilet, that the bed linen is 
fresh and well aired, and that a table is furnished with writing materials and 
reading-matter. 

Provide the visitor with as much amusement and entertainment as may lie 
in your power. Do not let it appear that you are making unusual efforts to 
be entertaining, but enter into the enjoyment yourself with a zest that shall 
put your visitor at her ease. 

When your visitor takes her departure, assist her in her preparations as 
much as possible; provide lunch for the journey and accompany her to the 
depot, waiting until the train moves off, so that kindly smiles and cordial 
good wishes may be the last lingering impressions upon her memory of a 
very pleasant visit. 






l£> 

FT 


a 













































































ETIQUETTE OF CALLING. 




and so on. Graceful, upright, decorous positions indicate good breeding. 

Should other callers be announced, wait until they are seated and the 
bustle of arrival over, then rise, take leave of your hostess, bow slightly to 
the others and leave the room. 

Avoid topics that may lead to lengthy discussion. Make your conversa¬ 
tion bright and witty, and leave so soon that you may be missed, is the 
better plan in calling. 

Gentlemen do not usually make their social calls in the morning. They 

may do so, however, when 
desiring to convey con¬ 
gratulations, or sympa¬ 
thy, or condolence; to 
meetafriend just returned 
from abroad ; to inquire 
after the health of a lady 
who has accepted his es¬ 
cort the evening before, 
and under a number of 
other circumstances. 


ORNING CALLS, which mean calls at any time during 
the hours of daylight, should be made between the hours of 
12 m. and 5 p.m. 

As morning calls are usually visits of ceremony they 
should be very brief. From ten to twenty minutes is the 
usual length, and they should never exceed half an hour. 

Never intrude upon your friends in the early morning hours, as they 
usually have duties to attend to at that time. 

Unless an evening is 
set apart for receiving, 
calls should be made in 
the morning. 

A first visit should be 
returned the next day; 
at latest within three days. 

When returning visits of 
ceremony, you may, with¬ 
out impoliteness, leave 
your card at the door. 

Do not, however, fail to 
inquire if the family be 
well. 

A gentleman making a 
formal call in the morn¬ 
ing keeps his hat in his 
hand. The fact of his re¬ 
taining his hat in his hand 
indicates a formal call. 

Ladies and gentlemen late when spending an 

should never assume any uncouth or unbecoming position in the parlor, | informal evening with friends. In cases of informal visits the gentleman 
such as half reclining c/n sofa or easy-chair, leaning the elbows on the knee, j can leave hat, cane and overcoat in the hall, and the lady may remove her 
standing with arms akimbo, sitting astride a chair, tilting back in a chair, | wraps. 




EYENING 
CALLS. 


w 
































































































































\ 


✓ 


ETIQUETTE OF CALLING. 

579 



^GENERAL HINTS -f 


WING to the greater distance, calls in the country are not expected 
to be so ceremonious as in cities and towns. 

If a visitor he staying with a family, the intimate friends of the 
> family should call at their earliest convenience, and the calls should 
be immediately returned. 

A failure to attend a dinner party, or any sort of social gathering, should 
be followed by a call, 
within a week, to express 
regrets, etc. 

It is ill-bred to draw 
nearer the fire to warm 
yourself, unless invited to 
do so. 

When an evening has 
been set apart for receiv¬ 
ing, you should not call at 
any other time. 




Do not open or shut door or window, or in any way alter the appearance 
of a room. 

Do not walk around a room looking at pictures or articles of vertu while 
awaiting the hostess. 

Do not gossip about your neighbors. Do not carry scandal from one 
house to another. 

Do not, if a gentleman, seat yourself beside the hostess, unless invited to 
do so. 

Do not take a stranger gentleman to call on a friend, unless quite certain 
it will be agreeable 

A lady should never call 
upon a gentleman, unless 
officially or professionally. 

Do not, if a gentleman, 
fail to rise whenever a lady 
takes her leave; and if 
you are the host, do not 
fail to escort her to her 
carriage. 


The Hostess* 


What Hot to Do 
in Calling* 

O not take off 
bonnet or wraps. 

Do not 
around. 

Do not call on a wet 
day. 

Do not take your chil¬ 
dren, unless they be old 
enough to behave them¬ 
selves. 

Do not take a dog. 

Do not stay after the 
dinner bell has rung. 

Do not twirl your cane 
or parasol. 

Do not sit with your back to any one. 

Do not drum on the piano. - 

Do not consult your watch, unless it is absolutely essential. 

Do not finger the ornaments. 

Never go to the room of an invalid without a special invitation. 

Do not stay after the conversation lags. 

Do not stay if you find the lady is going out. 

If a new-comer in the neighborhood, do not make the first call. 

Never resume your seat after starting to go, no matter how strongly you 
may be urged. Nothing exhibits greater gaucherie than to sit down and 
begin all over again after having said good-by. 


MORNING CALLS, AWKWARD. 


'T is not necessary 
for the hostess to 
advance to receive 
v her visitors, unless 
it be some one to whom 
-he is specially desirous 
>f showing respect. She 
will rise, move forward a 
single step, and remain 
standing until they are 
seated. 

When her visitors take 
their leave she should rise 
and remain standing until 
they have quite left the 
room. 

It is not necessary that 
she accompany them to 
the drawing-room door, 
but the bell should be 
rung in time for the ser¬ 
vant to let them out. 

A lady need not necessarily lay aside her fancy-work in receiving morn¬ 
ing calls, but any absorbing occupation, like music or drawing, should be 
abandoned. 

A well-bred hostess pays equal attention to all her guests, and endeavors 
to make the conversation as general as possible. 

The hostess will indicate the seat she desires her guest to take, but a gen¬ 
tleman may seat himself anywhere without troubling the hostess. 

A hostess should never speak disrespectfully of those who have previously 
called upon her. 

Upon important occasions it is well for a lady to be assisted by a gentle¬ 
man in the reception of guests. 





















































































































K 


✓ 


5 80 


CARDS —WHEN, WHERE AND HOW TO USE THEM. 




©y/fien, ©y/ftere aqti ^-foco To U/3>e IRem, 


/— ^^7 0 a refined and cultivated person the visiting-card is indicative of 
I '.J \ the personal characteristics of the person whose name it bears. 

| I'jwS Its quality should be of the finest; in color white (not creaml, 
/l |J W and in shape it should be long and narrow. Gilt bevel and col- 
~ *~ ored designs are never used by refined society. 

The v i s iting card of a married lady should be in size a little 
larger than that of “ Miss,” and engraved in pure,rich script: 

3 Ka^- ^VQAWy 

Or, with reception days : 

3Kaa 

3 VW 

For young ladies the cards should be engraved in a lighter script than that 
of “ Mrs.” For the eldest daughter the last name only should be used: 

3tWA A 

With or without the address. 

For other than the eldest daughter, the full name; as : 

Oavva 

Mother and daughters calling together, the engraving is on a card in size 
between the “ Mr. and Mrs.” and “ Miss” : 

^cvqaW-> 

3(vvt/^ 


Or: 


3iAi/_ ^cvoA3vi> 


The form “ Mr. and Mrs." is used only a short time after marriage. 

The engraving should be in bold, rich script: 

•)tvr_ h ■Mwt'. ^rvcv'Xvi- 

VV9 Sjlwv fy. 

On all formal occasions, married ladies should leave their husbands’ cards 
with their own when calling. 

The handsomest style of cards is that which is engraved, but it is permis¬ 
sible for persons to write their own cards if they can write prettily. 

A gentleman’s cards should be small, fine in texture, and of five or six ply, 
and always white in color. The “Mr.” should be prefixed in every 
instance ; as : 

At. (^tve iaW>- 

VV§ ^W- 

Or, with club address: 

S/yo'Vt' 

A physician may have his professional title; as : 

D'r_ ^o\vvv\)ovUU a 

Or: 

VA wy x.s. 

3iv0 Av’AVv OvA- 

Officers of the army and navy may have their titles : 

SaajJa Ss’waL 

\1 


(5 


o 

















































CARDS —WHEN, WHERE AND HOW TO USE THEM. 


5Sl 




CORKERS OF CARDS ?*- 

--- 


NEW YEAR’S CALLS 



| CCORDING to the most reliable sources on this subject, the fol- 
... lowing are the significations of the corners of cards turned down : 

^ Visite. —The right-hand upper corner. 

Adieu.- —The right-hand lower corner. 

Felicitation.- —The left-hand upper corner. 

Condolence. —The left-hand lower corner. 

P. P. C.—The right-hand lower corner. 

Delivered in Person.— The right-hand end turned down. 


FRENCH ABBREVIATIONS ON CARDS. 


P. P. C. (Pour prendre conge ).—To take leave. 

R. S. V. P. (Respondez, s’il vous plait). —Respond, if you please. 


<S$- 




GENERAL HINTS 







OU should not place honorary titles, such as Prof., Hon., Esq., 
' ' etc., upon your cards. 

Have your cards ready at every door in calling. If the lady is 
at home it will save any misunderstanding as to your name through 
the servant’s blundering; if the lady is not at home, it will notify her of 
your call. 

A separate card should be left for each lady member of the family. 

Unless a gentleman is very intimate at the house where he maybe call¬ 
ing, he should not ask to see the unmarried daughter if she be at home, and 
her mother out, at the time of his call. He should merely send in his card to 
her. 

Always leave your card with the servant at the door. 

A gentleman desiring to continue the acquaintance of a lady to whom he 
has been introduced, and having some doubt as to whether the wish be 
mutual, should leave his card at her residence, and if his further acquaintance 
be desired, he will receive an invitation to some entertainment, or a request 
to call. 

A gentleman having a card of introduction to a lady must call in person, 
sending in his own card and that of the introducer. 

When a person is sick or in bereavement from the death of a near relative, 
it is customary to send a card, accompanied by verbal enquiries as to 
the person’s health. 

When a death is known, cards may be left immediately, but a call of con¬ 
dolence should not be made inside of a week. Then it is best to make the 
call as little painful as possible. It is only permissible to very intimate 
friends tc wiite a letter of condolence. 

Having received a card during illness, you should return the courtesy by a 
call as soon as your health will permit. 

A lady in mourning who does not desire to mingle in society may send out 
mourning cards until the prescribed period of mourning has expired. 

In calling upon any one at a hotel, wait in the reception-room or parlor 
while the waiter takes your card to the room. 

When leaving a place for a lengthy absence, it is customary to send out 
your cards with P. P. C. (to take leave) printed in the lower left-hand corner. 

After a card has been sent up, a lady should never send back word that she 
is “ engaged.” If her time is too valuable to be broken into, let her notify 
her servant beforehand that she is not at home to any one. 


ASH ION seems to be very divided in its opinion as to the manner of 
procedure in New Year’s calling. The custom of announcing in 
the newspapers the names and addresses of those ladies who desire 
to receive on New Year’s day has obtained to a great extent of late 
years in most of our large cities and towns. The custom certainly has much 
to recommend it, since it presents in a convenient form the present address 
of acquaintances whom you may have lost sight of, and yet would desire to 
meet socially on this special occasion. Others, however, hold that it is more 
exclusive and generally desirable to issue notes of invitation to those gentle¬ 
men whom you desire to have call. This mode is often objected to on the 
ground that it places ladies in the delicate position of seeming to beg gentle¬ 
men to call on them, or else of being accused of cutting them by not extend¬ 
ing the invitation. Gentlemen, on the other hand, feel altogether excluded 
from calling, no matter how much they may desire to do so, where they have 
not received a special invitation; and, on the other hand, are under an obli¬ 
gation to call where they have. Of the two customs, the former is the more 
desirable for general observance. 

Gentlemen should call in full dress. 

They should leave their overcoats with the servant In the hall before enter¬ 
ing the presence of the ladies. 

A caller should present each lady receiving at the house with a card. 

A gentleman’s New Year’s card should be from an engraved plate, thus; 

When a gentleman has received an invitation he is in duty bound to recog¬ 
nize the same by calling in person, sending his card by mail, or leaving it. 

If sent by mail, the card should be enclosed in card envelope of appropri¬ 
ate size and color to correspond with card (white). 

It is not in good taste fora gentleman to drive around in a carriage, leaving 
his card at the door. If he does not intend to call, let him send card by mail 
or messenger. 

Gentlemen may call alone on New Year’s day, but they usually call in 
groups of two, three or four. 

Where some of the gentlemen are not acquainted, introductions take 
place, but a lady is not obliged to recognize the acquaintance afterward. 

Gentlemen should be careful not to take advantage of the open hospitality 
of the day to intrude themselves where their company is not agreeable. 

It is optional with a gentleman whether he accept refreshments or not. 

A New Year’s call should not exceed fifteen minutes, unless there are very 
few callers and you are pressingly invited. 

Whether the announcement of reception has been made or not, a gentle¬ 
man need feel no hesitation in calling on his lady friends on New Year’s day, 
as the visits are usually expected and welcomed on such occasions. 

While it is better for a lady to receive in her own home, it is nevertheless 
quite customary and very agreeable for several to assemble at one house and 
receive in company. Where there are a number of gentlemen to entertain 
at once this is very convenient. 

A lady contemplating receiving her friends on New Year’s day should 
have her house suitably decorated, thoroughly warmed, and a table provided 
with refreshments convenient to the reception-room. Refreshments may 
consist of fruits, ices, cake, salads, etc., with tea and coffee for beverages. 
The custom of offering wine and other intoxicating liquors is considered 
objectionable, and utterly ignored by many of the best people. 

Ladies usually receive in full evening dress, in which case the shutters are 
closed and the gas kept burning. Some, however, prefer to receive in street 
costume, when the windows are kept open as on ordinary occasions. 

Ladies who have announced themselves should be ready to receive at 10 
a.m., and continue to do so until 9 p.M. • 

They should also have a servant in attendance to receive the guests and care 
for the coats. 

No matter how agreeable and complacent your hostess may have been, 
a gentleman introduced upon New Year’s day should not feel at liberty to 
call again without a subsequent invitation. 

















































S) 





ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE. 


—OF— 

Conduct at Table. 


EAT yourself in 
an upright posi¬ 
tion—not too close 
to nor yet too far 
from the table. 

Take your napkin, par¬ 
tially unfold it and lay it 

across your lap. It is not the correct thing to fasten it in your button¬ 
hole or spread it over your breast. 

Do not trifle with your knife or fork, or drum on the table, or fidget in 
any way, while waiting to be served. 


CORRECT DINNER TABLE. 


You may not desire the 
soup, which is usually 
the first course, but you 
should not refuse to take 
it. You can eat as much 
or as little as you please, 
but you would look awk¬ 
ward sitting with nothing 
before you while the others 
are eating. 

When eating soup, take 
it from the side of the 
spoon, and avoid making 
any noise in so doing. 
Should you be asked by 

the host what part of the fowl you prefer, always have a choice, and 
mention promptly which you prefer. Nothing is more annoying than to 
have to serve two or three people who have no preferences and will take 
“anything.” 




E etiquette of the dinner-table should be mastered by all who 
aspire to the entree of good society. 

Ease, savoir-faire and good breeding are nowhere more 
indispensable than at the dinner-table, and the absence of them 
is nowhere more apparent. How to eat soup and what to do 
with cherry-stones are weighty considerations when taken as the 
index of social statu^. 

No greater test of the 
culture, refinement and 
good breeding of a person 
can be found than the 
dinner hour. In the fol¬ 
lowing rules, therefore, 
will be found a brief com¬ 
pendium of the most ap¬ 
proved etiquette of the 
table, which those who 
have not had the educa¬ 
tional advantages of po¬ 
lite society will do well 
to read and “ inwardly 
digest.” 


Eat slowly ; it will con¬ 
tribute to yourgood health 
as well as your good man¬ 
ners. Thorough mastica¬ 
tion of your food is neces¬ 
sary to digestion. An 
ordinary meal should oc¬ 
cupy from thirty minutes 
to an hour. 


Keep your hands quietly in your lap, your mind composed and pleasantly 
fixed upon the conversation. Let all your movements be easy and delib¬ 
erate. Undue haste indicates a nervous lack of ease. 

Should grace be said, you will give the most reverent attention in respect¬ 
ful silence during the ceremony. 

Exhibit no impatience to be served. During the intervals between the 

courses is your opportu¬ 
nity for displaying your 
conversational abilities to 
those sitting near you. 
Pleasant chat and witty 
remarks compose the best 
possible sauce to a good 
dinner. 


<2 















































































































































ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE. 


583 




Never place waste matter on the table-cloth. The side of your plate, or 
side-dishes that have contained sauces or vegetables, will answer as a recep¬ 
tacle for bones, potato skins, etc. 

You will use your fork to convey all your food to your mouth, except it 
may be certain sauces that would be more conveniently eaten with a spoon. 
For instance, you should not attempt to eat peas with a fork. If you are 
not provided with a spoon, ask for one. 

The knife is used only for cutting meat and other articles of food, for 
spreading butter upon the bread, etc. 



HOW TO SET THE TABLE 

OUR dining-table should he round or oblong. 

Use only the whitest and finest of linen. Let your sliver and 
cutlery be highly polished, and your glass and china rubbed until 
they fairly shine. Your table will then present a brilliant and ele¬ 
gant appearance. 

For ordinary home oc¬ 
casions you will put at 
each person’s place a 
knife and fork, napkin, 
salt-cup and goblet. The 
order of arrangement is 
according to one’s taste. 

The plates, if not 
brought in afterward by 
a servant, are piled up 
at the right hand of the 
host. The gentleman of 
the house occupies the 
seat at the side of the 
table in the center; op¬ 
posite him is seated his 
wife or whatever lady 
occupies the position as 
head of his household. 

In front of paterfamilias 
is placed the joint for 
carving. In front of the 
mistress of the house is 
the tray containing the 
tea and coffee cups. The 
side-dishes are disposed 
around the table accord¬ 
ing to taste. 

In the centre is,usually 
placed the caster, con¬ 
taining bottles filled with 
various condiments, such 
as red and black pepper, 
vinegar, oil, etc. A good 

housekeeper will see that these bottles are always kept well filled. 

Fashion, however, who is at best but a fickle jade, has decreed of late 
that the old-time caster be abolished, and in place thereof you shall stand 
at each person’s place a small ornamental pepper-bottle in addition to the 
salt-cup and other articles, while the oil and Vinegar shall be placed in 
handsome pitcher-shaped bottles of cut-glass and disposed at each end of 
the table. 

In.arranging the table, too, whether for the family alone or for ceremonial 
occasions, it must be remembered that the individual taste of the lady of 
the house may be brought into play with excellent effect. General rules, of 
course, will be followed ; but results of one who has naturally an artistic 
eye for those things will be very different from the work of one whose eye 
has never been trained to harmonizing lines and colors. 

As it is customary at the mere family dinner to have the carving done 
upon the table, it is very essential that the master of the house should thor¬ 
oughly understand how to carve meat; and expeditious carving may be 


acquired only by practice. It would be well, therefore, if young ladies and 
gentlemen were more frequently initiated into the art while at home, so that 
they might find it less awkward when obliged to do it at their own tables. 


DIMER-GIVING 


s. 




INCORRECT DINNER TABLE. 


N invitation to dinner is the highest social compliment, and should 
be so received and treated. 

While nearly all other social invitations are given in the name of 
the hostess alone the invitation to dinner is given in the joint name 
of host and hostess. 

The host, in this case, occupies the position of chief entertainer. It is 
his duty to go first to the dining-room, taking the principal lady guest on 
his right arm and giving her the seat of honor on his right hand. He is 
expected, too, to contribute much to the entertainment of the guests. 

A good dinner does not consist alone of the meat and drinks, although 

they must also be con- 
1 «Vv J; \ ^ sidered, but of the prop- 

'■=— 1 er seating of the guests 

at table, of the etiquette 
to be observed toward 
them, and the perfection 
of arrangement in gen¬ 
eral. 

Many ladies who give 
dinners observe the habit 
of keeping a book in 
which they record the 
name of every guest 
whom they have dined, 
the names of their neigh¬ 
bors at other dinner par¬ 
ties, and the names of 
hosts to whom they owe 
return dinners ; for this 
is an attention which 
must be retu rned by those 
who pretend to go in 
society. This record is 
convenient for reference 
in arranging for guests at 
another dinner. 

The hostess attends to 
the writing and sending 
out of invitations. The 
form of invitation, which 
should be printed from 
engraved plates on square 
cards with stamped or 
illuminated crest on the 
top centre, is as follows : 

oX Dvvqvqvt^ 


/ 





























































































(5 



584 


ETIQUETTE OF THE TABLE. 


The spaces containing guest’s name and date are left blank on the 
engraved card and are filled out in writing. When the dinner is given in 
honor of some distinguished guest, the fact, with the guest’s name, is also 
placed upon the card of invitation. 

Invitations to dinner should be accepted or declined immediately. Never 
let more than a day pass before writing a note of reply, in which you posi¬ 
tively accept or decline the invitation. There is no greater rudeness than 
neglecting to observe this rule. The form of acceptance ot an invitation to 
dinner is: 


vr_ b 

/W S'VXVXA'., oX 

'WO^X Or 

Or, declining, the form is : 

b Axo/VlA/ 

Kk^oX -a/ A^Ax'S'VO'Vq^ MMZp&gjvMsX 

wX/y K )cvv ^ Xr. b 

^Yv\£>a xJU/fc' ^ywj)' ^ /VVQ'Wx>XV>Vv 
/W S/vvQwvr^ bk/yvJLoj^ vw/xm/O^ ^oxv- 
ajxAajv /ixwyv^L. 


These should be written on square cards, with monogram or crest stamped 
on the top centre. 

The hostess having selected the ladies whom the gentlemen are to escort 
to dinner, their names are written on a small card, with crest or monogram 
in the upper left-hand corner ; the card is enclosed in envelope of appropri¬ 
ate size, and superscribed with the gentleman’s name who is to be the lady's 
escort. These cards are placed on a table in the gentlemen’s dressing-room. 

Dinner cards, with guest’s name placed at each plate, designate the seats 
at the table. 

The dinner card is kept as a souvenir of the occasion, and each hostess 
endeavors to procure the most unique and beautifid designs in decoration. 
Hand-painted cards are very popular. There should be no two alike, and 
each should, as near as possible, represent some personal characteristic of 
the guest whose name it bears. 

The invitations should be sent a fortnight in advance. Many ladies drive 
to the houses of the guests and have the footman deliver the invitations, to 
be certain that they reach their destination properly. The English transmit 
theirs through the mail, but that plan is not usually adopted on this side 
of the water. 

It is not best to invite too many members of one family, but it is highly 
improper to ask the husband without the wife, or the wife without the hus¬ 
band. 

Punctuality, always a necessary courtesy, is specially required at a dinner 
party. One author goes so far as to say that if you do not reach the house 
until dinner is served, it is better to retire and send an apology than to 
interrupt the harmony of the courses by awkward excuses and cold accept¬ 
ance. 

Within five minutes of the dinner hour is a good time for arriving. 


Husband and wife should not enter the reception-room arm-in-arm, as 
that is considered vulgar. The wife should go first, and the husband follow 
her into the room. A servant is stationed near the door to open it for the 
lady and announce her to the host and hostess, who stand near each other 
ready to receive their guests. If necessary the host introduces the guests to 
his wife, as it often happens, particularly at official dinners at Washington, 
that she is not acquainted with them. 

The gentleman, having read on his card the name of the lady whom he is 
to escort, if he does not know her, will request the hostess to introduce him, 
and will begin a little conversation with her before dinner is announced. 

The hostess will shake hands with each guest upon his or her arrival. 

As there is no question of rank to determine precedence in America, the 
lady to be taken in first is the one to whom the dinner is given. In case 
there is no guest of honor, the oldest lady in the room is the one chosen for 
the honor. 

If a dinner party be short of gentlemen, there should be no effort to go in 
in order; but the host, offering his arm to some lady, will request the others 
to follow, which they will do without regard to order, the hostess bringing 
up the rear. 



-^{cThe Duties of a Hostess at a Dinner #-*• 

HE should use a woman’s tact in placing her guests so that those 
who may prove agreeable to each other shall be placed in the same 
neighborhood. She shall also adroitly start the conversation for 
them, and by well-directed remarks assfist the diffident and remind 
the selfish glouton that she is observant of him. The hostess’ man¬ 
ner should present a simple dignity and an equal interest in all her guests. 
If she observe some one lingering over his plate, she shaH appear to be 
eating, so that he may not make the mortifying discovery that he is the last 
to be eating. 

A ready wit and a merry laugh are great aids to a hostess in entertaining 
a party of this description. 

Ceremonious dinners in the large cities are all served nowii la Russe; that 
is, nothing is put on the table but the dessert, and all the other viands are 
served in courses by waiters. This mode has a decided advantage over the 
old method of putting the meats and vegetables on together, as it does away 
with the awkwardness and confusion of carving and serving, and keeps the 
table in a much neater condition. 

The modern dinner table is made very attractive by an elaborate display 
of cut-flowers, which, taken with the requisite cut-glass and beautifully 
decorated china now in use, give an aesthetic aspect to what might be other¬ 
wise merely the gratification of a sensual appetite. 


\ Habits to be Avoided at Table 

O not eat fast. 

Do not make noise with mouth or throat. 

I III Do not fill the mouth too full. 

Do not open the mouth in masticating. 

Do not leave the table with food in your mouth. 

Be careful to avoid soiling the cloth. 

Never carry anything like food with you from t'he table. 

Never apologize to the waiters for making them trouble; it is their busi¬ 
ness to serve you. It is proper, however, to treat them with courtesy, and 
say “ No, I thank you,” or “ If you please,” in answer to their inquiries. 

Do not introduce disgusting or unpleasant topics of conversation. 

Do not pick your teeth or put your finger in your mouth at the table. 

Do not come to table in your shirt-sleeves, or with soiled hands or tousled 
hair. 

Do not cut your bread; break it. 

Do not refuse to take the last piece of bread or cake; it looks as though 
you imagined there might be no more. 

Do not express a preference for any part of a dish unless asked to do so. 





aJ 




o 

































ETIQUETTE FOR PLACES OF PUBLIC AMUSEMENT. 


585 


Do not hesitate what to take when a dish is passed to you. Nothing dis¬ 
plays a lack of breeding more than not to know your own mind in trifles. 

Do not hold bones in your hand while eating from them. Cut the meat 
off with your knife. 

In eating asparagus, although the French invariably take it up in their 
fingers to eat, it is better to cut off the edible heads with your fork and con¬ 
vey it to your mouth with the same. 

Do not cut the butter with your own knife. There is always a knife pro¬ 
vided for that purpose. 

Do not make the table-cloth do the duties of your napkin. Use the latter 
frequently, both for keeping your fingers and your whiskers clean. 

Do not wear gloves at table. 

Do not pass your plate with the knife and fork on it. Take them off and 
rest them on a piece of bread, if there is no other rest provided for them. 

When serving others do not overload their plates, nor press them to take 
certain things which they may have declined. 

Do not pour sauce over the meat and vegetables when helping others. 
Put it on one side of their plate. 

Do not tip back in your chair nor lounge upon the table. 

Eat your corn from the cob, unless you prefer to cut it off with your knife. 
Etiquette, however, does not demand you to do so. 

Do not rise from your own table, or that at which you are a guest, before 
the others, without asking to be excused. It is not necessary to do this at a 
boarding-house or hotel. 

Do not spit out cherry-stones, grape-skins, or anything of that sort, upon 
your plate. Press them out quietly from between your lips into fork or 
spoon and lay them on the side of your plate. 

Do not cough, expectorate or sneeze at the table. If it is necessary to do 
any of these things, rise and leave the table; or you can turn your head 
slightly to cough. 


Do not eat inordinately of any one article on the table. 

Do not engage in conversation of an abstruse nature at table. The 
digestion is impaired by drawing the vital fluid from the stomach and other 
digestive organs to the brain. Light chit-chat of a cheerful nature is the 
only proper table talk. 

Do not put your feet so far under the table as to touch the feet of another 
opposite you, nor curl them around the legs of the chair. 

Do not tilt back in your chair, hang your arm over the back, nor assume 
any other improper attitude at the table. 

Do not give extravagant praise to every dish set before you. A few well- 
chosen words of praise for any article that you happen to know is a matter 
of pride to your hostess are all very well, but as a rule the fewer remarks 
about your food the better. 

When there is no necessity for using the knife in cutting or mashing, etc., 
lay it aside altogether and use the fork alone, holding it in the right hand. 

In order to avoid frequently changing the fork from the left to the right 
hand, it is well to accustom yourself to conveying food to the mouth with 
the left hand. 

Never pour your tea or coffee into the saucer to cool. Sip it gently from 
a spoon or the side of the cup. 

Keep your spoon in the cup while drinking. When you desire to have it 
refilled, take the spoon from the cup and lay it in the saucer. That is an 
indication that you will take more. If you do not wish more, leave the 
spoon in the cup. 

Always remember to ask for “cream.” Do not speak of “milk,” no 
matter how blue and pale the fluid may be. 

Take sugar only with the sugar-spoons. 

Last and most important: Be moderate in the quantity of food you eat. 
You impair your health by overloading the stomach, and render yourself 
dull and stupid for hours after the meal. 





<Olaee^ • of • <Ocik>lie • flmu^ement 



YOUNG lady is not permitted to visit the theatre or other place 
of public amusement with a gentleman with whom she is 
slightly acquainted, without a suitable chaperon. 

A gentleman desiring to take a young lady acquaintance for the 
first time will, therefore, extend an invitation to some other mem¬ 
ber of the family, usually her mother. 

He should extend his invitation in time to secure good seats, a desirable 
location being essential to the enjoyment of the performance. 

The young lady should send reply at once to his note of invitation, in order 
to give him time to complete his arrangements. 

Should the night be stormy, the gentleman should provide a carriage. It 
would be best to do so anyhow if he can conveniently afford it. 

Be sure to reach the place of amusement in time to be seated before the 
curtain rises. It is annoying to others to lose the performance through the 
bustle of your late arrival. 

Take a programme at the entrance for each member of your party. Fol¬ 
low the usher, but precede the ladies to the seat, then step back and let them 
enter first. 


What is Ill-bred at Places of Amusement* 




O talk and laugh loudly or to gesticulate violently. 

To converse even in whispers during the performance. 

To rise and begin to get on your wrap before the performance is 
entirely over. To assume an attitude of familiarity or lover-like 
affection toward your companion. 

To go out between acts, if you are a gentleman. If your seat is in the 
centre of a row, you disturb others in order to get out, and if that is obviated 
by an end seat, you betray the fact that you are addicted to the use of liquor. 

To allow another gentleman to seat himself beside you and monopolize 
your attention to the exclusion of your escort. 

Or, if a gentleman, to devote yourself specially to any other lady than the 
one you have accompanied. 

To join a party about to visit a place of amusement without an invitation. 












































K" 


fO 


586 


/ 


ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL AND PARTY. 





N invitation to a ball signifies that the entertainment is exclusively 
for dancing. 

The invitations to a ball should be delivered by a footman at 
least two weeks before the evening appointed, and should receive 
an immediate answer. 

These invitations are from engraved plates, on note sheets, and 
white in color. They are worded thus : 

mu/ ^ 

.ovq 

Dvv/WjJWvr Ww 

Qjfc_ 

So^VQWVQQ^ /qJ& 3vWV 

The form of acceptance or declination is much the same as In the dinner 
invitations, substituting “ ball ” for “ dinner.” 

The first requisites for a pleasant ball are good rooms, good music and 
plenty of good company. No one should attempt to give an entertainment 
of this sort without being fully prepared for considerable expenditure of 
time, money and patience. If you wish your friends to enjoy the dancing, 
you must give them good music, a good floor, and plenty of good and suit¬ 
able partners. The supper, to be enjoyable, must be well served and 
abundant in quantity. 

As yon wish your ball to be the event of the season, you must have your 
rooms handsomely decorated. An abundance of cut flowers should be 
artistically scattered around, with here and there a tropical plant in hall and 
ball-room, on the stairs, in recesses, and wherever they can conveniently be 
placed with good effect and not be in the way. The fire-places should be 
screened by flowers in summer and by guards in winter, unless heaters are 
in use, in which case the latter precaution is unnecessary. By the help of 
screens and flowers it is easy to arrange a small gallery for the musicians, so 
that they shall be heard and not seen. 

A refreshment-room, a dressing-room for the ladies, and one for the gentle¬ 
men, should be provided. 




Ladies will attend a ball in elegant and elaborate evening dress. Gentle¬ 
men will appear in full evening dress. 

A prudent hostess will limit her invitations to the size of her ball-room, in 
order not to overcrowd her rooms and spoil the pleasure of the dancers. It 
is safe to issue a few more invitations than you can accommodate, on the 
chance of a number not appearing on the arrival of the evening. 

The most favorable room for dancing is one which is nearly square, but 
rather longer than wide. Such a room will admit of two quadrille parties 
at once. 

The top of a ball-room is the part nearest the orchestra. It is well to 
know this, as in dancing the top couples always lead off 

A good floor is highly important. In private houses nothing is better than 
a good Holland floor-cloth well stretched over the carpet. 

Let there be an abundance of light and good ventilation in your ball-room. 

Good music is as essential at a ball as good wine at dinner, and no hostess 
should tax her guests for this entertainment. Very few amateurs can play 
dance music well. Besides that, no one wants to be tied to the piano all the 
evening playing while others are dancing. For this reason, a hostess should 
provide skilled musicians to play for her guests. 

It is customary to provide three pieces for dancing: a piano and two 
violins, or piano, cornet and violin. Sometimes the harp and violins only 
are used. 

The ladies’ toilet-room should be well supplied with mirrors, pins, needles 
and thread for repairing rents, and plenty of attendants to assist the fair ones 
at their toilets. It is well to check wraps and give a duplicate check to each 
lady. 

The supper hour is usually from 12 to 1 o'clock, and the hour of departing 
from 2 to 3 a . m . The style of the supper is apt to be regulated by the 
wealth of the host. If he have ample means it is customary to put the 
whole thing in the hands of a caterer, and have it served up in good style, 
with all the extra appliances of salads, oysters, fancy ices, coffees, wines 
and fruits, and cakes of every description. 

If the supper be home-made, coffee and sandwiches, with fruit, and two or 
three kinds of ices and cake, are all-sufficient. There should always be an 
abundance provided, however, as dancers are usually hungry people. 

No one sits down to a ball supper. If seats are ranged around the room 
for the ladies, the gentlemen stand. 

Carpet should be laid from the edge of the pavement to the doorway, and 
if the evening be wet, a temporary covering should be erected for the protec¬ 
tion of the ladies in passing from their carriages to the house. 

A gentleman should not accept an invitation to a ball if he does not dance, 
as it is an act of positive neglect for gentlemen to hold themselves aloof when 
ladies are waiting anxiously for an invitation to dance, and attempt to 
dance without a knowledge of the art is not only to make yourself ridicu¬ 
lous, but your partner as well. 








































































s> 


ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL AND PARTY. 


587 



RULES FOR THE BALL-ROOM 





N entering the ball-room a lady visitor should at once seek the lady 
of the house and pay her respects. Having done this, she may 
exchange salutations with such of her friends and acquaintances as 
may be in the room. 

At a public ball no lady should accept an invitation to dance from a gen¬ 
tleman to whcm she has not been introduced. Should a gentleman commit 
the error of asking her, she shotdd answer politely and firmly that she would 
take great pleasure in doing so if he would procure an introduction. 

This rule, however, does not apply to private balls. The mere fact of be¬ 
ing assembled together under the roof of a mutual friend is in itself a sort of 
general introduction. A gentleman, however, would show a lack of social 
knowledge in soliciting a dance without an introduction even at a private ball. 

An introduction given merely for the purpose of a dance does not consti¬ 
tute an acquaintance, and a lady may pass the gentleman on the street the 
next day without recognizing him. 

It is not necessary for a lady to know the steps in order to take part in a 
quadrille—she has only to 
walk through gracefully, 
for which an easy car¬ 
riage and knowledge of 
the figures are indispens¬ 
able. 




BALL-ROOM 
ETIQUETTE 

FOR GENTLEMEN. 

GENTLEMAN 
should not enter 
a ball-room in 
. other than full 
evening dre s and white 
or light kid gloves. 

One of the recent vaga¬ 
ries of fashion is to dis¬ 
pense with gloves for gen¬ 
tlemen’s evening dress, 
but true delicacy and good 
taste will suggest to every 
gentleman that he should 
cover his hands when 
dancing, as the heat en¬ 
gendered by the exercise 
is apt to cause his hands 
to perspire and soil the 
dress of his partner. 

When a gentleman has arranged to take a lady to a ball, it is quite correct 
for him to send her a bouquet of flowers in the afternoon. He will call for 
her promptly, with a carriage, in the evening, and, having reached the house 
where the ball is given, he will conduct her immediately to the ladies’ dress¬ 
ing-room. There he will leave her, go to the gentlemen’s room, arrange his 
own toilet, and, returning to the door of the ladies’ room, will take charge 
of his lady, and escort her to the reception-room and the hostess. 

Etiquette requires that a lady shall dance first with the gentleman who 
takes her to the entertainment. After that it is his duty to see that she is 


BALL-ROOM SCENE 


provided with partners, and to escort her to supper. He should also be 
ready to escort her home whenever she is ready. 

Where a gentleman has not brought any special lady, he will conduct the 
one with whom he is dancing to the supper-room when the signal is given, 
unless the lady be claimed by her escort, in which case he will have to find 
another partner or go alone to the supper-room. 

A gentleman unattended will invite one of the ladies of the house to dance 
with him first, and she, if otherwise engaged, will probably introduce him 
to some other lady, whom he must accept for the dance. 

A gentleman should never place his arm around a lady’s waist before the 
music begins for a waltz, nor keep it there after the music has stopped. 

All indecorous positions in dancing are to be scrupulously avoided in the 
private ball-room. A certain class of fast young men are apt to forget these 
things sometimes in the ball-room. 

Never forget a ball-room engagement. It is the greatest neglect and 
slight a gentleman can offer a lady. 

At the beginning and end of a quadrille a gentleman bows to his partner, 
and bows again on handing her to her seat. 

In inviting a lady to dance no special form need be observed. The usual 
mode is, “ May I have the honor of dancing this set with you?” or “ May I 
have the pleasure?" etc., “Will you honor me with your hand?” etc. 

Engagements for one 
dance should not be made 
while another is in prog¬ 
ress. 

A gentleman should not 
display temper if a lady 
chance to forget an en¬ 
gagement with him and 
stand up with another 
partner to dance. A scene 
in a ball-room is an affront 
to the host and hostess. 
It is no less reprehensi¬ 
ble in any public place. 
Always remember that 
good breeding and good 
temper are inseparably 
connected. 

No matter how much 
pleasure a gentleman may 
take in a lady’s society, 
he must not dance with 
her too frequently. En¬ 
gaged couples should re¬ 
member this, and not 
provoke comment by such 
marked preferences. 

At the end of a dance 
a gentleman bows to his 
partner, and offers to con¬ 
duct her to the refresh¬ 
ment-room, when there is 
one set apart; otherwise 
he takes her to a seat or 
her chaperon. 

Always withdraw from a ball-room as quietly as possible. If your hostess 
is near the door, make your adieux to her, but in a manner that shall not 
attract attention and break up the assembly. 

A gentleman should not attend a ball unless he has made up his mind to 
be agreeable, to dance with the plain girls as well as the beauties, to escort 
an elderly chaperon to the supper-room, if necessary, instead of her charge, 
to dance instead of hanging around the doorways waiting for supper—in 
short, to forget himself and contribute as much as possible to the amuse¬ 
ment of others. 






(d 


























































































































588 


ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC. 


-He GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ^ 


LIDE gently in the dance, wearing a pleasant expression on the 
face. 

Should you make a mistake in taking your position in a set, 
apologize to the party incommoded and take another place. 

Do not appear selfishly eager to get the best positions in the set. 

It is not necessary to bow to an acquaintance every time you meet him on 
the promenade. Once is sufficient. 

A lady should not enter or cross the hall at a public ball unattended. 

Neither married nor single ladies should leave a ball unattended. 

A lady should not accept an invitation to dance with one gentleman Imme¬ 
diately after having refused to dance with another. 

The hostess should see that any lady who has come unattended is pro¬ 
vided with an escort to the supper table. 

Any difficulty in the dances should be referred to the master of ceremonies. 



Any gentleman whose breath is tainted by smoking or liquor should not 
enter a ball-room to engage in dancing. 

A lady should not refuse to be introduced to a gentleman at a private ball. 
At a public one she may use her discretion. 

Do not, unless absolutely necessary, withdraw from a set where your 
presence is needed. If you do so, request the master of ceremonies to pro¬ 
vide a substitute. 

No gentleman should act the buffoon in a ball-room, by dancing a break¬ 
down, swinging his arms about and behaving in a rude and boisterous man¬ 
ner generally. 

A lady need not invite her escort to enter the house when he has accom¬ 
panied her home. But he can request the pleasure of calling next day or 
evening. 

It is in bad taste for the members of the family giving a ball to dance 
too frequently. There may be those among their guests waiting to take 
the places which they are occupying, and their first duty is to contribute to 
the comfort and pleasure of those whom they have invited to their house. 




.e 


3 +THE GERMAN 



i| USTOM decides that no lady’s series of entertainments are com¬ 
plete without “ the prime favorite.” 

Young ladies are now much accustomed to forming social clubs, 
with pretty, suggestive names, which meet at the houses of the 
different members. 

The informalities of the German necessitate great care in the 
inviting of the guests. It is necessary that all shall have been formally in¬ 
troduced, as no lady can refuse to dance with a gentleman whom she may 
have received as a partner so long as she remain in the circle. 

Favors are given in most of the figures, some of them being very elegant 
and expensive, while others are comparatively inexpensive, but unique in 
design. The principal point is to have a set of favors differing in design 
from those presentecLat any other entertainment. 

Invitations to the German should be sent at least ten days in advance. 
They should be from engraved plates, and in the following form : 

Xr. h SAo'V.qA' 




XAvv 


Y 


WjQJ 


wAA/VO 


X 




^RECEPTIONS or AT HOMES#- 

"A HE full-dress reception is an event of considerable importance in 
I ' the social world. 

Invitations should be issued at least two weeks beforehand, as 
jJX. for balls or dinners. It prevents previous engagement. They should 
be engraved on heavy white card of the finest texture. The form is: 

'O'VQ 

O 'YwwjjvWt 

WyQvQ % V V 


The invitations should be delivered by the footman, as are wedding and 
dinner invitations, etc. 

A serving-man should be provided to open the carriage door, another to 
receive the cards and show the guests to their dressing-room. 

The gentlemen escort their ladies to the host and hostess. If there is to 
be dancing it is mentioned on the card of invitation. 































































ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC. 


5 8 9 


In New York it is quite the custom to present each guest with some ele¬ 
gant little souvenir of the occasion, something similar to the favors of the 
“German.” 

When the daughter is receiving with her mother, her name is placed on the 
card of invitation below her mother’s, thus : 


■^sAk'- 


S VvXov^ WOVQVVQQ^ 

'V>vjv Z \kwX\hr W xV VU y0&. 


S'O/iW 


WwO/. 


Young ladies are permitted to dance during the evening, the mother 
remaining at her post of reception; hut the daughter should return to her 
place as soon as the dance is over. 

A young lady should not dance more than once with the same gentleman 
at her own reception. 

You should attend receptions in full evening dress, and good breeding 
demands that you do not present yourself at the beginning, nor remain until 
the close of the evening. 

When your name is announced, look for the lady of the house and pay 
your respects first to her. She will usually be found stationed near the door, 
particularly if the party be large. You are at liberty, however, to salute 
such friends and acquaintances as you may meet in making your way 
through the crowd. 

It is well to throw open as many rooms as possible, and to have tables 
scattered around here and there, covered with choice engravings, photo¬ 
graphic views, valuable scrapbooks, etc., for the entertainment of the guests. 

If some eminent person be among the company, it is not in good taste for 
every one to follow him around, hanging on‘his words and striving for an 
introduction. 

The hostess should see that her company does not break up into cliques of 
twos or threes, as such a plan leaves a number out who do not possess any 
great conversational powers. 

Should any guest be invited by the hostess to play the piano, she should 
not wait to be urged, offering excuses, but rise quietly, proceed to the piano 
and play something short and suitable to the gathering. 

A natural tdct will suggest what to play. In a company of musical con¬ 
noisseurs a sonata of Beethoven would not be out of place, but in a general 
company something lighter and shorter would be more appropriate. 

Never play upon the invitation of any one but the hostess. Should any one 
else make the request, turn it off as gracefully as you can, but do not comply. 


-Me PARTIES IK GENERAL. JH- 

HE guests should be more intimate acquaintances than at a ball or 
^ full-dress reception. The hours before supper are spent in social 
conversation. After supper, which is served much earlier than at 
a ball, dancing is usually the order of the evening. 

The time for departure is not later than i o’clock. 

A call, or leaving of the card, should always precede an invitation to a 
party. 



A call in person or by card is required by etiquette after the party, from all 
those who have been the recipients of invitation. 

The same general rules of etiquette apply in the case of parties as at full- 
dress receptions and balls. 

The laws of courtesy and good breeding will be observed by gentlemen 
and ladies wherever they may be, whether on the croquet ground, at the 
informal picnic, or at the formal dinner party. And the code is much the 
same. 


h®: JUVENILE PARTIES:®#- 

'll ff T is now quite fashionable to give entertainments for the younger 

1 members of the family. These birthday and doll parties are fre¬ 
quently the source of as much amusement to the elders as to the little 
ones who attend them. A regularly engraved card is sent out after 
this design : 

/UM A/ 

UtvoAWr 

/V\vv ^ Ajj &wc 

S'WAwUvr VU3# 

S3. 3. 


Another form is : 


3^ xjjpwr 

wVVX /WVWQ- 

S3. 3. 


































K 


& 


59 ° 


ETIQUETTE OF THE GERMAN, RECEPTIONS, ETC. 


-#53+ BAL. MASQUE 

Invitations to a bal masque should be elegant in design and read as 
follows: 

Kk&^pjX Aj|pwr 

W'm/v Avvi^ 

\^vA^VtAoA)j/ /VO'V Oj^ < ^VAM)vV^ ^L2>A\ 

/qX /WO^v'v A JUyOW. 

Sv. ^ 3 - 3 wvv 


TWENTY-FIRST BIRTHDAY PARTIES. 

A grand celebration is usually given in honor of a son’s attainment to his 
majority. The form of invitation, on engraved cards, is : 

3 lvr_ 3 3 Av*/- 

\k/^mX XAv AJjp>U/r 

WWW|, ^O^Vv'QvOvVJ^ AvA., 

qX 

qX 

XX ^X Q^xhxoXvw* 

vcvwr 

^QA'Wy 3 L. \^UtAv. 

V§YA <^Wv ^ 0 . 


BREAKFASTS +3=#- 

Invitations to breakfasts and suppers should be informal and written 
on correspondence cards, with crest or monogram on top left corner. The 
form is: 

1 ®. ^>_ 3Uvw 

3/wUxAoav^ qX W/v & 

Dvwjjw/Wr 1y^\v_ 

3 K/r. ^. 13 . nJ)o^jvW^- 


^ AFTERNOON RECEPTIONS^ 

VERY popular entertainment for ladies exclusively is the tea or 
AH* afternoon reception. The hours are from 4 to 6 p.m., and if 
/ WV continued later these affairs partake of the nature of more formal 
Ji entertainments. The refreshments are light, and all ostentatious 

display is avoided. 

The hostess receives her guests at the table, and dispenses tea and the 
other delicacies to them, which they receive from the tray borne by domes¬ 
tics, and eat or drink standing. On leaving they can dispense with the for¬ 
mality of bidding the hostess adieu. The form of invitation, printed on 
large-sized visiting cards from engraved plates, is : 

3/u^vvA S3 oaj|XX 
3 /U't'iAo^ V 63 <X 

\?yy^ki wXaX § X 


YOUNG LADIES’ DEBUT 4 - 




-ff^TIQUETTE decides that in this country, as in England, young 
i ' >1 ' ladies shall seldom be seen, except at family gatherings, until their 
p j ; school life shall be terminated, and then they shall be formally in- 
JiV . i t traduced into society. 

Three weeks previous to their debut, cards are left for those acquaintances 
who are to receive invitations. A week or ten days previous engraved invi¬ 
tations are sent. 

During the reception the young lady’s position is to the right of her 
mother or chaperon, where she receives the congratulations of her friends. 
The guests should make their congratulations brief, and pass on to make 
room for others. 

The first dance should be accorded only to some intimate friend of the 
family, and the debutante should dance but once with the same gentleman 
in the course of the evening. 

For one year the young lady is allowed to make calls only with her 
mother or other suitable chaperon. After that time she can receive or call 
at her pleasure. 


kl 






















































I DING is an accomplishment in which all ladies and gentlemen 
should be proficient. Riding, like swimming, cannot be taught 
by precept; it must be taught early and practiced constantly—as 
little in the school and as much upon the road as possible. 

A lady’s riding-habit should be simple, close-fitting, and made 
by a first-rate tailor. The later habit is much shorter and nar¬ 
rower than the old style, 
and is always worn with 
pantaloons of the same 
material underneath. 

A lady can indulge her 
love of luxury only in her 
riding-whip. This may 
be jewelled, and as ele¬ 
gant as she may wish. 

Her gloves must always 
be unexceptionable. 

The art of mounting 
must beproperly acquired, 
since in riding, as in other 
things, it is proficiency in 
trifles that proclaims the 
artist. 

The lady, having mount¬ 
ed the riding-steps, places 
her left foot in the stirrup, 
rises into her seat and lifts 
the right leg into its place, 
taking care to let the habit 
fall properly. 

If no riding-steps are 
at hand, her escort or 
groom must assist her to 
mount. Hence she must 
learn to mount in both 
ways. In the latter case 
she places her left foot 
in the right hand of the 
gentleman or servant; he 
lifts it vigorously but gen¬ 
tly, and she springs lightly into the saddle. 

A lady who rides much and wishes to keep her figure straight should 
have two saddles, and change from one to the other. 


LADY AND GENTLEMAN RIDING. 


The great point in riding is to sit straight in the middle of your saddle, to 
know the temper of your horse, and to be able to enjoy a good galop in 
moderation. 

Ladies should not lean forward in riding. 

They should not rise in the saddle in trotting. 

They should know how to hold the reins and the different uses of each. 

A gentleman, in riding, 
as in walking, gives the 
lady the wall. 

In assisting a lady to 
mount, hold your hand 
at a convenient distance 
from the ground, that she 
may place her foot in it. 
As she springs, assist her 
with the impetus of your 
arm. Practice only will 
enable you to do this 
properly. 

A gentleman should be 
able to mount on either 
side of his horse. He 
places his left foot in the 
stirrup, his left hand on 
the saddle, and swings 
himself up, throwing his 
right leg over the horse’s 
back. Nothing is more 
awkward than to see a 
man climb into a saddle 
with both hands. 

The correct position is 
to sit upright and well 
back in the saddle; to 
keep the knees pressed 
well in against the sides 
of the saddle, and the feet 
parallel to the horse’s 
body; to turn the toes 
in rather than out. The foot should be about half-way in the stirrup. 

The great desideratum in the art of riding is plenty of confidence. A 
timid person can never be a good rider. 


ETIQUETTE OF RIDING AND DRIVING. 


£ 

10 


f 




Is 

T 











































































ETIQUETTE OF RIDING AND DRIVING 


When escorting a lady be sure that her horse is quite safe, every part of 
its harness in perfect condition, and keep on the alert to assist her on the 
slightest sign of danger. 

A gentleman riding with two ladies will keep to the right of both, unless it 
be necessary for him to 
ridebetween them inorder 
to render some assistance. 

In dismounting, the gen¬ 
tleman will take the lady’s 
left hand in his right, re¬ 
move the stirrup and place 
her foot in his left hand, 
lowering her gently to the 
ground. 

Keep on the right or off 
side, and never presume 
to touch her mount any 
more than you would that 
of a gentleman friend. 


ETIQUETTE 




&T 7 l HE art of driving 

I us simple enough, 

I but requires prac- 

1 L tice. No one 

should pretend who does 
not understand every part 
of the harness and be able 
to harness or unharness a 
horse himself. 

A good driver will use his horse well, whether it be his own or another's. 
He will turn corners gently, and know when to drive fast and when to 
ease him up. 

In the carriage, a gentleman places himself with his back to the horses, 
leaving the best seat for the ladies. Only very elderly gentlemen are 


LADY ALIGHTING. 


privileged to take the back seat to the exclusion of young ladies. No gentle¬ 
man driving alone with a lady should sit beside her, unless he is her hus¬ 
band, father, son or brother. Even an affianced lover should remember this 
rule of etiquette. 

To get in and out of 
a carriage gracefully is 
quite an accomplishment. 
If there is but one step, 
and you are going to face 
the horses, put your left 
foot on the step and the 
other in the carriage, so 
that you can drop at once 
into yopr seat. If you 
are to sit the other way, 
reverse the process. Be 
careful to turn your back 
the way you intend sitting, 
so as to avoid turning 
around. 

A gentleman should be 
careful to avoid stepping 
on the lady’s dress in get¬ 
ting into the carriage. He 
should be careful also not 
to catch it in the door as 
he closes it. 

A gentleman should al¬ 
ways get out of a carriage 
first, in order to assist the 
lady in alighting. 

When a gentleman in¬ 
tends taking a lady driv- 
ingin aone-seated vehicle, 
he shotdd always be sure 
his horse is a safe one be¬ 
fore trusting himself with 
it, as he is obliged to get 
out to assist the lady in and out of the vehicle. When helping her in he 
should be careful always to hold the reins so that he can check the animal 
in case it should start suddenly. 

The dress should never be lifted in alighting from a carriage, but left to 
trail upon the ground. 


O 























































ETIQUETTE OF THE STREET. 


593 







•> Etiquette of-:* t^e ©hpeet •: 



■•rpui'Td ‘ 








-T 





s XG/©S’J 

(9 } 





LADY will bow first if she meets a gentleman acquaintance on 
the street. 

A lady will not stop on the street to converse with a gentle¬ 
man. If he wishes to chat with her he will turn and walk by 
her side until he has finished his conversation, then raise his hat 
and leave her. 

It is not etiquette for a 
lady to take the arm of a 
gentleman on the street 
in the day time, unless he 
be a lover or husband, and 
even then it is seldom 
done in America. 

In England it is per¬ 
missible for a lady to ac¬ 
cept the arm of even an 
ordinary acquaintance on 
the street. In foreign 
cities it is not conaue il 
faut for ladies to appear 
on the street at all with¬ 
out a gentleman. 

A gentleman escorting 
two ladies may offer each 
an arm, but a lady should 
never under any circum¬ 
stances walk between two 
gentlemen holding an arm 
of each. 

On meeting friends or 
acquaintances on thestreet 
or in public places, you 
should be careful not to 
call their names so loudly 
as to attract the attention 
of those around. 

Never call across the 
street, and never carry on 
a conversation in a public 
vehicle unless you are seated side by side. 

Gentlemen should never stare at ladies on the street. 

In walking with a lady a gentleman should take charge of any small par¬ 
cel, book, etc., with which she may be burdened. 


STREET PROMENADE SCENE 


Never recognize a gentlemen unless you are perfectly sure of his identity. 
Nothing is more awkward than a mistake of this kind. 

A well-bred man must entertain no respect for the brim of his hat. True 
politeness demands that the hat be removed entirely from the head. Merely 
to nod or to touch the brim of your hat is a lack of courtesy. The body 

should not be bent at all 
in bowing. 

A gentleman will always 
give a lady the inside of 
the walk on the street. 

Ladies should avoid 
walking rapidly on the 
street, as it is ungraceful. 

A gentleman walking 
with a lady should ac¬ 
commodate his step to 
hers. It looks exceedingly 
awkward to see a gentle¬ 
man two or three paces 
ahead of a lady with 
whom he is supposed to 
be walking. 

Staring at people, ex¬ 
pectorating, looking back 
on the street, calling in a 
loud voice, laughing, etc., 
are very bad manners on 
the street. 

A gentleman attending 
a lady will hold the door 
open for her to pass. He 
will also perform the 
same service for any lady 
passing in or out unat¬ 
tended. 

A gentleman may assist 
a lady from an omnibus, 
or over a bad crossing, 
without the formality of 
an introduction. Having performed the service, he will bow and retire. 

No gentleman will smoke when standing or walking with a lady on the street. 
A quiet and unobtrusive demeanor upon the street is the sign of a true 
lady, who goes about her own affairs in a business-like way and has always 
a pleasant nod and smile for friends and acquaintances. 


A 

















































































594 


ETIQUETTE OF TRAVELLING. 





class of people carry with them so many distinguishing marks 
as the experienced and the inexperienced traveller. The former 
is always cool and collected, occupies the best seat in the middle 
of the car on the shady side and next to the window, and is 
especially remarkable for a total lack of flurry and anxiety. 

All this is owing to the fact that he has had a long and varied 
experience as a traveller, and in that way gained a knowledge of the minor 
points in travelling which go far toward begetting that state of peaceful con¬ 
fidence which is the source of much envy to the uninitiated. 

The experienced traveller is always on time ; he keeps a time-table of the 
trains at hand for refer¬ 
ence and never fails to 
have his watch going cor¬ 
rectly. His baggage is 
always properly checked 
andhisticket safely stowed 
away in his inside pocket. 

Being certain that he is 
on the right train, with 
everything in order, his 
mind is serene and a smile 
of benignant complacency 
illumines his countenance 
as he unfolds his evening 
paper or reviews the faces 
of his fellow passengers. 

The inexperienced travel¬ 
ler comes hurrying on the 
train at the last moment, 
all in a heat and flurry, 
and is scarcely seated on 
the last seat in the car, 
where he’ll catch all the 
drafts from the opening 
door, when he discovers 
that he has lost his ticket 
or forgotten to check his 
baggage. Then ensues a 
storm of anxious enquiries 
and querulous complain¬ 
ings, and before he has 
reached his destination he 
is voted a bore by all his 
fellow passengers. 

♦^SUGGESTIONS TO TRAVELLERS 

CONSIDER what route you intend taking when you are contemplat¬ 
ing a journey, and decide definitely upon it. Go to the ticket-office 
of the road and procure a time-table, where you will find the hour 
for leaving, together with names of stations on the road, etc. 

When you intend taking a sleeping-berth, secure your ticket for same a 
day or two before you intend starting, so as to obtain a desirable location. 


RAILWAY CAR 


A lower berth in the centre of the car is always the most comfortable, as 
you escape the jar of the wheels and drafts from the opening door. 

Take as little baggage as possible, and see that your trunks are strong and 
securely fastened. A good, stout leather strap is a safeguard against bursting 
locks. 

In checking your baggage, look to the checks yourself, to make sure the 
numbers correspond. Having once received your check, you need not con¬ 
cern yourself further about your baggage. The company is responsible for 
its safe delivery. 

It is a wise precaution to have your name and address carefully written 

upon any small article of 
baggage, such as satchel, 
umbrella, duster, etc., so 
that in case you leave 
them in the car the rail¬ 
way employes may know 
where to send them. 

An overcoat or package 
lying upon a seat is an 
indication that the seat is 
taken and the owner has 
only left temporarily. It 
would, therefore, be rude 
in you to remove the 
articles and occupy the 
seat. 

It is only courteous for 
a gentleman, seeing a lady 
looking for a seat, to offer 
the one beside him, as 
she scarcely likes to seat 
herselfbeside him without 
such invitation, although 
she will, of course, if there 
are no entirely vacant 
seats, do so in preference 
to standing. 

A courteous gentleman 
will also relinquish his 
place to two ladies, or a 
gentleman and lady who 
are together, and seek 

SCENE, PROPER. other 

accommodations. 
Such a sacrifice always 

receives its reward in grateful admiration of his character. 

Ladies travelling alone, when addressed in a courteous manner by gentle¬ 
men, should reply politely to the remark ; and in long journeys it is even 
allowable to enter into conversation without the formality of an introduction. 
But a true lady will always know how to keep the conversation from bor¬ 
dering on familiarity, and by a quiet dignity and sudden hauteur will effect¬ 
ually check any attempt at presumption on the part of her strange acquaint¬ 
ance. 



















































































































G 




LADIES TRAVELLING WITHOUT ESCORT. 


595 


Always consult the comfort of others when travelling. You should not 
open either door or window in a railway coach without first ascertaining if 
it will be agreeable to those near enough to be affected by it. Ladies, in 
particular, should remember that they have not chartered the whole coach, 
but only paid for a small fraction of it, and be careful not to monopolize the 
dressing-room for two or three hours at a stretch, while half a dozen or 
more are waiting outside to arrange their toilets. 


Genteel travellers will always carry their own toilet articles, and not depend 
on the public brush and comb. 

A lady will avoid over-dressing in travelling. Silks and velvets, laces and 
jewelry are terribly out of place on a railroad train. The appointments of 
the traveller may be as elegant as you please, but they should be distinguished 
by exceeding plainness and quietness of tone. Some ladies have an idea 
that any old thing is good enough to travel in, and so look exceedingly 
shabby on the train. 



pN America the liberty of action accorded women is so much greater than 
that allowed in any other country in the world that a special code of 
etiquette on some points is necessary in order to inform them how to act 
under all circumstances. 

In England, the land of greatest liberty after ours, no lady of much 
gentility makes a journey without a male escort or at least the company 
of her maid. Here it is quite common for ladies of the best families and 
greatest refinement to make journeys of length without the attendance of a 
male relative. Very young ladies are not allowed to travel, however, 
without the attendance of some older person, either male or female. 

The directions for travel¬ 
ling having been given 
elsewhere, we will confine 
our directions to the man¬ 
ner in which an unattended 
lady shall behave at 

THE HOTEL 

LADY should en- 
yv ter a hotel by 
way of the ladies’ 
entrance. A ser¬ 
vant is always in attend¬ 
ance at the door to show 
her to the parlor, where 
she will be waited upon 
by the proprietor or clerk, 
to whom she should pre¬ 
sent her card and state 
how long she intends re¬ 
maining. 

A simple request to the 
waiter, particularly if it 
be backed by a slight re¬ 
muneration, will ensure 
his meeting her at the 
dining-room entrance and 
preceding her to her seat, 
thus obviating the slight 
awkwardness of crossing 
a full dining-room with- RAILWAY CAR SCENE, IMPROPER, 

out an escort. 

All conversation at a hotel table should be conducted in a low tone of voice 
so as not to attract attention, and especially should care be taken that no re¬ 
marks of a personal nature are overheard by others. A lady will, of course, 
not enter into conversation with any but friends at a public table. 

While waiting to be served it is permissible to read a paper at a hotel 
table. All orders should be given in a low but clear and distinct tone of 
voice. Never ask any one at the table to pass you anything. That is the 
duty of the waiter. 

Never point to any article wanted; a glance at the dish, with a quiet request 
or a mere look at the waiter, is usually sufficient. 



All loud and ostentatious dressing is out of place in a hotel dining-room. A 
quiet, unassuming dress of cloth or plain black silk is the most ladylike. 

When a lady is without escort it would be best for her not to take her sup¬ 
per in the dining-room late in the evening. She can have a meal sent to her 
room at a trifling extra cost. 

A lady should never loiter in the halls, nor stand alone at a hotel window. 

She should never hum to herself while going through the halls, nor play on 
the piano, nor sing in a hotel parlor unless invited to do so. 

It is desirable when stopping at a hotel to secure a pleasant, comfortable 
room, with plenty of air and sunshine and a good outlook. 

r ' / J'A Be sure to lock your 

/Jay// trun kand the door of your 
m// ^ ////yy* room whenever leaving it. 

If your have valuables, 
such as diamonds and 
much money, it is safer to 
leave them with the pro¬ 
prietor to be locked in the 
safe. They can easily be 
obtained whenever wanted 
by ringing for them. 

It is never the act of a 
lady or gentleman to be 
scolding at servants. If 
their conduct gives you 
dissatisfaction, complain 
to the proprietor. Always 
tender your requests in a 
pleasant and courteous 
manner, and you will usu¬ 
ally find them promptly 
attended to. 

As a lady without escort 
is apt to require more 
service than one who has, 
it is only right to tender 
a little extra fee to the 
servant who has been es¬ 
pecially attentive. A re¬ 
taining fee, that is, a small 
sum given at the outset, is 
very apt to secure all the at¬ 
tention that can be desi red. 

A lady should always avoid all hurry and bustle in travelling by securing 
her ticket beforehand and having her trunk packed and ready to express in 
good time. 

In order to secure herself positively against all impertinence and intrusion 
when unattended, a lady has need of a great deal of dignity and quiet re¬ 
serve ; if she be naturally of a lively and chatty disposition, she must beware 
how she indulge these innocent propensities, lest they be misunderstood. 
An intelligent and thoroughbred lady, however, can travel alone anywhere 
in America without experiencing the slightest lack of respect or courteous 
attention. 


/ 




(5 




















































































(0 


\ 

59 6 



ETIQUETTE OF FUNERALS. 



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• 






ft 

EhE 

ue tte oF Eu mm 

•mvwivnvu rrrrrrt*rcrrrrr/'rrr/»rr 

Hi 




■ < > • - V—M>- 


HE entire management of the funeral snould devolve upon some 
near and competent friend, but in case of there being no such 
person, it is customary to put it entirely in the hands of the 
undertaker, who should hold one consultation with the chief 
member of the family in order to ascertain their views upon the 
manner of conducting it, and the amount of expense to be in¬ 
curred. 

It is in bad taste to make ostentatious display at a funeral, and equally so 
to exhibit signs of parsimony in its management. A sensible and decorous 
medium should be observed. 

It is the general custom in large cities to insert in the daily paper, with 
the notice of the death, a general invitation to relatives and friends to attend 
the funeral, at such an hour on such a day, and no further notice or invita¬ 
tion is extended or expected. 

It was formerly customary to issue notes of invitation, sent by messenger, 
to all the friends. This ruie may still obtain in country districts where the 
newspaper cannot be depended upon, and to some extent in cities, but is not 
now general. 

Those who attend funerals should not present themselves at the house but 
a few moments before the hour appointed. And it is always best for the 
family to view the remains before the arrival of others, in order to prevent 
confusion. 

An usher should be appointed to receive and seat the guests. The ladies 
of the family are not expected to note the arrivals ; with gentlemen, the rule 
is not so strict. 

The remains should be placed in the house or church; if in the house, 
the room must be darkened, and a space on each side left vacant so that 
those wishing to view the remains can go up one side and down the other. 

After the service at house or church is over, the officiating clergyman en¬ 
ters a carriage, and heads the procession. Then come the carriages of the 
bearers, then the hearse, and after, the carriages containing the family, they 
taking precedence in order of consanguinity. 

The pall-bearers, six in number usually, should be of about equal age and 
social standing. 

The master of ceremonies ushers the relatives in the proper order to their 
carriage, opens and closes the door of the same, and waves to the driver to 
proceed in the procession. The mourners should never recognize any one on 
the way to their carriage. 

At the grave the clergyman leads the procession, reads the burial service, 
and the guests depart to their respective homes. 



A pleasant testimonial of respect and affection is a floral offering to the 
deceased, consisting of a wreath, cross, harp, or some such usual design, in 
natural flowers or immortelles. This should be sent with the card of the 
sender to the house of mourning, where it will be placed either on the coffin 
or in close proximity to it, and finally deposited upon the grave of the 
deceased. 

Loud talking and laughter are entirely out of place at a funeral, where a 
grave and decorous, if not a sorrowful, demeanor should be preserved. 


^MDURNINE^ 

WHEN AND HOW LONG TO WEAR IT. 

Ia H ERE being no prescribed period for the wearing of mourning in 
this country, some people appear wanting in respect to their dead, 
I] while others are accused of a false affectation of sorrow in dis- 

JOL playing signs of a grief that to all intents and purposes has long 
since worn away. 

In England it is the general custom to leave off all bright colors and keep 
strictly to black. Less heavy and ostentatiously costly materials are now 
worn for mourning, however, and the usual period has been limited from two 
years to one. 

No formal visiting or entertaining is done for one year. Mourning or 
black is worn, for a husband (or wife), one year deep and one year light; 
for parents, from one to two years, and for brother or sister that has reached 
maturity, one year. 

“ Deep mourning” is woolen material and crape; second mourning is black 
silk trimmed with crape ; half mourning is black and white; complimentary 
mourning is black silk without crape. 

The guests at a funeral should always go in black, wearing black kid 
gloves and a black hat. Friends call on the bereaved family within a week 
after the funeral; acquaintances, within a month. 

Notes of condolence should be written on mourning paper. These notes 
are only permissible from intimate friends. Those wearing full mourning 
have their paper, cards, etc., stamped plain black ; those in half mourning 
have silver and black. 

When making calls of condolence, you make inquiries and leave your 
card with lower left-hand corner turned down. 


> 












Etiquette. 


2 VOID all noise in entering a church, particularly after service has 

commence< E 

vYfv (■ H a stran S er » you will wait in the vestibule until an usher comes 
I \K to conduct you to a seat. 

V Remove the hat quietly on entering a church and deposit it 
' under the seat on sitting down. 

If accompanied by a lady, you will precede her up the aisle, turning at 
the door and stepping back to let her pass in, when you will both take seats 
at the far end, if the pew be empty, to allow others room to enter. 


Never stare around a church, nor laugh and talk loudly, nor even nod 
across the building to an acquaintance. 

All greetings and conversations with friends should be made in the vestibule. 

It is not necessary to speak in offering a seat or passing a hymn book to 
any one. A nod of thanks is all the acknowledgment required. It is more 
becoming in a stranger to conform to the rules of the church in which he 
may chance to be, no matter how different it may be from that he is accus¬ 
tomed to attending. 

Always comport yourself in a church with reverence and attention. 


/ 




o 




Q> 




















































HOME ETIQUETTE. 


597 





te. 


M/ 

■/i\* 


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’/K 


Home Eti®wet 


^1 HILDREN should speak respectfully to parents and obey the 
slightest command immediately. 

Parents should address a child in a mild, pleasant, but firm 
manner. Issue no orders but those of a just and reasonable 
nature, and then see that they are obeyed. 

Govern with justice and kindness and home will be indeed a 
little heaven on earth. 



S TOILET t 

'-u , ^ 

f T (sxs) A . 

Cleanliness is the outward sign of inward purity. Cleanliness is health, 
and health is beauty. 

The first business of the dressing-room is the bath, and this should be a 
complete bath, and not simply a hasty washing of the face. It is not to be 
supposed that a lady washes to become clean, but simply to remain clean. 
A bathing of the entire body at least once a day is essential to health. It is 
not necessary to have a bath tub for this purpose, but merely an ordinary 
basin of tepid water, with soap, sponge and clean towels. 

The whole body may be quickly sponged off, or the sponge may be dis¬ 
pensed with and the hands alone used to convey the water to the body, 
after which dry the body thoroughly with a soft towel, and then use a coarse 
Turkish towel vigorously until the skin is red from the friction. In lieu of 
the coarse towel, a liberal use of the flesh-brush may be made, but either 
one or both must be regularly used, as nothing tends to keep the complexion 
in good condition so much as the daily use of the flesh-brush. 

Persons living in cities where Turkish baths are established will find a 
bath of this kind once a week very beneficial to their health. Oftener than 
this the baths would be apt to have an enervating effect. But an occasional 
Turkish bath is the most effectual cleanser in the world. 

Early rising contributes not only to the preservation of health, but the 
proper condition of the mental faculties. Too much sleep induces minor 
ailments both of the body and mind. Fresh air, moderate exercise and 
good ventilation, together with the daily bath, are the great health-preservers. 

THE TEETH. 

Scrupulous care is necessary to the preservation of the teeth. The teeth 
should be carefully brushed, not only every night and morning, but after 
every' meal. 

The best and only needful tooth powder is a simple preparation of chalk. 
The numerous dentifrices advertised are most of them worthless and many 
of them positively injurious. 

A good tooth-brush, not too stiff, is necessary. Very hot and very cold 
things and a great deal of sweets are injurious to the teeth. 



THE LADY’ 




Upon the first indication of decay, a good dentist should be consulted; 
cheap dentistry is bad economy'. 

THE BREATH. 

It goes without saying that a sweet breath is one of the essentials oi happi¬ 
ness, and should therefore be carefully looked to. The principal causes of 
a bad breath are a disordered stomach, decaying teeth and catarrhal affec¬ 
tions. In the latter case a good specialist should be consulted. When it 
arises from digestive difficulty, the diet should be changed to one better 
suited to the system. 

The eating of anything that will give an unpleasant odor to the breath is 
to be avoided. 

THE NAILS. 

Much care and attention is given to the nails by those who are particular 
in matters of the toilet. Of late y'ears the care of the nails has been elevated 
to a profession, and persons calling themselves “manicures” make it their 
business to dress the nails of ladies of fashion. 

It is sufficient, however, if y'ou keep the nails carefully and evenly trimmed 
—great care, however, being required to preserve the correct shape, and 
keep all superfluous skin entirely removed. Plenty of warm water, Windsor 
soap and a nail-brush are all that is required to keep the hands in good 
condition. 

THE HAIR. 

The hair should be regularly brushed, morning and evening, with a clean 
hair-brush. It is important that the brushing be frequent; it is also im¬ 
portant that the brush be quite clean. 

The brush should be washed every day with hot water and soda, in order 
to preserve a glossy appearance to the hair. Occasionally the hair may be 
cleansed with a mixture of glycerine and lime juice. Pomades and oil 
should be carefully avoided. 

Never attempt to change the color of your hair by means of dyes and 
fluids. Your own hair, as nature colored it, is apt to be the only' shade that 
will correspond with your eyes, eyebrows and complexion. Practices of 
this kind are much to be condemned. They indicate a senseless desire for 
fashion, and an equally unladylike desire to attract attention. The use of 
hair dyes, false hair, etc., is almost as much to be condemned as painted 
cheeks and pencilled brows. 

THE COMPLEXION. 

As to the art of obtaining a good complexion, all the recipes in the world 
can have but little effect compared with the excellence of early rising, 
regular habits, careful diet and absolute cleanliness. The various lotions 
recommended by Madame Rachel, and others of her ilk, the milk bath, pearl 
powders and washes of every kind, would never be needed if ladies were 
always careful to take plenty of exercise in the open air, wear broad-brimmed 
hats in the sun and veils in the wind. 

The face should never be washed when heated from exercise. Wipe the 
perspiration from the skin and wait until it is sufficiently cool before you 
bathe even in warm water. Rain-water is the best for bathing purposes. If 
an eruption break out on the skin, consult a physician. 

















































G> 



DRESS 


<r="- 

-.^Jy 


9 . 


"TtirN dress, as in other things, society has passed under that wave of new 
impulse which has so much changed the appearance of our houses, 
the arrangement of our interiors, and even the texture and fashion of 
manufactures. 

That which we wore placidly, and even with a little complaisance and sense 
of superior good taste, twenty years ago, would fill us with alarm and horror 
now. The change which has taken 
place is more than a change of fash¬ 
ion : it is a change of principle. The 
differences of shape and form, which 
vary from one three-months to an¬ 
other, are but fluctuations of the 
standard, but the alteration which 
we have recently arrived at is fun¬ 
damental. It has affected not only 
the cut, but the color, the fabric, the 
kind of our garments, and has re¬ 
lieved the severity of rule and left 
such a margin for individual fancy 
as was not dreamed of twenty years 
ago. 

The change is chiefly visible in 
feminine apparel Where are now 
the fine full tones of blue and of 
green, the bright pinks, the orange 
yellow, in which we once flaunted in 
happy ignorance, knowing no better 
and believing, with some show of 
reason, that we were imitating the 
tints of nature, the color of the flowers 
and of the birds ? Where are now 
our apple-green gowns and our silk 
shawls “shot” with blue and yellow ? 

The world has paled since those 
favored days; even the vaporous 
tarlatan of the ball-room has sunk 
into softer tints, and in daylight no color affronts the eye of heaven that is 
not neutral. 

The result of the new impulse is to make Art the guide in matters of dress ; 
but with all due respect to that divine Priestess of the Beautiful, we cannot 
but believe that she would prove a dangerous guide in a matter that involves 
so many practical features and so many individual peculiarities. 

Whatever painters may think, there are many costumes effective in a 
picture which would not be at all beautiful upon a living woman, and indis¬ 
criminate following of the fancies of Art would not be much less fatal than 
the usual indiscriminate following of fashion. 

No dress can be good which is not useful and into which the elements of 
individuality do not enter. The garments adapted for the slim and the tall 
and the graceful will never* however admirable in themselves, agree with the 
dowdy, the dumpy or the ordinary. 

Fashion, indeed, throughout all its vagaries, has this one principle of 
humanity in it, that it is almost always designed to help those who want 
help, to cover deficiencies of nature, to conceal the evils wrought by time, 
and to make those look their best to whom no special charms have been 
given. 

Beautiful persons are free of all such bonds. Whatever they wear becomes 
them — they confer grace, they do not receive it; therefore fashion is imma¬ 
terial to them. The time has never been when they were not allowed to 
flout it at their will. What saying is more general than, “She can wear 
anything?” It is said in admiration, in enthusiasm, in envy, and in spite, 
but still it is said constantly of these favorites of Nature. And youth, even 
when not beautiful, has, to a certain extent, the same privilege. 

As a matter of fact, dress is by no means an unimportant item in human 
well-being, and it may fairiy claim to be considered in the light of a fine art. 

To dress well requires something more than a full purse and a pretty figure. 
It requires taste, good sense and refinement. 



A NEATLY DRESSED LADY. 


A woman of taste and good sense will neither make dress her first nor her 
last object in life. She will remember that it is her duty to her husband and to 
society to always appear well dressed. 

Dress, to be in perfect taste, need not be costly, and no woman of right 
feeling will adorn her person at the expense of her husband’s comfort and 
her children’s education. 

The toilet of a well-dressed woman will be as well-chosen at the breakfast- 
table as at ball or reception. 

If she loves bright colors and can wear them with impunity, she will com¬ 
bine them as harmoniously as an artist does his colors. If she is young her 
dress will be beautiful; if she is old she will not affect simplicity. 


GENERAL SUGGESTIONS ON DRESS. 

The golden rule in dress is to avoid extremes. 

Always follow rather than lead the prevailing fashion in dress. 

Do not be so original in dress as to be peculiar, and do not affect fashions 
that are radically unbecoming to you. 

Ladies who are neither very young nor very striking should wear quiet 
colors. 

It is not necessary to be rich in order to dress well. A little care in the 
choice and arrangement of materials is all that is necessary. 

Be sure that your dressmaker is a woman of taste and perfectly mistress of 
her art. Do not trust to any ordinary sewing-woman who may know nothing 
about harmony of colors and grace of outlines. 

A faultless morning toilet in summer should consist of the freshest of mus¬ 
lins, white or of delicate tints, with a tasteful arrangement of fresh, new 
ribbons, and plain linen collar spotlessly laundered. These, however, are 
better suited to young unmarried or married ladies. 

Ladies of more advanced years may wear dark silks in the morning, but 

all jewelry, hair ornaments and 
fine laces should be eschewed for 
morning wear. 

Street costumes should always 
be quiet in tone. Fine woolen 
materials, in some shade of brown, 
gray, olive, dark green or dark 
blue, make the most suitable and 
natty street costumes. Any lady 
of taste who has once seen herself 
in some such costume, well-made 
and fitting to perfection, with hat 
and gloves to correspond, will 
never sigh for anything richer or 
more expensive for street wear. 

A lady of refinement will never 
wear a very expensive toilet of 
velvet or of silk or brocade of any 
light and conspicuous shade upon 
the street. Such costumes are ex¬ 
clusively for the carriage, for call¬ 
ing or for receptions. 

Much jewelry is out of place in 
the daytime, whether on the street 
or for indoor wear. It is particu¬ 
larly out of place in church. A 
handsome brooch and small, un¬ 
pretending ear-rings are the only 
jewelry permissible in the daytime. 
Heavy bracelets, necklaces, a pro¬ 
fusion of diamonds and finger-rings 
should be reserved for evening 
wear. 

English ladies are much more 
strict in this matter than American ladies. According to their code it is 
never allowable to wear diamonds, pearls and other precious stones in the 
daytime. Custom, however, supports the wearing of a pair of solitaires in 
the ears at any time and in any place in America. 

Young ladies should not wear much jewelry at any time. 



AN OVER-DRESSED FBMALE. 






v£) 

ir 


(d 


















































HOME ETIQUETTE. 


599 



Mere costliness in jewelry is not always the best test of value. A rare 
intaglio or finely-wrought cameo, being a work of art, is a more desirable 
possession than a large diamond which any one might purchase. 

A stone of exquisite loveliness and by no means common is the opal. 

Ball dresses may be composed of any rich materials, either silk or satin, 
cashmeres, velvets or diaphanous materials, but they are usually of some 
light shade. It is not customary in America to go decolette to balls. In 
England court etiquette prescribes bare neck and arms for full-dress. 

Dinner and reception dresses should be as rich and elegant as you can 
afford. Natural flowers are appropriate for dinners ; artificial ones for balls. 

In dressing the hair, be careful not to adhere too closely to the prevailing 
fashion if it is not becoming to you. 

Considerable latitude is always al¬ 
lowed in this respect. 

The dressing of the neck affords 
much opportunity for the display of 
taste. If the shoulders are broad, 
care must be taken not to enlarge the 
effect by too much trimming. 

Short persons should be careful not 
to diminish their height by numerous 
flounces, horizontal stripes or much 
trimming of any description. Stripes 
(perpendicular) have a tendency to in¬ 
crease the height and should therefore 
be worn’by short and avoided by tall 
people. 

Every lady will pay especial atten¬ 
tion to her gloves and shoes. Nothing 
more emphatically marks the lady 
than to be well shod and immaculately 
gloved. Both gloves and shoes should 
fit closely, but not be too tight. For 
evening wear the gloves cannot be too 
light, nor for street wear too dark. 

Slippers should never be worn upon 
the street. Black boots of soft French 
kid are the most genteel for all oc¬ 
casions except parties and balls. 

It is needless to say that a refined ^ 
lady will give as much attention to the NHAXLY messed gentleman. 
quality and finish of those garments 
which are not visible as to those which are. 

Dark shades are best adapted to stout people. 

Light shades and delicate tints are suited to the thin blonde type. 

The complexion, however, must always decide the question of color. 


THE BRUNETTE’S COLORS. 


Scarlet, orange and yellow are the brunette’s colors par excellence, but 
she also looks well in glossy black and white. The tasteful brune will always 
manage to have a scarlet blossom deftly twisted in her dark hair, or an 
orange knot looped at her throat. Dark green also sets off a dark com¬ 
plexion. 

Dark green and red will improve a sallow complexion, while those rich, 
creamy complexions one sees occasionally are set off by a reflection of 

yellow. 


THE BLONDE’S COLORS. 

The golden-haired blonde is charming in a setting of dark violet which may 
shade off into lilac or blue. Either light or dark shades of green look well 
with the ruddy face of the blonde, but the delicate, shell-pink complexion 
and fair hair of the very light blonde are exquisite in a dress of pale Nile 
green. 

The blonde may also wear all the neutral colors, such as gray, drab, fawn, 
and the russets and browns as well; in fact, there is very little except bright 
reds that blondes cannot wear. 

/ 


CONTRAST AND HARMONY IN COLORS. 

Ladies should be particularly careful in selecting contrasting colors for the 
same costume that they will harmonize as well; else the beauty of the gar¬ 
ment is utterly destroyed. We have often heard it said, “ The color of that 
feather absolutely kills the rest of the dress.” This is when the wearer 
knows nothing of the rules which govern the harmony of colors, and for 
the benefit of such we affix the following brief table of harmonizing colors : 

Black and orange ; black and white ; black and maize ; black and scarlet; 
black and lilac; black and pink; black and slate color; black and buff; 
black, white, yellow and crimson ; black, orange, blue and yellow. 

Green and gold ; green and yellow ; green and orange; green and crimson ; 
green, yellow and scarlet; green, yellow and crimson. 

Blue and gold ; blue and orange ; blue and salmon color ; blue and drab ; 
blue and stone color; blue and white ; blue and gray ; blue and straw color; 
blue and maize ; blue and chestnut; blue and brown ; blue and black. 

Crimson harmonizes with purple, with gold, with orange, with maize, with 
black and with drab. 

Lilac harmonizes with gold, with maize, with cherry, with scarlet, with 
crimson. 

Purple harmonizes with gold, with orange and with maize. 

Yellow harmonizes with red, with brown, with chestnut, with violet, with 
crimson and with black. 

Red harmonizes with gold, with green and orange, with black and yellow, 
with white or gray, and with yellow, black and white. 




PERFUMERY 



'N the use of perfumery ladies must be extremely moderate. 

Perfumes should properly be used only in the evening, and then 
they should be of the most recherche kind. 

Many ladies have a special perfumery, such as violet, or white 
rose, which they use invariably in a very delicate manner, so that it becomes 

individualized, and their friends 
come to associate them, insensibly, 
with the flower whose perfume 
they exhale. 


pt HE first requisite of the 
' II' male toilet is, of course, 
the bath, and this should 
JlL be as bracing as the con¬ 
stitution will allow. 

The cold-water bath the year 
round is the best where the con¬ 
stitution will endure it, but there 
are very few physiques, espe¬ 
cially among Americans, that will 
admit of it. 

A sponge bath once a day, with 
a liberal use of the flesh-brush and 
a coarse huckaback towel, will 
answer every purpose. 

A sun and air bath after the 
water bath is an excellent thing, 
and is frequently recommended by 
physicians. A fresh-water bath 
should always be taken after bathing in the sea. 

The teeth should be cleaned at least twice a day, and smokers should rinse 
the mouth well after smoking. 


THE DUDE. 


THE GENTLEMAN’S 

DRESSING-ROOM* 


\ 






















































Keep the nails clean and short. Long nails are vulgar. 

The beard should be kept well-trimmed and well-combed, and plenty of 
warm water and soap are necessary to keep them thoroughly clean. 

Do not indulge in long hair, thinking it gives you an artistic look. Painters 
and poets of eminence may be excused for wearing flowing locks, but in men 
of less degree it is a ridiculous affectation. 

The mustache should be neat and not over-large. A mustache a VEtn- 
pereur is absurd and smacks of the fop. 

The dress of a gentleman should be perfectly unobtrusive, in entire har¬ 
mony and becoming. 

Above all things should he avoid the extremes of fashion, such as wearing 
his coat extremely or absurdly short. When fashion dictates tight pantaloons 
let him not have his so tight that he cannot bend in them ; nor, if broad 
ones be the mode, shall he have them so wide as to resemble his wife’s gown. 

Loud patterns in cloth and glittering trinkets on the watch-chain are indi¬ 
cations rather of the gambler than the gentleman. 


A gentleman will have his clothes made by a good tailor, easy of fit and 
excellent in quality, but subdued and quiet in tone, and neither too much in 
nor too far behind the prevailing style. Bulwer says, “A gentleman’s coat 
should not fit too well,” and he is right, as no self-respecting man wants to 
be taken for a tailor’s dummy. 

The regulation dress for evening wear—but it should never be worn before 
sundown, no matter how ceremonious the occasion—is black swallow-tail 
coat, black trowsers, black vest, cut low to show the shirt-front, thin patent- 
leather boots, a white cravat, and light kid gloves. 

A gentleman should wear no jewelry but such as has a use, except it may 
be a handsome ring. His sleeve-buttons and collar-studs should be of plain 
gold, but genuine. False jewelry is vulgar, and elaborate ornamentation is 
foppish. It is more genteel even to dispense with a gold watch-chain and 
wear only a plain black guard. 

If a ring is worn, good taste would suggest that it be a fine antique intaglio 
rather than an expensive diamond. 





■4| En^ement^ * and damage. B 



O lay down a set ot rules for the regulation of courtship would 
prove as hopeless a task as Mrs. Partington’s attempt to mop up 
the Atlantic Ocean. The best and only reliable counsellors at 
this crisis of a young man’s or young woman’s life are feeling 
and good sense. 

No wise man will intrude himself upon the presence of a lady, 
nor risk being regarded as a bore, neither will a modest woman receive the 
attentions of a man too eagerly, however agreeably she may regard them. 

A woman of tact can let a gentleman see that his attentions are not dis¬ 
agreeable to her without actually encouraging him. It is equally possible for 
a man to be quite devote without becoming a lover. 

Unless a woman is a downright coquette, a man of sense ought to be able 
to judge whether his proposal will be favorably received or not. It is 
exceedingly dishonorable for either a man or a woman to trifle with the affec¬ 
tions of the other. 




^.THS PROPOSAL 


The manner of making the offer of marriage must always be regulated 
by circumstances. If the case be a genuine love affair, the time and place 
and language of the proposal are apt to be the result of chance and impulse, 
rather than of premeditation on the part of the lover. 

If the-gentleman be ready of speech and attractive in person, it is best for 
him to plead his cause in persona propria, and receive his acceptance with 
the added sweetness of smile and blush and love-lit glance, or his rejection, 
if such it must be, with the tender, saving grace of sadly-murmured regrets. 

If the suitor, however, be of a nervous temperament, or “fears his cause 
too much” to risk a personal interview, he should make his proposal in 
writing. 

In making his offer of marriage, however, a man should always bear in 
mind that he is a petitioner, that he is begging of the woman to grant him 


her liberty, her obedience, her very life, and he should comport himself with 
suitable humility and accept her acquiescence with becoming gratitude. 



DEPORTMENT OF THE ENGAGED* 

’PON the conduct of both parties during the preparatory stage of 
the engagement depends in a great measure the probability of its 
being carried to the desired consummation of marriage. The 
gentleman in particular should be careful to observe the following 
directions: 

He should be tender and devoted to his bride-elect. 

He should treat her family with the greatest respect. 

He should particularly guard against acting as though he were already a 
member of the family by taking liberties that he is not justified in taking. 

He should be always on the alert to do any member of his fiancee's family 
a service; in fact he should play the devoted friend to his betrothed and 
all her relatives. 

He should conform to all the rides of the household, being punctual at 
meals, never intruding at unseemly hours ; kind to the children and courteous 
toward the servants. 

He should not compromise the reputation of his future wife by keeping her 
up until a late hour. His visits may be as frequent as he pleases, but should 
always be short. The custom of lovers staying until a late hour of the 
night is no longer permitted in genteel society. 

He should be attentive and gallant toward other ladies, but not sufficiently 
so to excite the jealousy of his betrothed. 

He should not monopolize her company in general society, but should 
always be accorded the first place as her escort by the lady, and should be 
watchful of all her wants. 


V- 
































































N - 


ETIQUETTE OF ENGAGEMENTS AND MARRIAGE. 


601 


Tf 




He may send her few or many presents, as she seems disposed to accept 
them. If the lady or her family object to her receiving costly gifts he may 
keep her supplied with flowers, with books, and with sweetmeats if she 
have a taste for bon-bons. 

An engagement is usually sealed by the wearing of a ring. If the accepted 
lover be wealthy a brilliant of rare value is the correct thing for the engage¬ 
ment ring, and should be worn upon the first finger of the left hand. If, 
however, his means are limited, a less expensive ring will answer the 
purpose. 

In the matter of gifts, too, a sensible man will not give more than he can 
afford, nor run into debt in order to procure them. 

The lady must be careful not to excite the jealousy of her lover by flirting 
with other men. 

She must carefully avoid any undue familiarity and effectually check any 
attempt toward such on his part. 

She should remember that nothing so soon disgusts a man with a woman 
as any indications of untidiness or uncleanliness on her part. She should 
therefore be exceedingly neat and clean in his presence, and have her dress 
always chosen with taste. 

Let their conduct generally toward each other be such as to inspire con¬ 
fidence, and in case of a misunderstanding let her not hesitate to make the 
advance toward reconciliation. 


THE WEDDING 

fe? 0 0 <€^vS4° oi & 


'T is not usual for the lady to visit any but her intimate friends after 
the announcement of the engagement. She should, however, leave 
her visiting-card at the residence of her friends just previous to the 
JaL sending of the invitations, which should be sent at least two weeks 
prior to the wedding. 

The invitations should be engraved in a rich, heavy script, and should be 
of such shape as to fold in a long, narrow envelope, not square, for the latter 
shape is now somewhat out of date. 

The quality and tint of the invitations, “At Home” and church cards 
should be uniform with the envelopes, as the slightest difference would 
spoil their beauty. 

The invitations, the “At Home” cards and the church cards are all 
placed in one envelope, bearing the name only of the parties to whom sent. 
The full address is placed on the outside envelope. 

Invitations should be delivered by the footman at the residence of the 
narties for whom intended. The footman, too, should always be in full livery. 
The invitation should be in this form : 

oX K )cvv ^ Ajcvwr bojw^vXvr^ 

K/y 

Otvr. \^kjULv, 

0, V030„ 
oX 


If a reception be given at the residence of the bride’s parents, a card to 
those whose presence is desired should be enclosed in the envelope with the 
invitation; thus : 

(^cvo 

bX 

0, V000, 

k^OO \mX/X VO & S/Wkta, 

Or: 

^cvoX^ o^Vvr \hvX/X Vwv. 

0.000 

It is quite customary at large weddings to issue usher or church cards, 
thus avoiding the crowd of curious sight-seers who cause much annoyance 
by filling all the best seats. This card should be small and engraved in 
script, with crest or monogram. In form : 

/QvV 

In case of the reception being given on the return of the bridal party the 
card should read : 

OvV IWyjJvU, 

3/WOtAo.^ V^WvVVvO^ VVQ AAJ^, 

I^ak ki Z \mX/X V0, 

0.000 

Should the bride’s parents decide to give her a reception on her return to 
the city, the “At Home” card will contain the bride’s name below her 
mother’s; in all other respects the same as model given. 

When the wedding is at the house, the form of invitation is same as at 
church, except that the number of residence is substituted for name of 
church. 

For “At Home ” weddings, combining ceremony and reception, the form is: 

kjhwAAJJVl/ AJ|pAA/r 

oX 

SVu/iApVv>w ^ 

Otvr. b OtvV,/- 

Ov^VWMy^VQ, ZovVj. 0, V000, 

®X \voX^ iyWv, 

0.000 


kl 


6" 






























6o2 


ETIQUETTE OF ENGAGEMENTS AND MARRIAGE. 


A card with the lady’s maiden name is enclosed in the envelope with this 
invitation; thus: 

Also a card for those who are desired at the ceremony : 

& 

If the wedding is a private affair, a card should be sent by the bridegroom 
immediately after the marriage. In form : 

Xr. & 

And on a smaller card: 

^loAO; 

Should they mean to receive on certain evenings, the evenings should be 
named on the cards. 




^4 THE CEREMONY 

-b 




I N England and in France the manner of conducting the wedding 
ceremony is much more uniform than in America. Here the form and 
manner of the ceremony varies with the peculiarities and personal tastes 
of the contracting parties. 

Some object to display and prefer a quiet wedding at home, with none but 
the immediate family present. Others again prefer to have the ceremony 
performed in church, but dispense with attendants, white robes and orange- 
blossoms, and are married in plain travelling costume leaving immediately 
for the depot to start on their wedding journey. 

But the more ostentatious manner of a grand full-dress church wedding, 
with reception immediately after at the home of the bride, is the one usually 
adopted by people of sufficient means to justify the expenditure. 

It is customary for all those who have received invitations to the wedding 
to present the bride with some gift as a memento of the occasion and an 
indication of their good wishes for her future. These gifts may represent 
either a small or a large amount of money, as the donor feels able or inclined 
to bestow, but the least expensive should be valued as highly as the most 
costly by the recipient, because of the motive which prompts the bestowal. 

These presents may consist of anything from a piece of elegant bric-a-brac 
to a diamond necklace, or from a hand-worked tidy to a house and lot. The 
most suitable thing, perhaps, for a friend or acquaintance to bestow is some 
handsome ornament for her rooms or a piece of silver for her table. A 
useful gift is something in linen for the furnishing forth of the bride’s linen 
closet. 

These presents should have the card of the donor firmly attached, and be 
sent to the residence of the bride at any time during the week preceding the 
momentous occasion. It is best, however, not to leave them until the day of 
the wedding, as there is apt to be confusion enough at the house at that 
time, and besides, there must be time to arrange the gifts conveniently in a 
room devoted to that purpose, so that the guests may view them at their 
leisure. 

In arranging the preliminaries of the wedding, the bride is supposed to 
have the most voice. She should choose her bridesmaids from among her 
own sisters and the groom’s sisters, or, in case there are none or not enough 
of these, from among her most intimate friends. 

If she is young she should have bright young faces among her attendants. 
If she is middle-aged and passee, she should be careful not to choose brides¬ 
maids that will make her look older and homelier. 

She may have from one to eight bridesmaids, with a groomsman for each, 
or she may dispense with groomsmen and have only ushers. 

These ushers and groomsmen are usually selected from the friends of the 
groom. The ushers are distinguished by some badge, either a rosette or 
button-hole bouquet. 

The first groomsman usually acts for the groom in attending to the paying 
of all necessary expenses. 


The duties of the ushers are to meet the guests at the door of the church 
and attend them to the seats reserved for them, usually in the front of the 
church. 

It is the duty of the groom to send a carriage at his own expense for the 
clergyman who officiates, but he is not expected to provide those for the 
groomsmen and bridesmaids, nor yet for those occupied by the bride’s 
family. The groomsmen usually provide the carriages for themselves and 
the lady attendants whom they accompany. 

The guests should all be in their seats and the clergyman inside the 
chancel at the hour appointed, and immediately after the bridal procession 
should be ready to move up the aisle. Bridal parties, however, are proverb¬ 
ially late, and the bride who can be ready punctually gives a guarantee of 
thoughtfulness that augurs well for her future life. 

THE ORDER OF PROCESSION. 

The bridal party assemble in the vestibule of the church, where they take 
their positions and proceed up the aisle in the following order, marching to 
the melodious strains of Mendelssohn’s Wedding March : First the ushers 
walking two and two, then the last bridesmaid and groomsman, then next 
to the last couple, and so on until the first bridesmaid and groomsman, 
behind whom comes the bridegroom with the mother of the bride on his arm, 
and last comes the bride leaning on her father’s (or guardian’s) arm. The 
ushers step well back, forming in line to left and right of aisle, the brides¬ 
maids and groomsmen separate at the chancel, the bridesmaids going to the 
left, and the groomsmen to the right, the groom takes his place in the centre 
in front of the altar, the mother stepping back, and the father places the 
bride to the left of the groom, he stepping a little back but near enough to 
give away the bride when that part of the service shall have been reached. 

At the close of the service the bride shall take the arm of the groom and 
proceed first down the aisle, followed immediately by the first couple, then 
the second, and so on in order, the ushers bringing up the rear. 

The guests keep their seats until the bridal procession is well out of the 
church ; then they rise as they please, proceed to their carriages, and such 
as have invitations to the reception proceed leisurely to the residence to offer 
their congratulations. 

Another mode of procedure that is obtaining great favor among a class 
that affect considerable style is what is called the English method. In this 
case the bridegroom, accompanied by his “best man,” enters the church 
through the vestry door just as the bridal procession is coming up the aisle, 
and meets his bride before the altar. 

Where groomsmen are dispensed with and only ushers officiate, the ushers 
walk first in couples, and the bridesmaids follow, walking two and two also 
as they precede the bride and her father, but on returning they each take 
the arm of an usher. 

Sometimes the bridesmaids consist of a number of little girls, who walk 
two and two, carrying baskets of flowers. This is a very pretty sight. 

It is the duty of the first bridesmaid to remove the glove from the left 
hand of the bride preparatory to the ring being placed thereon; this duty, 
however, is much simplified by the glove finger being ripped in the seam, 
which enables it to be simply laid back. The ring is handed by the groom 
to the minister, who hands it back to the groom, who with his right hand 
places it on the third finger of the bride’s left hand. 

The most suitable ring for a wedding ring is one of plain gold. A ring 
with a setting is not appropriate for a wedding ring. 

Both bride and groom should make the responses in a distinct but low tone 
of voice. 

The bride should carefully avoid evincing any emotion, as should also 
every one else in the party. Those who cannot control their emotions in 
public had better remain at home. 

When the wedding ceremony is conducted in the parlors or drawing-room 
at home, the same order is observed by the bridal party in entering the room. 

A very pretty custom in case of a home wedding is that of suspending a 
large bell made of natural flowers from an archway or the ceiling, under 
which the bride and groom stand during the ceremony. 

The parents of the bride are the first to speak to her after the ceremony; 
after them, the parents of the groom. 

After the supper is over, following the ceremony, the bride proceeds to 
change her wedding apparel for a travelling costume. 

After the ceremony the bride leaves the church for her home or for the 
railroad depot in the carriage of the groom. 











































ETIQUETTE OF THE MARRIAGE RELATION. 


603 


In offering your congratulations, do not commit the faux pas of congrat¬ 
ulating the bride. It is the groom who is supposed to have won the prize, 
and should receive your congratulations upon his good luck. To the bride 
you wish “ much happiness” or “much joy” in her new and untried future. 

The bride should be addressed first if you are acquainted with both, but 
if only acquainted with one, address that one first, and introductions will 
follow. 

The position of the bride at the wedding breakfast or supper is by the 
side of her husband, in the centre of the table on the side. Her parents are 
seated at either end and do the honors of the occasion. 


WHAT TO WEAR AT THE WEDDING. 

HE prescribed color for a young bride at a full-dress wedding is 
pure white. The dress may be made of any white material—silk, 
satin, tulle or muslin, but it must always be covered entirely by a 
long veil of tul’le caught on top of the head with some sort of 
white flowers, usually orange-blossoms; but many other varieties, such as 
lilies of the valley, roses, jonquils, etc., are frequently used. The veil is 



usually allowed to fall over the face of the bride while entering the church, 
but is thrown back by the bridesmaid after the ceremony. White gloves 
and white slippers complete the bride’s costume. 

The bridesmaids may wear colors, but the most general and beautiful 
costume for them is pure white also, each wearing flowers of some distinct 
shade to distinguish them. The different varieties of roses are now very 
popular as distinguishing colors for bridesmaids. Huge bouquets of these 
glorious flowers are worn at the throat or waist, or both, of the fair 
demoiselles. 

The bridegroom and groomsmen after dark must wear full evening dress, 
viz., black swallow-tail coat, black vest and black pants, with white necktie 
and white gloves. For day weddings, however, the Prince Albert coat must 
be worn, with white tie and gloves. It is not de rigueur to wear dress 
suits in the daytime. 

A sensible bride will have her travelling dress as plain as possible, and will, 
both in her dress and in her manner, endeavor to attract as little attention 
as possible. 

Elderly brides and widows should not wear white for a bridal dress, but 
should select s6me light and handsome shade of silk for the occasion. Black 
should never be worn, nor should any one ever appear as a guest at a 
wedding in black. 








Eti sjuettet damage Relation. 


• O^O* 


-o~<< 


~T may seem a work of supererogation to attempt to instruct a young 
wife how to retain the heart of her husband, who is now, at the begin¬ 
ning of their life’s journey together, a most devoted lover, but the ex¬ 
perience of every married woman will justify us, we are certain, in 
. whispering a few words of wisdom to both bride and groom as to their 
mutual conduct toward each other in the trying relationship which they 
have so confidently assumed in the certainty of future happiness. First, as 
to the 


s^sr- 


•O^O* 


DUTY OF THE WIFE 


■ 


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T EVER fail to have the expected smile and caress ready for your hus¬ 
band when he returns from business. Let your personal appearance 
vv be as attractive as possible. The dress may be plain as you please, 
Jl. but have a bright ribbon in the hair or at the throat to set it off. 

A bright, sunny room with a bright and smiling wife in it is the strongest mag¬ 
net in the world to draw a man from the pleasures of the outside world. 

Always regulate your expenditures by your circumstances. If your means 
are not large do not make an attempt at display either in your rooms or in 
your dress. Let most of your adornings be the work of your own hands; 
hence you have the double beauty of decoration and association. 

Whatever amount you expend, let your husband know it, and always show 
him your purchases. He will thus learn to rely upon your judgment and 
economy. 

Do not fret and worry over trifles, nor “nag” your husband about any 
little thing that may have gone wrong. He has his business worries, which 
try his nerves sufficiently without being greeted by the voice of his wife in 
rasping fault-finding over some hitch in the domestic machinery. 


Do not dispute over small matters. If your husband seems to bring his 
dictatorial spirit too prominently into the domestic circle, do not aggravate 
matters by opposition. It is better far to quietly yield than to display tem¬ 
per and provoke a quarrel. He will probably be ashamed of himself five 
minutes after you have yielded the point, and if too proud to acknowledge it 
openly will do so tacitly. It may seem humiliating to a high-spirited woman 
to be continually bending beneath the yoke, but she must remember that 
peace is to be preserved at all costs, anti that she has voluntarily assumed a 
position which she is bound to retain and make the best of until her dying 
day. 

A woman of tact and taste will order her home so wisely and manage 
everything so well that a man of any sense and judgment whatever will soon 
be glad to leave its care entirely in her hands. 

Above all things be careful of your conduct and language in the presence 
of your husband. His opinion of the purity and virtue of the sex will be 
largely formed by your behavior in private. The slightest departure from 
personal dignity, the least suggestion of looseness or vulgarity in word or 
deed, will lower the moral nature of the husband a hundredfold. 

Never entrust the confidence of your home-circle to an outside party. To 
discuss your husband’s character with another is to insert the little edge of 
the wedge which is soon to split all mutual confidence in twain. 

Do not estimate your husband simply by his ability to make display and 
attain a worldly position. Remember, as Burns says, 

“ The rank is but the guinea’s stamp, 

The man’s the gowd for a’ that." 

A wife should see that she does not exhibit her best accomplishments 
and most agreeable manners away from home. The family-circle is entitled 
to a share of her graces. 

Society and church work are good things, but they should never be allowed 
to infringe upon the time that should be devoted to home duties. 





















































604 


ETIQUETTE OF THE MARRIAGE RELATION. 


It is not sufficient that a wife shall be a good housekeeper and a careful and 
devoted mother : she should be a companion for her husband as well. She 
should “ make” time in which to improve her mind by reading and social vis¬ 
iting so that she shall not fall behind her partner in the up-hill journey of 
life. Should he bring friends to his house she should be able to entertain 
them so agreeably that he shall have reason to be proud of her. In short, 
she shall be such a woman that “ the heart of her husband doth safely trust 
in her,” and “ her children shall rise up and call her blessed." 



THE DUTY OF THE HUSBAND Kk# 


%/ff' T is the duty of the husband, first, to see that his wife (and children, if 
he have any) are comfortably provided for in case of his death. If 
she has no property to be secured to her by marriage settlement, he 
JHL sho ild, immediately after marriage, settle a sufficient amount of his 
upon her, or barring his possessing any property, he should insure his life 
for a sufficient amount to keep her comfortable in case of his death. 

A man should bear in mind that he assumes a great responsibility in taking 
unto himself a wife. He promises “to love, honor and cherish” her until 
his life’s end, and if he keep that vow in its fullest meaning, he cannot fail 
to make her pathway in life a happy one, even though it may not be strewn 
all the way with roses. 

In the first place a man should make his wife his confidant in business 
matters. In all probability she will prove an excellent adviser to him, as 
women generally possess a great deal of sound, practical sense. If, how¬ 
ever, your wife be rather a weak woman, with no opinions of any value, it 
will please and encourage her to be made your confidant, and she will at 
least make an effort to become what you wish her to be. 

Avoid all interference in household matters. The home is the wife’s prov¬ 
ince. You, yourself, have appointed her sole mistress there, and must abide 
by her rules of government. You would not expect her to come into your 
business office and issue orders, neither should you dictate what should be 
done in the household. 

In regard to money matters, do not compel your wife to come to you for 
every little trifling amount that she may need. Nothing is more annoying 
and galling to the pride of a woman than to never have a penny to expend 
in charity, or to purchase any little gift with that she may desire to bestow. 
After having acquainted your wife with your business affairs decide between 
you what amount you will expend for living purposes, and place in your 
wife’s hands once a week a sum sufficient to cover this expense and leave a 


little balance which she shall feel at liberty to expend as she sees fit. You 
need feel no alarm that your money will be wasted: nine women out of ten 
can spend money more judiciously than a man. 

Many women, particularly American women, suffer from poor health, and, 
particularly during the years of child-bearing, are in a low, delicate, nervous 
condition that renders them especially sensitive to harsh treatment and calls 
for all the gentleness, consideration and patience that a husband can possibly 
exercise. Bear with your wife’s fits of petulance, remembering that healthy 
nerves and a sound digestion are blessings that should make us doubly con¬ 
siderate of those who do not possess them. 

Do not withhold praise where it is deserved. A wife likes to receive com¬ 
mendation when she has made a special effort to please. Husbands are too 
apt to take everything for granted after they have been married awhile, and 
to imagine that the perfection of arrangement in a house is brought about 
without effort. 

Do not permit your wife to become a mere household drudge, or a slave to 
her little ones. There is a time for recreation as well as for labor. Take 
your wife away from the scene of her cares now and then ; give her an " out¬ 
ing” in the country, and a frequent evening at the theatre or the opera. 


MARITAL ETIQUETTE 

Answer the angry word with a kiss. 

Bestow the warmest sympathies in each other’s trials. 

Study how to bestow some little pleasure on each other through the day. 

Avoid any word or act that will have a tendency to bring ridicule. 

Never deceive each other. 

Address each other only in the most tender and loving manner. 

Do not forget the daily kiss at parting. Habit has a great deal to do with 
keeping the affections warm. 

Refrain from reproaching one another with a mistake that was made with 
a good motive. 

Consult together on all matters of great or little importance that concern 
you collectively or individually. 

Do not boast of the sacrifices you have made for each other. 

If it is necessary for one to criticise the other, do it in the tenderest man¬ 
ner possible. 

A request from either should never require repetition. 

Do not both give way to wrath and impatience at the same time. 

Lastly, never neglect the other for all else in the world. 




















































GENERAL HINTS ON ETIQUETTE. 


605 



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•^m/ HERE are a number of the minor points of etiquette which, not 
coming directly under any of the preceding heads, might other¬ 
wise be omitted, and which, therefore, we propose touching upon 
in this chapter. 

The art of giving and receiving presents is not always an in- 
tuition. A generous person may unwittingly wound where he 
intends to please, while a really grateful person may, by want of tact, 
appear to deprecate the liberality of his friends. 

A gift should always be valuable for something besides its price. It may 
have been brought by the giver from some famous place; it may have a 
valuable association with genius, or it may be unique i.t its workmanship. 
An author may offer his book or an arti t his sketch, and any one may offer 
flowers, which are always a delicate and unexceptionable gift. 

A rich person should be careful how he gives to the poor, lest he hurt their 
pride, while a poor person cun only give to those of greater wealth some¬ 
thing that has cost only' affection, time or talent. 

Never allude to a present which you have given ; do not even appear to 
see it if you are where it is. 

Do not give a present in hopes of a return. 

If you present a book to a friend, do not write the name in it unless it is 
requested. By doing so you are taking for granted that your present will be 
accepted, and also that a specimen of your penmanship will give additional 
value to the gift. 

It is in bad taste to undervalue a gift which you have yourself offered. If 
it is valueless, it is not good enough to give to your friend; and if you say 
you do not want it yourself, or that you would only throw it away if they 
did not take it, you are insulting the person whom you mean to benefit. 

Married ladies may occasionally' accept a present from a gentleman who 
visits frequently at the house, and desires to express his gratitude in that 


way. 

An unmarried lady should not accept presents from any gentleman to 
whom she is not engaged, or who is not a relative. 

Never refuse a gift unless you have a very good reason for so doing. How¬ 
ever poor the gift, you should show your appreciation of the kindness of 
heart which prompted it. All such deprecatory phrases as “ I fear I rob 
you,” or “ I am really ashamed to take it,” etc., are in bad taste, as they 
seem to imply that you think the giver cannot afford it. 

Do not quickly follow up a present by a return. It looks too much like 
payment. Never, however, fail to make an immediate acknowledgment of 
the receipt of a gift. 

Remember, when you are prone to give in charity to the sick or the needy, 
that “ he who gives quickly' gives double.” 

Never indulge in egotism in the drawing-room. The person who makes 
his family, his wealth, his affairs or his hobby the topic of conversation is 


not only a bore but a violator of good taste. We do not meet in society to 
display ourselves, but to give and take as much rational entertainment as 
our own accomplishments and those of others will afford. 

The man or woman who engrosses the conversation is unpardonably 
selfish. 

Wc should not neglect very young people in our drawing-rooms. If we 
wish our children to have polished manners, and to express themselves well, 
we must lead them to enter into the conversation that is going on. 

All irritability and gloom must be thrown off when we enter society. 

It is a duty to always look pleased. It is likewise a duty to appear inter¬ 
ested in a story that you may have heard a dozen times before, to smile on 
the most inveterate proser; in short, to make such minor sacrifices of sin¬ 
cerity' as one’s good manners and good feelings may dictate. 

In conversation the face must be pleasant, wearing something that almost 
approaches to a snfile. 

Alway'S look at the person who is conversing with you, and listen respect¬ 
fully. In answering try' to express your thoughts in the best manner. A 
loose manner of expression injures ourselves much more than our hearers, 
since it is a habit which, once acquired, is not easily thrown off, and when we 
wish to express ourselves well it is not easy to do so. 

A good bit of advice is the saying, “ Think twice before you speak once,” 
as thus only can you learn to alway's speak to the point. 

The y'oung of both sexes would find it an inestimable advantage through 
life to cultivate from the outset a clear intonation, a well-chosen phraseology, 
a logical habit of thought, and a correct accent. 

A well educated person proclaims himself by his simple and terse lan¬ 
guage. Good and clear Saxon is much to be preferred to high-sounding 
phrases and long words; it is only the half-educated who imagine such a 
style is elegant. 

Never employ extravagance in conversation. Alway's employ the word 
that will express your precise meaning and no more. It is absurd to say it 
is “immensely jolly,” or “disgustingly mean.” Such expressions show 
neither wit nor wisdom, but merest flippancy. 

Avoid awkwardness of attitude as well as awkwardness of speech. 

No man or woman is well-bred who is continually lolling, gesticulating or 
fidgeting in company'. 

No lady of good breeding will sit sideway's on her chair, or with her legs 
crossed or stretched apart, or hold her chin in her hands, or twirl her 
watch chain, while she is talking ; nor does a well-bred gentleman sit astride 
of his chair, or bite his nails, or nurse his leg. A man is always allowed 
more freedom than a woman, but both should be graceful and decorous in 
their deportment. 

Never indicate an object by pointing at it. Move the head or wave the 
whole hand. 


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6o6 


GENERAL HINTS ON ETIQUETTE. 


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/ 


Sneezing, coughing and clearing the throat must be done quietly when it 
cannot possibly be avoided; but sniffling and expectorating must never be 
indulged in in decent society. 

Physical training is necessary to both men and women who aspire to be of 
the best society. Every gentleman should know how to fence, to box, to 
shoot, to swim, to ride, to dance, and how to carry himself. Calisthenic 
exercises and dancing should be taught every young woman. Even though 
she may not intend to dance, the acquirement of the art tends to produce 
that grace of movement which is so beautiful in woman. Swimming, rid¬ 
ing, driving, archery and all suitable outdoor amusements strengthen the 
muscles and give beauty and suppleness to the human form divine. 

A good memory for names and faces, and a self-possessed manner, are 
necessary to every one who would make a good impression in society. 
Nothing is more delicately flattering to another than to find you can readrly 
call his or her name, after a very slight acquaintance. The most popular of 
great men.have gained their popularity principally through the possession of 
this faculty. 

Shyness is very ungraceful, and a positive injury to any one afflicted with 
it. It is only allowable in very 'young people. A person who blushes, stam¬ 
mers and fidgets in the presence of strangers will not create a very good 
impression upon their minds as to his personal worth and educational ad¬ 
vantages. Shyness may be overcome by determined mixing in society. 
Nothing else will have an effect upon it. 

In conversing with a person, do not repeat the name frequently, as it im¬ 
plies one of two extremes, that of familiarity or haughtiness. 

If you are talking to a person of title, do not keep repeating the title. 
You can express all the deference you desire in voice and manner; it is un¬ 
necessary and snobbish to put it in words. 

A foreigner should always be addressed by his full name; as, Monsieur de 
Montmorenci, never as Monsieur only. In speaking of him, give him his 
title, if l.e have one For example, in speaking to a nobleman you would 
say, Monsieur le Marquis ; in speaking of him in his absence, you woul 1 
say, Monsieur le Marquis de Montmorenci. Converse with a foreigner in his 
own language. If you are not sufficiently at home in the language to do so, 
apologize to him, and beg permission to speak English. 

Married people are sometimes guilty of the vulgar habit of speaking of 
each other by the initial letter of their first name, or the wife of her husband 
as “Jones,” omitting the “Mr.” This denotes very ill breeding, and 
should be strenuously avoided. 

Never speak of absent persons by their Christian names or their sur¬ 
names ; always refer to them as Mr.-or Mrs.-. 

Gentlemen, when with ladies, are expected to defray all such expenses as 
car fares, entrance fee to theatre, refreshments, etc. 

In entering an exhibition or public room where ladies are present, gentle¬ 
men should always lift their hats. In France a gentleman lifts his hat on 
entering a public omnibus, but that is not necessary according to the English 
code of etiquette. 

To yawn in the presence of others, to put your feet on a chair, to stand 
with your back to the fire, to take the most comfortable seat in the room, to 
do anything in fact that displays selfishness and a lack of respect for those 
about you, is unequivocally vulgar and ill-bred. 

If a person of greater age than yourself desire you to step into a carriage 
or through a door first, it is more polite to bow and obey than to decline. 
Compliance with, and deference to, the wishes of others, is always the 
finest breeding. 

A compliment that is palpably insincere is no compliment at all. 

Boasting is one of the most ill-bred habits a person can indulge in. 
Travelling is so universal a custom now that to mention the fact that you 
have been to Europe is to state nothing exceptional. Anybody with wealth, 
health and leisure can travel; but it is only those of real intelligence that 
derive any benefit from the art treasures of the Old World. 

When in general conversation you cannot agree with the proposition ad¬ 
vanced, it is best to observe silence, unless particularly asked for your 
opinion, in which case you will give it modestly, but decidedly. Never be 
betrayed into too much warmth in argument; if others remain uncon¬ 
vinced, drop the subject. 

Gentlemen precede a lady in going up stairs, but follow her in going down. 

In walking with a lady through a crowd, precede her, in order to clear the 
way. 


In walking on a public promenade, if you meet the same friends and ac¬ 
quaintances a number of times, it is only necessary to salute them once in 
passing. 

Never speak of your own children as “ Master ” and “ Miss ” except to 
servants. 

Never correct any slight inaccuracy in statement or fact. It is better to 
let it pass than to subject another to the mortification of being corrected in 
company. 

No one can be polite who does not cultivate a good memory. There is a 
class of absent-minded people who are to be dreaded on account of the 
mischief they are sure to create with their unlucky tongues. They always 
recall unlucky topics, speak of the dead as though they were living, talk of 
people in their hearing, and do a hundred and one things which, in slang 
parlance, is “ treading on somebody’s toes.” Carelessness can be carried to 
such a pitch as to almost amount to a crime. Cultivate a good memory, 
therefore, if you wish to say pleasant things and to avoid disagreeable ones. 

People must remember that they must give as well as take in this life, and 
that they must not hesitate to go to a little trouble in those small observ¬ 
ances which it is so pleasant to accept. 

When entrusted with a commission, do not fail to perform it. It is rude to 
“forget.” 

On entering a room filled with people, do not fail to bow slightly to the 
general company. 

If you accept favors and hospitalities, do not fail to return the same when 
the opportunity offers. 

The most contemptible meanness in the world is that of opening a private 
letter addressed to another. No one with the slightest self-respect would be 
guil y-of such an act. 

Never betray a confidence. 

Never question a child or a servant about the private affairs of the family 

Do not borrow money and neglect to pay. If you do, you will soon find 
that your credit is bad. 

When offered a scat in the street car, accept the same with audible thanks. 

It is very awkward for one lady to rise and give another lady a seat in a 
street car, unless the lady standing be very old, or evidently ill and weak. 

Never fail to answer an invitation, either personally or by letter, within a 
week after its receipt. 

Do not fail to return a friend’s call in due time. 

Never play practical jokes. The results are frequently so serious as to 
entail life-long regret on the joker. 

Avoid any familiarity with a new acquaintance. You never know when 
you may give offence. 

Always tell the truth. Veracity is the very foundation of character. 
Without it a man is a useless and unstable structure. 

When writing to ask a favor or to obtain information, do not fail to enclose 
postage stamp for a reply. 

When an apology is offered, accept it, and do so with a good grace, not in 
a manner that implies you do not intend changing your opinion of the 
offence. 

It is rude to examine the cards in a card-basket unless you have an invita¬ 
tion to that effect. 

Never look at the superscription on a letter that you may be requested to 
mail. 

Never seal a letter that is to be given to a friend for delivery. It looks as 
though you doubted his or her honor in refraining irom examining the con¬ 
tents 

When walking with a lady, it is etiquette to give her the wall, but if she 
have your arm it is quite unnecessary to be changing at every corner you 
come to. After one or two changes the habit becomes ridiculous. 

Always adopt a pleasant mode of address. Whether you are speaking to 
inferiors or to your equals, it will alike give them a kindly and happy im¬ 
pression of yop. 

Long hair and a scrawling signature do not constitute genius. Be careful, 
then, how you draw upon yourself the ridicule of being a shallow pretender 
by adopting either or both. 

Never fail to extend every kindly courtesy to an elderly person or an 
invalid. 

Never ridicule the lame, the halt or the blind. You never know when 
misfortune may be your own lot. 




<o 





































ETIQUETTE OF THE HOUSE. 


607 




Do not make promises that you have no intention of fulfilling. A person 
who is ever ready with promises, which he fails to execute, is soon known 
as a very unreliable party. 

Punctuality is a most admirable quality. The man or woman who pos¬ 
sesses it is a blessing to his or her friends. The one who lacks it is wanting 
in one of the first requisites of good-breeding. 

It is extremely rude to look over the shoulder of one who is reading or 
writing. It is also rude to persist in reading aloud passages from your own 
book or paper to one who is also reading. 

Do not appear to notice any defect, scar or peculiarity of any one. It is 
the height of rudeness to speak of them. 

Never presume to attract the attention of an acquaintance by a touch, 
unless you are extremely intimate. Recognition by a simple nod or spoken 
word is all that can be allowed. 

Do not be quick to answer questions, in general company, that are put to 
others. 

You should not lend an article that you have borrowed without first ob¬ 
taining permission from the owner. 

Avoid all exhibition of excitement, anger or impatience when an accident 
happens. 


Neither a gentleman nor a lady will boast of the conquests he or she has 
made. Such a course would have the effect of exciting the most profound 
contempt for the boasters in the breasts of all who heard them. 

If you cannot avoid passing between two persons who are talking, never 
fail to apologize for doing so. 

Never enter a room noisily. Never enter the private bed-room of a friend 
without knocking. Never fail to close the door after you, and do not slam it. 

Temper has much more to do with good-breeding than is generally sup¬ 
posed. The French are allowed to be the most polite people in the world, 
when they are really only the most amiable. 

Learn to make small sacrifices with a good grace ; to accept small disap¬ 
pointments in a patient spirit. A little more of self-control, a little more 
allowance for the weaknesses of others, will oftentimes change the entire 
spirit of a household. 

We are not to be polite merely because we wish to please, but because we 
wish to consider the feelings and spare the time of others—because we 
wish to carry into daily practice the spirit of the precept, “ Do unto others 
as you would have others do unto you.” 



---jg 

Etiquette of t^evHoa^e. 

/•■i) rse - MANAGFMFNT OF SFRVANTS H STl ©.V 


nr MANAGEMENT OF SERVANTS. 



‘W 


> Vv 


ERY mistress of a house is a sovereign queen, whose court is 
the home circle, which is dependent entirely upon her grace and 
executive ability for happiness, comfort and refinement. 

In a well-ordered household the machinery is always in order, 
and always out of sight, and it is the special care of the mis¬ 
tress thereof to secure servants so reliable, so efficient and so 
well trained that this machinery shall run quite noiselessly, and with the 
most perfect satisfaction. 

No well-bred woman talks of her servants, her dinner arrangements, or 
of her housekeeping affairs generally, to her visitors in the drawing-room, 
nor yet to her husband in the privacy of the domestic circle. 

No lady, however gifted, can afford to neglect the management of her 
household. If she be possessed of immense wealth, she may afford to hire 
an efficient housekeeper, but even then the final responsibility rests upon 
her. No tastes and no pleasures should be allowed to stand in the way of 
this important duty. 

The moment you enter a house, the personality of the mistress is betrayed 
by the atmosphere which seems to pe- vade it. If she be a good and 
efficient ruler, the servants wear a cheerful air, the children are obedient and 
courteous, the rooms are tastefully furnished and spotlessly clean and neat. 
The unexpected guest receives a cordial welcome, and is conducted to a 
well-appointed table. In such a home scandal and gossip are never heard, 
and peace and contentment are the household gods. 

The first and most important rub: for the governing of the household is 
to regulate the expenditure so that it shall come easily within the income. 

Elegance adds greatly to the enjoyment of life, but if it is to be purchased 
at the expense of all peace of mind, you had better do without it altogether. 
If you cannot be elegant, you can at least be clean, and the true gentle¬ 
woman will be discovered as soon in the cottage as in the palace by her sur¬ 
roundings. Shabby gentil ty is one of the most objectionable forms of 


snobbishness. To affect a better income than you have, to ape the manners 
of your richer neighbors, proclaims you vulgar and ill-bred in the highest 
degree. Shams of every description are contemptible, and every young 
housekeeper should build her house upon a superstructure of sincerity, and 
then she will never have to blush at awkward discoveries. 

Your house may have the appearance of refinement without any great 
expense if good taste be exercised in its arrangement. The rooms must be 
furnished with an artistic eye for colors, and a careful eye for comfort. 
Whatever pictures or works of art there are should be good. One good en¬ 
graving is better than half a dozen cheap chromos. 

A house without books is a house without a soul. Be sure, therefore, to 
have plenty of books around. You may not be able to have a whole library, 
but you can at least collect a few shelves of well-chosen works. 

Thorns and ferns are ornamental and tasteful, and may be obtained at a 
very slight expenditure ; all that they require is a little care and thought in 
* their cultivation and arrangement. 

Be careful not to overload your rooms with cheap knick-knacks and 
gaudy tidies of crochet or knitted work. Any one having a taste for the 
higher style of embroidery, such as the Kensington and Arrasene work, 
may produce very artistic effects, at but slight expense. 

The walls of your rooms are a very important subject, and as you cannot 
expect to change the papering thereof with every fluctuation of fashion, it 
is essential that you exercise good taste at the outset, paying but little atten¬ 
tion to the prevailing style. 

The walls of a room should always be of some sober color. Your carpets 
may be bright as you please, but the pattern must be small, and the colors 
well blended. Set figures are very wearisome to the eye, either in a carpet 
or on w: U-paper, and as both are likely to be worn a long time, it is best 
to look out for that at the beginning. 














































In this day of artistic furniture, art magazines, and art crazes generally, 
there need be no excuse for bad taste in furnishing. The day of one stiff 
sofa, six stiff chairs, and one straight table, all placed rigidly against the 
wall, and forming right angles with it, is over, the gods be thanked; and 
a person, be he ever so uncultured, can form some conception of what is 
suitable and beautiful in the house to make it a home. 

Plenty of fresh air, cleanliness and quiet, are all indications of a well- 
ordered home. i 

The servant question is the most difficult one that housekeepers ha ve to 
contend with in America. The independent spirit of our republic is inim¬ 
ical to anything that looks like servitude; hence our young women of the 
poorer classes would much rather go into factories, or bend over sewing- 
machines, than go into pleasant, cultivated families, where the varied labor, 
better fare and purer atmosphere would contribute immeasurably to the 
preservation of their health and happiness. 

American ladies are largely dependent, therefore, upon the poor emigrant 
population of Germany and Ireland for their servants, and this will account 
for the main part of the difficulties in housekeeping here. It would be task 
enough to instruct a native-born girl in the varied mysteries of dusting and 
dish-washing, of waiting on the table and answering the door-bell; but 
when it comes to wrestling with the vernacular of the Fatherland as well, 
it is discouraging in the highest degree. 

The best way, however, is to offer good wages, take only such a girl as is 
well recommended, and then, by firm, patient and just measures, endeavor 
to have her do your work in your own way, and to your perfect satisfaction. 

Here, as elsewhere, the mistress must ever be on the alert. She must be 
quick to observe any neglect of orders and carelessness in the execution of 
them. She must remind repeatedly, but always kindly and firmly. Let your 
servant see that you will be obeyed, but never let her see you out of temper, 
and you will soon acquire such an ascendancy over her that everything will 
go as smoothly when you are absent as when you are present. If you will 
keep a good servant, you must treat her properly. A good mistress will give 
as much attention to the comfort and happiness of her servants as she will 
to that of her husband and her children. 

If she have but one servant, she must be careful not to put too much work 
upon her. No one is willing to drudge all the time, nor should any one ask 
it. If there are several servants, their duties must be distinctly understood 
and rigidly enforced. One must not be expected to help another out, as 
that would be injustice to the industrious one. 

The mistress must give personal supervision if she would have her work 
well done. Only after a long and tried period of service can she afford to 
relax her vigilance. A good house-mistress will never be afraid of a little 
trouble. The constant care pays in the end. 

Avoid a fault-finding and scolding manner. When a thing does not suit 
you, say so quietly to your servant. A display of temper only loses you 
the respect of your servant, and gains you nothing in the way of obedience. 


Servants should be treated as though they were human beings, with 
human weaknesses, and not as if they were mere working machines. You 
should endeavor to correct their faults, not to aggravate them ; and you 
should treat them, and have your children treat them, with invariable kind¬ 
ness and civility. 

You should interest yourself in the amusements of your servants. If they 
have a taste for reading, provide them with good books. See that they 
occasionally have an opportunity to attend a place of amusement. Do not 
restrict their hours of amusement, or endeavor to curtail their personal 
liberty. A good, devoted servant is, particularly in this country, where the 
sense of equality is felt and tacitly admitted, as much a part of the family 
as any member thereof. She is the trusted confidante in family troubles ; 
she is the recipient of all the joyful secrets of the various members of the 
family ; she is, in short, more friend than servant, without presumption on 
the one hand or undignified condescension on the other. 

Punctuality is one of the chief requirements of a well-ordered household. 
The good temper and consequent comfort of the whole family depend upon 
the regularity of the meals, to say nothing of the health, which is almost as 
largely dependent upon the meal being served on time as upon the quality of 
the food. The breakfast and dinner bell should be as punctual as the church bell. 

The mistress must look well to the quality and preparation of the food. 
Badly cooked food, monotonous food or insufficient food are all injurious 
to the health, and no lady should let other and more agreeable occupations 
engage her attention until she has attended to her marketing, ordered her 
meals, and made sure of their being properly prepared and neatly served. 

Unless she have a dining-room maid, upon whom she can thoroughly 
depend, it is better for the lady of the house to go into her dining-room a few 
moments before meals are served, to see that all is in order, the table properly 
arranged, etc. There are very few servants in this country well trained 
enough to be depended upon without close supervision. 

A good housekeeper will also attend carefully to her daily accounts. 
Entries of expenditures should be made every day, ard the amount cast up 
at the end of the week. If a book is kept with the butcher and the grocer, 
it is always best to have a weekly settlement. A monthly or a quarterly set¬ 
tlement may of course be made, but the shorter time accounts are allowed to 
run, the easier it is to untangle any little knot in the skein. It is best for the 
mistress to do all her own ordering for the domestic commissariat than 
to depute any part of the task to her cook. Where servants are allowed to 
run and order this or that article, there is always trouble with the tradesmen 
when the monthly bill comes in. 

While every woman should do all in her power to enlarge her views, cul¬ 
tivate her mind, and improve her social position, she should bear in mind 
that “ home” is first and forever her special heritage, and that to embellish 
and beautify it, and to so order it that it shall be a haven of rest to her dear 
ones, is her highest and noblest duty, to which everything else should be 
subservient. 



Y- 








i> v"*" 




■ 




























HOW TO SELECT MEATS. 


609 



THE*ART* OF* COOKING 



CARCELY a young housekeeper, unless so fortunate as to have 
had a thorough course of training by a sensible mother, but has 
^ een mort ‘fi e d at her own extreme ignorance of what before 
<IVcw I l) seeme d unimportant matters, but afterward proved themselves 
very essential points in the way of doing the household market- 
ing. The difference in kind and quality, and the technical 
names of the various parts of edible animals, probably never occurred to 
her until brought face to face with the matter in the butcher shop, which she 
has entered for the first time to purchase her meat for dinner. 

For the benefit of such we give a few general rules upon how to select 
meats, the names of the different parts, appearance of good and bad meats, 
etc. First, as to the characteristics of good meats. Meat of a pale pink 
color is likely to be diseased, while that of a deep purple tint has not been 
slaughtered, but has died of acute fever. The proper color is a bright, rich 
red. 

It should be firm and elastic in appearance, and scarcely moisten the 
fingers. Bad meat is wet and sodden, while the fat in it looks like jelly. 

Good meat has little or no odor, and is not disagreeable. Bad meat has a 
sickly odor that is extremely offensive. 

Good meat should not shrink much in cooking. 

It should not become very wet on standing. It should dry upon the 
surface. 

Meat should be dried with a clean cloth as soon as it conies from the 
butcher’s. Cut out fly-blows if there are any on it. 

Never buy bruised joints. 

Meat will keep a long time in cold weather, while if frozen it will keep 
for months. Always thaw frozen meat before attempting to cook it, by 
plunging it in cold water or setting it before the fire. It will not cook well 
without this precaution. 

In summer place your meat on ice, or in the coldest place you have, until 
ready to cook it. 

Always baste roast meat with its own drippings. You cannot baste it too 
much. 

In order to retain the juices, your meat must be cooked in a hot oven. 

In boiling meat, if you wish to make soup as well, put your meat in cold 
wmter, and bring it slowly up to the boiling point. The juices then flavor 
the water and make soup. If you put the meat in boiling water, the juices 
remain in the meat, and the liquor is worthless. 

Stewing is slow boiling. Frying is cooking in a pan, in a small quantity 
of fat. Broiling is cooking over a fire. 

Beef is the flesh of the ox, and is the principal meat eaten in this country 
and in England. Good beef should be well streaked or marbled with fat, 
and should have plenty of loose fat or suet around. 


The joints of beef for roasting are ribs, sirloin, chump of rump, fillet of 
sirloin, mouse buttock, top side and heart. The choice roasts are sirloin 
and rib roasts. For a small family a nice roast is made of one rib, the bone 
being taken out, and the meat neatly rolled and skewered by the butcher. 

For frying or broiling the best steak is the “porterhouse.” Afier that 
“tenderloin” and “sirloin” steak, and the “rump” steak. The latter 
should be well beaten, as it has a tendency to toughness. The choicest 
thing for breakfast is a “porterhouse” steak, broiled quickly over a bright fire. 

For beefsteak puddings and pies coarser pieces of the meat may be pur¬ 
chased. For soup, a good shin-bone is best. 

Beef is more nourishing roasted than boiled, and can be eaten more fre¬ 
quency than any other meat without causing surfeit. 

Veal has but little fat, and is of a pinkish white color. Good veal should 
be closely grained and small; if it is large and coarse-grained, it is too old 
to be really nice. Do not buy it if it is moist and clammy, as it is then 
nearing decomposition. The best pieces of veal for roasting are fillet and 
best end of the breast. For frying, cutlets from the shoulder. 

Spring lamb is one of the most delicate kinds of meat that can be eaten. 
The whole animal is usually divided into quarters by the butcher, and sold 
at so much a quarter. A hind quarter is usually rather more expensive than 
a fore quarter, although the latter is considered by some the more delicate 
eating. It is always rather an expensive meat, but a roast of lamb, with 
mint sauce, is always a delicate dinner. 

Mutton is the meat of sheep upward of four years of age. The darker 
mutton is the better, as it is a sign of maturity. Good mutton should also 
be fat. 

The parts for roasting are saddle, haunch, leg, best end of loin, chump 
end of loin, shoulder, breast and others. 

For frying and broiling, chops and cutlets from loin and neck; also cut¬ 
lets from leg. 

For boiling the leg makes an excellent dinner. It should always be 
accompanied by caper sauce. 

Venison should be fat. A young deer may be distinguished by the cleft 
of the haunch being smooth and close. Winter is the season for buck ven¬ 
ison, while summer is the time for doe venison. The roasting parts are 
haunch, neck and breast. 

In choosing poultry, it is usual to try the breast bone in order to determine 
whether the fowl be young or old. If the bone be pliable—that is, easily 
bent with the finger—the chicken or turkey is young and tender enough for 
roasting; but if hard and unyielding, the fowl had better be boiled, and 
plenty of time allowed for the process. 

The principal kinds of game eaten are grouse, partridge, snipes, quails, 
woodcocks, ortolans, pheasants, wild duck, teal, land-rail, plovers and larks. 








































6io 


/ 


THE ART OF CARVING. 





2e-f|ph-of-Carving 




>*^-^-§^>^§-►-HS-* 




S HE importance of the art of carving has been referred to under 
the head of Dining, and we propose here to give a few rules 
upon the practice which may be of benefit to the tyro, and help 
him to acquire that ease and dexterity in carving which is so 
conducive to peace and comfort around the family board. 

In carving a sirloin of beef, the upper cuts should be made 
lengthwise of the beef, while the under cuts are crosswise—the under cuts 
being also much thicker than the upper cuts. As there is much difference of 
opinion as to which is the choice piece, it is best for the carver to ask his 
guests which cut they prefer. 

Rib roasts, rolled, and a round of beef are always cut in very thin hori¬ 
zontal slices across the whole surface of the meat. It is essential, though, 
that these slices be quite thin. 

The leg, the loin, the shoulder and the saddle are the four pieces of mut¬ 
ton usually brought to the table to be carved. First, as to the leg. This 
must be placed on the table with the knuckle toward the left hand. Then 
cut into the side farthest from you toward the bone, helping thin slices 
from the right and thick slices toward the knuckle. Always divide 
the little bunch of fat near the thick end among your guests, as it is a 
great delicacy. 

A saddle of mutton is often ordered for a small dinner party. It is cut in 
very thin slices, close to the back-bone, and then downward. 

Place a “ shoulder ” wi.h the knuckle toward the right hand, the blade 
bone toward the left. Place your fork firmly in the middle of the edge 
farthest from you, and cut dexterously from the edge to the bone. This 
causes the meat to fly open, when you can cut slices on each side of the 
opening, until there is no more to cut, when the meat should be turned 
over and slices cut from the under side. Another method of carving this 
joint is to cut slices lengthwise from the end to the knuckle. 

The loin of mutton, which is a piece intended specially for family use, 
should be carved either through the joints or may be cut lengthwise in a 
parallel line with the joints. 

A fillet of veal is, in shape and appearance, very similar to a round of 
beef, and is carved in the same way by cutting horizontal slices over the 
whole surface of the meat. The slices, however, should not be nearly so 
thin as beef. A fillet of veal is cut from the leg, the bone is removed by 
the butcher, and the pocket thus made is filled with dressing, which is taken 
out and helped with a spoon by the carver. 

A breast of veal may be either roasted or stewed. If used as a roasting- 
piece, you will have the butcher make an opening or hole in it for the recep¬ 
tion of the dressing. In carving it, the ribs may be separated from the 
brisket, and sent round. 

A fore-quarter of lamb consists of shoulder, breast and ribs. The knife 
must be first placed upon the shoulder, drawn through horizontally, and 


the joint removed, and placed upon another dish. The ribs can then be 
separated, and the breast sliced and sent around. 

A calf’s head, which is by some considered a delicacy, must be cut down 
the centre in thin slices on each side. A small piece of the palate, of the 
sweet-bread, and of the meat around the eye, must be put on each plate and 
sent round. 

In carving a haunch of venison, make a cut across close to knuckle, after 
which cut slices by making straight incisions lengthwise. 

There are three methods allowed in carving a ham. The most common 
one probably is to cut it like a leg of mutton, beginning in the middle, and 
cutting either way. You may, however, begin at the knuckle, cutting slices 
in a slanting direction, or you may begin at the thick end. The slices 
must always be as thin and delicate as possible, and are the usual accom¬ 
paniment to fowl or veal. 

Tongue must always be cut in thin, regular slices. Make the- first cut a 
short distance from the tip, where a slice of some size may be attained. 
The tip is considered quite a tid-bit by some people. 

In carving a chicken, first cut off the wings. This is easily done by learn¬ 
ing where to strike the joint. Then slice the breast, and cut off the merry¬ 
thought and side bones. The breast should always be helped first, then the 
wings—the liver wing being the better of the two. It is better to always 
reserve a small slice of the white meat to be served with the dark. 

Pigeon, snipe and quail are cut in half, and a piece sent to each guest. 
When the birds are small, you send a whole one. 

Goose and turkey are helped by cutting slices off the breast, and then the 
wings and legs are removed. The breast is considered the best meat, and 
after that the wings. 

Boiled rabbit is carved thus : First cut off the legs, then take out the shoul¬ 
ders with a sharp-pointed knife, then break the back into three or four 
pieces at the joint. The back is the choice help, especially the piece in the 
centre. The shoulder is next in order after the back, and the leg comes 
last. The kidney is a delicate bit. 

For cutting fish a regular silver fish-slice is provided. Salmon and all fish 
of that order are cut in slices down the middle of the upper side, and then 
in slices across on the under side. A piece of each should be helped 
to all. 

Mackerel divides among four people. Pass fish-knife between the upper 
and under half from head to tail, then halve each side, and help to a quarter. 

Cut cod crosswise like salmon, then downward, and send a small piece of 
round on each plate as well. 

Large flat fish, as turbot, flounders, John Dorey, etc., are first cut down 
the middle from head to tail, then across to the fin, in slices. The fin, being 
considered a delicacy* by some, should be helped, too. 

Small fish, like smelts, whiting, etc., are sent whole to each guest. 


■f' dT 


© V 






















































































































































































































FAMILIAR POEMS. 


J 3 






William Cullen Bryant. 


O him who, in the love of nature, holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language ; for his gayer hours 
She has a voice of gladness, and a smile 
And eloquence of beauty, and she glides 
Into his darker musings, with a mild 
And gentle sympathy, that steals away 
Their sharpness, ere he is aware. 


In majesty, and the complaining brooks 

That make the meadows green; and, poured round all, 

Old ocean’s gray and melancholy waste. 

Are but the solemn decorations all 

Of the great tomb of man. The golden sun. 

The planets, all the infinite host of heaven. 

Are shining on the sad abodes of death, 

Through the still lapse of ages. 



When thoughts 

Of the last bitter hour come like a blight 

Over thy spirit, and sad images 

Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall. 

And breathless darkness, and the narrow house. 
Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart; 

Go forth into the open sky, and list 
To nature’s teaching, while from all around 
Comes a still voice: 

“ Yet a few days, and thee 
The all-beholding sun shall see no more. 

In all his course; nor yet, in the cold ground, 

Where thy pale form was laid with many tears. 

Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist 

Thy image. Earth, that nourishes thee, shall claim 

Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again ; 

And, lost each human trace, surrendering up 
Thine individual being, shalt thou go 
To mix forever with the elements. 

To be a brother to th’ insensible rock 

And to the sluggish clod, which the rude swain 

Turns with his share and treads upon. 

The oak 

Shall send its roots abroad, and pierce thy mold. 

Yet not to thy eternal resting-place 
Shalt thou retire alone, nor couldst thou wish 
Couch more magnificent. Thou shalt lie down 
With patriarchs of the infant world, with kings. 

The powerful of the earth, the wise, the good, 

Fair forms, and hoary seers of ages past, 

All in one mighty sepulchre. 

The hills, 

Rock-ribbed and ancient as the sun; the vales. 
Stretching in pensive quietness between ; 

The venerable woods; rivers that move 


All that thread 

The globe are but a handful to the tribes 
That slumber in its bosom. Take the wings 
Of morning, and the Barcan desert pierce. 

Or lose thyself in the continuous woods 
Where rolls the Oregon, and hears no sound 
Save its own dashings — yet — the dead are there ; 
And millions in those solitudes, since first 
The flight of years began, have laid them down 
In their last sleep : the dead reign there alone. 

So shalt thoic rest; and what if thou shalt fall 
Unnoticed by the living, and no friend 
Take note of thy departure ? All that breathe 
Will share thy destiny. The gay will laugh 
When thou art gone; the solemn brood of care 
Plod on; and each one, as before, will chase 
His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall leave 
Their mirth and their enjoyments, and shall come 
And make their bed with thee. As the long train 
Of ages glide away, the sons of men, 

The youth in life’s green spring, and he who goes 
In the full strength of years, matron and maid, 

The bowed with age, the infant in the smiles 
And beauty of its innocent age cut off— 

Shall, one by one, be gathered to thy side. 

By those who in their turn shall follow them. 

So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan that moves 
To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 

Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night, 

Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed. 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 












































FAMILIAR POEMS. 


614 



“X S 


k S unto the bow the cord is. 

So unto the man is woman: 
Though she bends him, she obeys him ; 
Though she draws him, yet she follows; 
Useless each without the other.” 

Thus the youthful Hiawatha 
Said within himself and pondered. 

Much perplexed by various feelings. 
Listless, longing, hoping, fearing, 
Dreaming still of Minnehaha, 

Of the lovely Laughing Water, 

In the land of the Dacotahs. 

“ Wed a maiden of your people,” 
Warning said the old Nokomis ; 

“ Go not eastward, go not westward, 
For a stranger, whom ye know not! 
Like a fire upon the hearthstone 
Is a neighbor's homely daughter; 

Like the starlight or the moonlight 
Is the handsomest of strangers ! ” 

Thus dissuading spake Nokomis, 

And my Hiawatha answered 
Only this : “ Dear old Nokomis, 

Very pleasant is the firelight, 

But I like the starlight better. 

Better do 1 like the moonlight! ” 

Gravely then said old Nokomis : 

“ Bring not here an idle maiden. 

Bring not here a useless woman, 

Hands unskilful, feet unwilling; 

Bring a wife with nimble fingers. 

Heart and hand that move together. 

Feet that run on willing errands ! ” 

Smiling answered Hiawatha; 

“ In the land of the Dacotahs 
Lives the Arrow-maker’s daughter, 
Minnehaha, Laughing Water, 
Handsomest of all the women. 

I will bring her to your wigwam, 

She shall run upon your errands, 

Be your starlight, moonlight, firelight, 
Be the sunlight of my people ! ” 

Still dissuading said Nokomis : 

“ Bring not to my lodge a stranger 
From the land of the Dacotahs I 
Very fierce are the Dacotahs, 

Often is there war between its. 

There are feuds yet unforgotten. 
Wounds that ache and still may open ! ” 

Laughing answered Hiawatha; 

“ For that reason, if no other, 

Would I wed the fair Dacotah, 

That our tribes might be united, 

That old feuds might be forgotten, 

And old wounds be healed forever ! ” 


Thus departed Hiawatha 
To the land of the Dacotahs, 

To the land of handsome women ; 
Striding over moor and meadow 
Through interminable forests. 

Through uninterrupted silence. 

With his moccasins of magic. 

At each stride a mile he measured ; 

Yet the way seemed long before him, 

And his heart outran his footsteps ; 

And he journeyed without resting, 

Till he heard the cataract’s laughter, 
Heard the Falls of Minnehaha 
Calling to him through the silence. 

“ Pleasant is the sound ! ” he murmured, 
“ Pleasant is the voice that calls me 1 ” 

On the outskirts of the forest, 

'Twixt the shadow and the sunshine. 
Herds of fallow deer were feeding. 

But they saw not Hiawatha ; 

To his bow he whispered, “ Fail not ! ” 
To his arrow whispered, “ Swerve not I ” 
Sent it singing on its errand, 

To the red heart of the roebuck ; 

Threw the deer across his shoulder, 

And sped forward without pausing. 

At the doorway of his wigwam 
Sat the ancient Arrow-maker, 

In the land of the Dacotahs, 

Making arrow-heads of jasper. 
Arrow-heads of chalcedony. 

At his side, in all her beauty. 

Sat the lovely Minnehaha, 

Sat his daughter. Laughing Water, 
Plaiting mats of flags and rushes ; 

Of the past the old man’s thoughts were. 
And the maiden's of the future. 

He was thinking, as he sat there. 

Of the days when with such arrows 
He had struck the deer and bison, 

On the Muskoday, the meadow ; 

Shot the wild goose, flying southward. 

On the wing, the clamorous Wawa; 
Thinking of the great war-parties, 

How they came to buy his arrows. 

Could not fight without his arrows. 

Ah, no more such noble warriors 
Could be found on earth as they were ! 
Now the men were all like women, 

Only used their tongues for weapons ! 

She was thinking of a hunter 
From another tribe and country, 

Young and tall and very handsome, 

Who one morning, in the spring-time. 
Came to buy her father’s arrows, 

Sat and rested in the wigwam, 

Lingered long about the doorway. 


Looking back as he departed. 

She had heard her father praise him, 

Praise his courage and his wisdom ; 

Would he come again for arrows 
To the Falls of Minnehaha ? 

On the mat her hands lay idle. 

And her eyes were very dreamy. 

Through their thoughts they heard a footstep 
Heard a rustling in the branches. 

And with glowing check and forehead. 

With the deer upon his shoulders, 

Suddenly from out the woodlands 
Hiawatha stood before them. 

Straight the ancient arrow-maker 
Looked up gravely from his labor. 

Laid aside the unfinished arrow. 

Bade him enter at the doorway, 

Saying, as he rose to meet him, 

“ Hiawatha, you are welcome 1” 

At the feet of Laughing Water 
Hiawatha laid his burden, 

Threw the red deer from his shoulders ; 

And the maiden looked up at him. 

Looked up from her mat of rushes. 

Said with gentle look and accent, 

“ You are welcome, Hiawatha ! ” 

Very spacious was the wigwam, 

Made of deer-skin dressed and whitened. 

With the gods of the Dacotahs 
Drawn and painted on its curtains, 

And so tall the doorway, hardly 
Hiawatha stooped to enter. 

Hardly touched his eagle-feathers 
As he entered at the doorway. 

Then uprose the Laughing Water, 

From the ground fair Minnehaha, 

Laid aside her mat unfinished. 

Brought forth food and set before them, 

Water brought them from the brooklet, 

Gave them food in earthen vessels, 

Gave them drink in bowls of basswood, 
Listened while the guest was speaking, 

Listened while her father answered. 

But not once her lips she opened, 

Not a single word she uttered. 

Yes, as in a dream she listened 
To the words of Hiawatha, 

As he talked of old Nokomis, 

Who had nursed him in his childhood. 

As he told of his companions, 

Chibiabos, the musician, 

And the very strong man, Kwasind, 

And of happiness and plenty 
In the land of the Ojibways, 

In the pleasant land and peaceful. 

































































a. 


“ After many years of warfare, 

Many years of strife and bloodshed, 
There is peace between the Ojibways 
And the tribe of the Dacotahs; ” 

Thus continued Hiawatha, 

And then added, speaking slowly, 

“ That this peace may last forever, 

And our hands be clasped more closely, 
And our hearts be more united, 

Give me as my wife this maiden, 
Minnehaha, Laughing Water, 

Loveliest of Dacotah women 1 ” 

And the ancient Arrow-maker 
Paused a moment ere he answered, 
Smoked a little while in silence. 

Looked at Hiawatha proudly, 

Fondly looked at Laughing Water, 

And made answer very gravely : 

“ Yes, if Minnehaha wishes ; 

Let your heart speak, Minnehaha ! ” 

And the lovely Laughing Water 
Seemed more lovely, as she stood there, 
Neither willing nor reluctant, 

As she went to Hiawatha, 

Softly took the seat beside him, 

While she said, and blushed to say it, 

“ I will follow you, my husband ! ” 

This was Hiawatha’s wooing ! 

Thus it was he won the daughter 
Of the ancient Arrow-maker, 

In the land of the Dacotahs ! 

From the wigwam he departed, 

Leading with him Laughing Water ; 
Hand in hand they went together, 
Through the woodland and the meadow, 
Left the old man standing lonely 
At the doorway of his wigwam, 

Heard the Falls of Minnehaha 
Calling to them from the distance, 


Crying to them from afar off, 

“ Fare thee well, O Minnehaha ! ” 

And the ancient Arrow-maker 
Turned again unto his labor. 

Sat down by his sunny doorway, 
Murmuring to himself, and saying : 

“ Thus it is our daughters leave us, 

Those we love, and those who love us ! 

Just when they have learned to help us. 
When we are old and lean upon them, 
Comes a youth with flaunting feathers, 
With his flute of reeds, a stranger, 

Wanders piping through the village. 
Beckons to the fairest maiden, 

And she follows where he leads her, 

Leaving all things for the stranger! ” 

Pleasant was the journey homeward 
Through interminable forests, 

Over meadow, over mountain, 

Over river, hill and hollow. 

Short it seemed to Hiawatha, 

Though they journeyed very slowly, 
Though his pace he checked and slackened 
To the steps of Laughing Water. 

Over wide and rushing rivers 
In his arms he bore the maiden ; 

Light he thought her as a feather. 

As the plume upon his head-gear; 

Cleared the tangled pathway for her, 

Bent aside the swaying branches, 

Made at night a lodge of branches, 

And a bed with boughs of hemlock. 

And a fire before the doorway 
With the dry cones of the pine-tree. 

All the travelling winds went with them 
O’er the meadow, through the forest; 

All the stars of night looked at them, 
Watched with sleepless eyes their slumber ; 


•o<>o* 



- 0 * * *0 - 


* 


(Ufte I^are^oot !S>o^/ 






V> LESSINGS on thee, little man. 

Barefoot boy, with cheeks of tan ! 
With thy turned-up pantaloons, 

And thy merry whistled tunes ; 

With thy red lip, redder still, 

Kissed by strawberries on the hill; 

With the sunshine on thy face, 

Through thy torn brim's jaunty grace, 
From my heart I give thee joy— 

I was once a barefoot boy ! 

Prince thou art — the grown-up man 
Only is republican. 

Let the million-dollared ride 1 
Barefoot, trudging at his side, 

Thou hast more than he can buy 
In the reach of ear and eye— 

Outward sunshine, inward joy, 
Blessings on thee, barefoot boy ! 


John Greenleaf Whittier. 

Oh, for boyhood's painless play, 

Sleep that wakes in laughing day, 
Health that mocks the doctor’s rules, 
Knowledge never learned of schools, 

Of the wild bee's morning chase, 

Of the wild flower’s time and place, 
Flight of fowl, and habitude 
Of the tenants of the wood; 

How the tortoise bears his shell, 

How the woodchuck digs his cell. 

And the ground mole sinks his well, 

H ow the robin feeds her young. 

How the oriole’s nest is hung; 

Where the whitest lilies blow, 

Where the freshest berries grow, 

Where the ground-nut trails its vine, 
Where the wood-grape’s clusters shine; 
Of the black wasp’s cunning way. 


From his ambush in the oak-tree 
Peered the squirrel, Adjidaumo, 

Watched with eager eyes the lovers; 

And the rabbit, the Wabasso, 

Scampered from the path before them, 
Peeping, peeping from his burrow, 

Sat erect upon his haunches, 

Watched with curious eyes the lovers. 

Pleasant was the journey homeward ! 
All the birds sang loud and sweetly 
Songs of happiness and heart’s-ease ; 

Sang the blue-bird, the Owaissa, 

“ Happy are you, Hiawatha, 

Having such a wife to love you 1 ” 

Sang the robin, the Opechee, 

“ Happy are you, Laughing Water, 
Having such a noble husband ! ” 

From the sky the sun benignant 
Looked upon them through the branches, 
Saying to them, “ O my children. 

Love is sunshine, hate is shadow. 

Life is checkered shade and sunshine. 
Ride by love, O Hiawatha ! ” 

From the sky the moon looked at them. 
Filled the lodge with mystic splendors. 
Whispered to them, “ O my children, 

Day is restless, night is quiet, 

Man imperious, woman feeble; 

Half is mine, although 1 follow ; 

Rule by patience, Laughing Water ! ” 

Thus it was they journeyed homeward, 
Thus it was that Hiawatha 
To the lodge of old Nokomis 
Brought the moonlight, starlight, firelight, 
Brought the sunshine of his people, 
Minnehaha, Laughing Water, 
Handsomest of all the women 
In the land of the Dacotahs, 

In the land of handsome women. 



Mason of his walls of clay. 

And the architectural plans 
Of gray hornet artisans ! — 

For, eschewing books and tasks, 
Nature answers all he asks ; 

Hand in hand with her he walks, 
Face to face with her he talks, 

Part and parcel of her joy— 
Blessings on the barefoot boy ! 

Oh, for boyhood’s time of June, 
Crowding years in one brief moon, 
When all things I heard or saw. 
Me, their master, waited for. 

I was rich in flowers and trees, 
Humming-birds and honey-bees; 
For my sport the squirrel played. 
Plied the snouted mole his sp ide; 








































Gi6 


FAMILIAR POEMS. 


For my taste the blackberry cone 
Purpled over hedge and stone ; 

Laughed the brook for my delight 
Through the day and through the night, 
Whispering at the garden wall, 

Talked with me from fall to fall; 

Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond. 
Mine the walnut slopes beyond, 

Mine on bending orchard trees, 

Apples of Hesperides ! 

Still, as my horizon grew. 

Larger grew my riches, too; 

All the world I saw or knew 
Seemed a complex Chinese toy, 
Fashioned for a barefoot boy ! 

Oh, for festal dainties spread, 

Like my bowl of milk and bread,— 


Pewter spoon and bowl of wood. 

On the door-stone, gray and rude ! 
O’er me, like a regal tent. 
Cloudy-ribbed the sunset bent. 
Purple-curtained, fringed with gold, 
Looped in many a wind-swung fold, 
While for music came the play 
Of the pied frogs’ orchestra ; 

And, to light the noisy choir, 

Lit the fly his light of fire. 

I was monarch; —pomp and joy 
Waited on the barefoot boy ! 

Cheerily, then, my little man. 

Live and laugh, as boyhood can ! 
Though the flinty slopes be hard. 
Stubble-speared the new-mown sward. 


Every morn shall lead thee through 
Fresh baptisms of the dew; 

Every evening from thy feet 
Shall the cool wind kiss the heat ; 
All too soon these feet must hide 
In the prison cells of pride. 

Lose the freedom of the sod. 

Like a colt’s for work be shod. 

Made to tread the mills of toil 
Up and down in ceaseless moil; 
Happy if their track be found 
Never on forbidden ground ; 

Happy if they sink not in 
Quick and treacherous sands of sin. 
Ahl that thou couldst know thy joy, 
Ere it passes, barefoot boy! 









Edgar Allan Poe. 


I. 


H EAR the sledges with the bells— 

Silver bells— 

What a world of merriment their melody foretells 1 
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, 

In the icy air of night! 

While the stars that oversprinkle 
All the heavens seem to twinkle 
With a crystalline delight— 

Keeping time, time, time, 

In a sort of Runic rhyme, 

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells 
From the bells, bells, bells, bells, 

Bells, bells, bells. 

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. 


II. 

Hear the mellow wedding bells— 

Golden bells ! 

What a world of happiness their harmony foretells ! 
Through the balmy air of night 
How they ring out their delight! 

From the molten-golden notes, 

And all in tune, 

What a liquid ditty floats 
To the turtle-dove that listens, while she gloats 
On the moon! 

Oh, from out the sounding cells. 

What a gush of euphony voluminously wells ! 

How it swells! 

How it dwells 
On the Future ! how it tells 
Of the rapture that impels 
To the swinging and the ringing 
Of the bells, bells, bells, 

Of the bells, bells, bells, bells. 

Bells, bells, bells— 

To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells. 

III. 

Hear the loud alarum bells— 

Brazen bells! 


What a tale of terror, now, their turbulency tells ! 
In the startled ear of night 
How they scream out their affright! 

Too much horrified to speak, 

They can only shriek, shriek, 

Out of tune, 

In the clamorous appealing to the mercy of the 
fire, 

In a mad expostulation with the deaf and frantic 
fire, 

Leaping higher, higher, higher, 

With a desperate desire, 

And a resolute endeavor, 

Now—now to sit or never, 

By the side of the pale-faced moon. 

Oh, the bells, bells, bells, 

What a tale their terror tells 
Of despair! 

How they clang, and clash, and roar! 

What a horror they outpour 
On the bosom of the palpitating air ! 

Yet the ear it fully knows 
By the twanging 
And the clanging, 

How the danger ebbs and flows ; 

Yet the ear distinctly tells. 

In the jangling. 

And the wrangling, 

How the danger sinks and swells. 

By the sinking or the swelling in the anger of the 
bells— 

Of the bells— 

Of the bells, bells, bells, bells. 

Bells, bells, bells— 

In the clamor and the clangor of the bells 1 
IV. 

Hear the tolling of the bells— 

Iron bells ! 

What a world of solemn thought their monody 
compels ! 


In the silence of the night. 

How we shiver with affright 
At the melancholy menace of their tone! 

For every sound that floats 
From the rust within their throats 
Is a groan. 

And the people—ah, the people— 

They that dwell up in the steeple, 

All alone. 

And who tolling, tolling, tolling. 

In that muffled monotone. 

Feel a glory in so rolling 

On the human heart a stone— 

They are neither man nor woman— 

They are neither brute nor human— 

They are ghouls ; 

And their king it is who tolls; 

And he rolls, rolls, rolls, 

Rolls, 

A paean from the bells ! 

And his merry bosom swells 
With the paean of the bells ! 

And he dances and he yells ; 

Keeping time, time, time, 

In a sort of Runic rhyme. 

To the paean of the bells— 

Of the bells; 

Keeping time, time, time, 

In a sort of Runic rhyme, 

To the throbbing of the bells— 

Of the bells, bells, bells— 

To the sobbing of the bells ; 

Keeping time, time, time. 

As he knells, knells, knells, 

In a happy Runic rhyme. 

To the tolling of the bells— 

Of the bells, bells, bells, 

To the tolling of the bells. 

Of the bells, bells, bells, bells— 

Bells, bells, bells— 

To the moaning and the groaning of the bells. 



































































































































































































































































































































\ Q. 





SPoCJO, J3)foCDj Uftou 






©Y/infer ®y/iac|. 


•<c$~ 



Shakspere. 

From “As You Like It.”—Act II, Sc. \ 


i 


► LOW, blow, thou winter wind, 

Thou art not so unkind 
As man’s ingratitude; 

Thy tooth is not so keen 
Because thou art not seen. 

Although thy breath be rude. 

Heigh-ho 1 sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly, 
Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly. 
Then heigh-ho the holly, 

This life is most jolly. 


Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky. 

Thou dost not bite so nigh 
As benefits forgot; 

Though thou the waters warp. 

Thy sting is not so sharp 
As friend remembered not. 

Heigh-ho I sing heigh-ho ! unto the green holly, 
Most friendship is feigning, most loving mere folly; 
Then heigh-ho the holly. 

This life is most jolly. 




ugfe 3 0 n g< 


Alfred Tennyson. 


<3 

£ 



TTT HE splendor falls on castle walls 

And snowy summits old in story ; 

The long light shakes across the lakes. 

And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 
Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying ; 

Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying ! 



& 

i 


Oh, hark ! oh, hear ! how thin and clear, 

And thinner, clearer, farther going, 

Oh, sweet and far from cliff and scar. 

The horns of Elfland faintly blowing ! 
Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying. 

Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes, dying dying, dying ! 


O love, they die in yon rich sky. 

They faint on hill or field or river; 

Our echoes roll from soul to soul. 

And grow forever and forever. 

Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying, 

And answer echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying ! 


S V 


Ufi 



-u 


ea. 






V I V HE sea ! the sea ! the open sea. 

The blue, the fresh, the ever free ! 
Without a mark, without a bound, 

It runneth the earth’s wide regions round, 

It plays wth the clouds ; it mocks the skies; 
Or like a cradled creature lies. 

I’m on the sea! I’m on the sea! 

I am where I would ever be; 

With the blue above, and the blue below. 
And silence wheresoe’er I go ; 

If a storm should come and awake the deep. 
What matter? I shall ride and sleep. 


Barry Cornwall. 

I love (oh, how I love!) to ride 
On the fierce, foaming, bursting tide. 
When every mad wave drowns the moon, 
Or whistles aloft his tempest tune, 

And tells how goeth the world below, 

And why the southwest blasts do blow. 

I never was on the dull, tame shore 
But I loved the great sea more and more. 
And backward flew to her billowy breast. 
Like a bird that seeketh its mother’s nest ; 
And a mother she was, and is to me ; 

For I was bom on the open sea. 


The waves were white and red the morn, 

In the noisy hour when I was born; 

And the whale it whistled and the porpoise roll’d, 
And the dolphins bared their backs of gold; 
And never was heard such an outcry wild 
As welcomed to life the ocean child. 

I’ve lived since then, in calm and strife. 

Full fifty summers a sailor’s life. 

With wealth to spend, and a power to range. 
But never have sought nor sigh’d for change; 
And Death, whenever he come to me. 

Shall come on the wild, unbounded sea. 


© 


-r* <T 


<s 
























































































FAMILIAR POEMS. 



Oliver Goldsmith. 


acfie 



An Extract from “ The Deserted Village.” 


WEET was the sound, when oft, at evening’s close, 
Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ; 

There, as I passed with careless steps and slow. 

The mingling notes came softened from below ; 

The swain responsive as the millc-maid sung, 

The sober herd that lowed to meet their young ; 

The noisy geese that gabbled o’er the pool, 

The playful children just let loose from school ; 

The watch-dog’s voice that bayed the whispering wind, 
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind,— 

These all in sweet confusion sought the shade. 

And filled each pause the nightingale had made. 

* * * * * 

Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, 

And still where many a garden flower grows wild. 
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose. 

The village preacher’s modest mansion rose. 

A man he was to all the country dear. 

And passing rich, with forty pounds a year; 

Remote from towns he ran his godly race, 

Nor e’er had changed, or wished to change his place. 
Unskilful he to fawn, or seek for power. 

By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour ; 

Far other aims his heart had learned to prize. 

More bent to raise the wretched than to rise. 

His house was known to all the vagrant train. 

He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain ; 

The long-remembered beggar was his guest, 

Whose beard, descending, swept his aged breast; 

The ruined spendthrift, now no longer proud, 

Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowed ; 
The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, 

Sat by his fire, and talked the night away ; 

Wept o’er his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done. 


Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won. 
Pleased with his guests, the good man learned to glow. 
And quite forgot their vices in their woe ; 

Careless their merits or their faults to scan, 

His pity gave ere charity began. 

Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride. 

And e’en his failings leaned to virtue’s side. 

But in his duty prompt at every call. 

He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all: 

And as a bird each fond endearment tries, 

To tempt its new-fledged offspring to the skies, 

H<? tried each art, reproved each dull delay. 

Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. 

Beside the bed where parting life was laid, 

And sorrow, guilt and pain by turns dismayed. 

The reverend champion stood. At his control 
Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul : 

Comfort came down, the trembling wretch to raise. 

And his last faltering accents whispered praise. 

At church, with meek and unaffected grace. 

His looks adorned the venerable place ; 

Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway. 

And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. 

The service past, around the pious man, 

With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran ; 

E’en children followed, with endearing wile. 

And plucked his gown, to share the good man’s smile. 
His ready smile a parent’s warmth expressed, 

Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed; 

To them his heart, his love, his griefs were given, 

But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven : 

As some tall cliff, that lifts its awful form, 

Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm ; 
Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread. 
Eternal sunshine settles on its head. 



619 





©J ft e dJ ^)\j r e e . 

Charles Dickens. 


_ 9 . 

-ir>- 


O H ! a dainty plant is the ivy green. 

That creepeth o’er ruins old ! 

Of right choice food are his meals, I ween. 
In his cell so lone and cold. 

The wall must be crumbled, the stones decayed, 
To pleasure his dainty whim ; 

And the mouldering dust that years have made 
Is a merry meal for him. 

Creeping where no life is seen, 

A rare old plant is the ivy green. 


Fast he stealeth on, though he wears no wings. 
And a staunch old heart has he; 

How closely he twineth, how tight he clings. 
To his friend, the huge oak tree ! 



And slyly he traileth along the ground. 

And his leaves he gently waves, 

As he joyously hugs and crawleth round 
The rich mould of dead men’s graves. 

Creeping where grim death has been, 
A rare old plant is the ivy green. 


Whole ages have fled, and their works decayed, 
And nations have scattered been ; 

But the stout old ivy shall never fade 
From its hale and hearty green. 

The brave old plant in its lonely days 
Shall fatten upon the past: 

For the stateliest building man can raise 
Is the ivy’s food at last. 













































































Q. 


S> 


1ST 


620 


FAMILIAR POEMS. 







S^af'TPe oj? ffie oKncjef^. 



John Milton. 

From "Paradise Lost,” Book VI. 


X ICHAEL bid sound the archangel trumpet; 

Through the vast of heaven 
It sounded, and the faithful armies rung 
Hosanna to the Highest: nor stood at gaze 
The adverse legions, nor less hideous joined 
The horrid shock. Now storming fury rose, 

And clamor, such as heard in heaven till now 
Was never; arms on armor clashing brayed 
Horrible discord, and the madding wheels 
Of brazen chariots raged ; dire was the noise 
Of conflict; overhead the dismal hiss 
Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew. 

And flying vaulted either host with fire. 

So under fiery cope together rushed 
Both battles main, with ruinous assault 
And inextinguishable rage. All heaven 
Resounded ; and had earth been then, all earth 
Had to her centre shook. 

****** 

Deeds of eternal fame 

Were done, but infinite: for wide was spread 
That war, and various : sometimes on firm ground 
A standing fight, then, soaring on main wing, 
Tormented all the air; all air seemed then 
Conflicting fire. 

****** 
Forthwith (behold the excellence, the power 
Which God hath in his mighty angels placet!) 

Their arms away they threw, and to the h.lls 






(For earth hath this variety from heaven 
Of pleasure situate in hill and dale). 

Light as the lightning glimpse they ran, they flew 
From their foundations loosening to and fro, 

They plucked the seated hills, with all their load. 
Rocks, waters, woods, and by their shaggy tops 
Uplifting bore them in their hands ; amaze. 

Be sure, and terror, seized the rebel host. 

When coming towards them so dread they saw 
The bottom of the mountains upward turned, 

* * * * and on their heads 

Main promontories flung, which in the air 
Came shadowing, and oppressed whole legions 
armed; 

Their armor helped their harm, crushed in and 
bruised 

Into their substance pent, which wrought them pain 
Implacable, and many a dolorous groan ; 

Long struggling underneath, ere they could wind 
Out of such prison, though spirits of purest light, 
Purest at first, now gross by sinning grown. 

The rest, in imitation, to like arms 

Betook them, and the neighboring hills uptore : 

So hills amid the air encountered hills. 

Hurled to and fro with jaculation dire. 

That underground they fought in dismal shade; 
Infernal noise 1 war seemed a civil game 
To this uproar; horrid confusion heaped 
Upon confusion rose. 




iJarecjoeff 



I 


| Hix$> ©y/ife. p§ 


TT ARE thee well, and if forever, 

< JL Still forever, fare thee well; 

E’en though unforgiving, never 

’Gainst thee shall my heart rebel. 

Would that brpast were bared before thee 
Where thy head so oft hath lain, 

While that placid sleep came o’er thee 
Which thou ne’er canst know again : 

Would that breast, by thee glanced over. 
Every inmost thought could show 1 
Then thou wouldst at last discover 
’Twas not well to spurn it so. 

Though the world for this commend thee— 
Though it smile upon the blow. 

E’en its praises must offend thee. 

Founded on another’s woe. 

Though my many faults defaced me. 
Could no other arm be found 
Than the one which once embraced me 
To inflict a cureless wound 1 


Lord Byron. 

Yet, oh, yet thyself deceive not: 

Love may sink by slow decay; 

But by sudden wrench, believe not 
Hearts can thus be torn away ; 

Still thine own its life retaineth— 

Still must mine, though bleeding, beat. 

And th’ undying thought which paineth 
Is—that we no more may meet. 

These are words of deeper sorro w 
Than the wail above the dead ; 

Both shall live, but every morrow 
Wakes us from a widowed bed. 

And when thou wouldst solace gather 
When our child’s first accents flow. 

Wilt thou teach her to say “ Father 1 ” 
Though his care she must forego ? 

When her little hands shall press thee. 
When her lip to thine is pressed. 

Think of him whose love shall bless thee. 
Think of him thy love had blessed. 


Should her lineaments resemble 
Those thou nevermore mayst see. 

Then thy heart will softly tremble 
With a pulse yet true to me. 

All my faults perchance thou knowest. 
All my madness none can know ; 

All my hopes where’er thou goest. 
Whither, yet with thee they go. 

Every feeling hath been shaken ; 

Pride, which not a world could bow. 

Bows to thee—by thee forsaken, 

E’en my soul forsakes me now , 

But ’tis done; all words are idle— 
Words from me are vainer still; 

But the thoughts we cannot bridle 
Force their way without the will. 

Fare thee well 1 thus disunited. 

Torn from every nearer tie. 

Seared in heart, and lone, and blighted. 
More than this I scarce can die. 





































































From “ Harper's Weekly.” 

'TaT’HEN swallows were building in early spring 
jCm. And the roses were red in June ; 

When the great white lilies were fair and sweet, 
In the heat of the August noon ; 

When the winds were blowing the yellow wheats 
And the song of the harvest nigh, 

And the beautiful world lay calm and sweet. 

In the joy of a cloudless sky— 

Then the swallows were full of glad content 
In the hope of their northern nest ; 

Were sure that the land they were tarrying in 
Of all other lands was the best. 

And if they had heard in those blissful days 
The Voice they must heed say “ Go,” 

They had left their nests with a keen regret. 


And their flight had been sad and slow. 

But when summer was gone and flowers were dead 
And the brown leaves fell with a sigh, 

And they watched the sun setting every day 
Further on in the northern sky, 

Then the Voice was sweet when it bid them “Go 
They were eager for southward flight, 

And they beat their wings to a new-born hope 
When they went at the morning light. 

If the way was long, yet the way was glad. 

And they brighter and brighter grew, 

And they dipped their wings in the glowing heat. 
And they still to the southward flew, 

Till they found the land of the summer sun, 

The land where the nightingale sings, 

And joyfully rested ’mid rose and song 
Their beautiful weary wings. 

Like swallows we wander from home to home — 
We are birds of passage at best — 

In many a spot we have dwelt awhile. 

We have built us many a nest. 

But the heart of the Father will touch our hearts. 
He will speak to us soft and low, 

We shall follow the Voice to the better land. 

And its bliss and its beauty know. 





ipr x/A 


//IT 


Ip4| 




















































































622 


FAMILIAR POEMS. 





(Ufte <Wour ©eaflp. if ::TJ 




Mrs. Felicia Hemans. 


EAVES have their time to fall, 

And flowers to wither at the north wind’s breath, 
And stars to set—but all, 

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death ! 

Day is for mortal care, 

Eve for glad meetings round the joyous hearth. 
Night for the dreams of sleep, the voice of prayer— 
But all for thee, thou mightiest of the earth. 

The banquet hath its hour, 

Its feverish hour of mirth, and song, and wine ; 
There comes a day for grief’s o’erwhelming power, 

A time for softer tears—but all are thine. 

Youth and the opening rose 

May look like things too glorious for decay, 

And smile at thee—but thou art not of those 
That wait the ripened bloom to seize their prey. 

Leaves have their time to fall. 

And flowers to wither at the north wind’s breath. 
And stars to set—but all. 

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death! 



We know when moons shall wane. 

When summer-birds from far shall cross the sea. 

When autumn’s hue shall tinge the golden grain— 
But who shall teach us when to look for thee ? 

Is it when Spring’s first gale 
Comes forth to whisper where the violets lie? 

Is it when roses in our paths grow pale?— 

They have one season —all are ours to die ! 

Thou art where billows foam, 

Thou art where music melts upon the air; 

Thou art around us in our peaceful home. 

And the world calls us forth—and thou art there. 

Thou art where friend meets friend. 

Beneath the shadow of the elm to rest— 

Thou art where foe meets foe, and trumpets rend 
The skies, and swords beat down the princely crest. 

Leaves have their time to fall. 

And flowers to wither at the north wind’s breath. 

And stars to set—but all. 

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death 1 


•o^o« 




/ o!\ Que^fiorj. \ 

Mt>—-- 


Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 


| \0 you know you have asked for the costliest thing 
Ever made by the Hand above— 

A woman’s heart and a woman’s life, 

And a woman’s wonderful love ? 

Do you know you have asked for this priceless thing 
As a child might ask for a toy ? 

Demanding what others have died to win, 

With the reckless dash of a boy? 

You have written my lesson of duty out, 

Man-like you have questioned me— 

Now stand at the bar of my woman’s soul, 

Until I shall question thee. 

You require your mutton shall always be hot. 

Your socks and your shirts shall be whole ; 

I require your heart to be true as God’s stars, 

And pure as heaven your soul. 

You require a cook for your mutton and beef; 

I require a far better thing: 

A seamstress you’re wanting for stockings and shirts— 
I look for a man and a king. 



A king for a beautiful realm called home, 

And a man that the maker, God, 

Shall look upon as He did the first, 

And say, “ It is very good.” 

I am fair and young, but the rose will fade 
From my soft, young cheek one day— 

Will you love me then, ’mid the falling leaves, 
As you did ’mid the bloom of May ? 

Is your heart an ocean so strong and deep 
I may launch my all on its tide ? 

A loving woman finds heaven or hell 
On the day she is made a bride. 

I require all things that are grand and true. 

All things that a man should be; 

If you give this all, I would stake my life 
To be all you demand of me. 

If you cannot do this—a laundress and cook 
You can hire, with little to pay; 

But a woman’s heart and a woman’s life 
Are not to be won that way. 






































































\ 


/ 


FAMILIAR POEMS. 

623 



X HEN troubled in spirit, when weary of life. 

When I faint 'neath its burdens, and shrink from its strife, 
When its fruit, turned to ashes, are mocking my taste. 

And its fairest scene seems but a desolate waste. 

Then come ye not near me, my sad heart to cheer 
With friendship’s soft accents or sympathy’s tear; 

No pity I ask, and no counsel I need. 

But bring me, oh, bring me, my gallant young steed ! 

With his high arched neck, and his nostril spread wide. 

His eye full of fire, and his step full of pride ! 

As I spring to his back, as I seize the strong rein. 

The strength to my spirit returneth again; 

The bonds are all broken that fettered my mind. 

And my cares borne away on the wings of the wind ; 

My pride lifts its head, for a season bowed down. 

And the queen in my nature now puts on her crown ! 

Now we’re off—like the winds to the plains whence they came, 
And the rapture of motion is thrilling my frame ! 

On, on speeds my courser, scarce printing the sod, 

Scarce crushing a daisy to mark where he trod ! 

On, on like a deer, when the hound’s early bay 
Awakes the wild echoes, away and away! 

Still faster, still farther, he leaps at my cheer, 

Till the rush of the startled air whirs in my ear ! 


Now ’long a clear rivulet lieth his track. 

See his glancing hoofs tossing the white pebbles back; 

Now a glen dark as midnight—what matter?—we'll down. 
Though shadows are round us, and rocks o’er us frown; 

The thick branches shake as we’re hurrying through, 

And deck us with spangles of silvery dew. 

What a wild thought of triumph that this girlish hand 
Such a steed in the might of his strength may command ! 
What a glorious creature ! Ah 1 glance at him now. 

As I check him awhile on this green hillock’s brow; 

How he tosses his mane, with a shrill, joyous neigh, 

And paws the firm earth in his proud, stately play ! 

Hurrah ! off again, dashing on as in ire. 

Till a long, flinty pathway is flashing with fire ! 

Ho! a ditch ! Shall we pause ? No; the bold leap we dare, 
Like a swift-winged arrow we rush through the air 1 
Oh, not all the pleasures that poets may praise. 

Not the ’wildering waltz in the ball-room’s blaze, 

Nor the chivalrous joust, nor the daring race, 

Nor the swift regatta, nor merry chase. 

Nor the sail, high heaving waters o’er. 

Nor the rural dance on the moonlight shore, 

Can the wild and thrilling joy exceed 
Of a fearless leap on a fiery steed ! 




<J\ n g e f 


cr- 

Rosa Vertner Jeffrey. 


afcfier& 



NGEL faces watch my pillow, angel voices haunt my sleep, 

AV And upon the winds of midnight shining pinions round me sweep ; 
^ ^ Floating downward on the starlight two bright infant forms I see— 
They are mine, my own bright darlings, come from heaven to visit me. 

Earthly children smile upon me, but these little ones above 
Were the first to stir the fountains of a mothers deathless love, 

And as now they watch my slumber, while their soft eyes on me shine, 
God forgive a mortal yearning still to call His angels mine. 

Earthly children fondly call me, but no mortal voice can seem 
Sweet as those that whisper “ Mother! " ’mid the glories of my dream ; 
Years will pass, and earthly prattlers cease perchance to lisp my name. 
But my angel babies’ accents will be evermore the same. 


And the bright band now around me from their home perchance will rove, 
In their strength no more depending on my constant care and love ; 

But my first-born still shall wander from the sky, in dreams to rest 
Their soft cheeks and shining tresses on an earthly mother’s breast. 

Time may steal away the freshness, or some whelming grief destroy 
All the hope that erst had blossomed, in my summer-time of joy; 

Earthly children may forsake me, earthly friends perhaps betray, 

Every tie that now unites me to this life may pass away: 

But, unchanged, those angel watchers, from their blessed, immortal home. 
Pure and fair, to cheer the sadness of my darkened dreams shall come, 
And I cannot feel forsaken, for, though reft of earthly love, 

Angel children call me “ Mother 1 ” and my soul will look above. 

























































624 


FAMILIAR POEMS. 



(picfure^ oj? Memory, 

Alice Cary. 



A* 


' MONG the beautiful pictures 

That hang on Memory’s wall, 

1 Is one of a dim old forest, 

That seemeth best of all. 

Not for its gnarled oaks olden, 

Dark with the mistletoe ; 

Not for the violets golden 

That sprinkle the vale below ; 

Not for the milk-white lilies 

That lean from the fragrant hedge. 
Coquetting all day with the sunbeams, 
And stealing their golden edge ; 

Not for the vines on the upland 

Where the bright red berries rest, 

Nor the pinks, nor the pale, sweet cowslip 
It seemeth to me the best. 


I once had a little brother 

With eyes that were dark and deep— 
In the lap of that dim old forest. 

He lieth in peace asleep. 



Light as the down of the thistle. 

Free as the winds that blow, 

We roved there, the beautiful summers. 
The summers of long ago ; 

But his feet on the hills grew weary, 
And one of the autumn eves, 

I made for my little brother 
A bed of the yellow leaves. 

Sweetly his pale arms folded 
My neck in a meek embrace 
As the light of immortal beauty 
Silently covered his face ; 

And when the arrows of sunset 
Lodged in the tree-tops bright, 

He fell, in his saint-like beauty, 

Asleep by the gates of light. 

Therefore, of all the pictures 

That hang on Memory’s wall. 

The one of the dim old forest 
Seemeth the best of all. 



O to thy rest, fair child ! 
Go to thy dreamless bed, 
While yet so gentle, undefiled. 
With blessings on thy head. 


Fresh roses in thy hand. 

Buds on thy pillow laid, 

Haste from this dark and fearful land, 
Where flowers so quickly fade. 

Shall love with weak embrace 
Thy upward wing detain? 


(§y o fo (U S^ex^t. 

Lydia Huntley Sigourney. 




No ! cherub angel, seek thy place 
Amid the cherub train. 

Ere sin hath seared the breast, 

Or sorrow waked the tear, 

Rise to thy throne of changeless rest. 
In yon celestial sphere ! 


Because thy smile was fair, 
Thy lip and eye so bright, 
Because thy loving cradle-care 
Was such a dear delight. 





®\oiL @ur f^ej?ucje 




Clara Lauer Baldwin. 


'TaT^HEN the last hope of life 
JL Ik. Has been crushed in the dust. 

And the last of our loved ones are gone— 
When we feel that there’s none 
Left, who love us and trust, 

And we stand in the wide world alone— 


When the friends of the past 
Have become all estranged 
And forget “ 'tis divine to forgive ”— 



When cold words are said. 

And cold looks exchanged— 

And there’s naught left to hope for or live,— 


Then ’ tis joy to the soul 
To know that there's One 
Whose mercy and love reaches all— 
Who in tenderest love 
Clings till life's journey’s done. 

And pities us still when we fall. 















































f 













































































































































































626 


FAMILIAR POEMS. 





• <J\ ©yeorgia ^oPunfeer. c->( 


%^r c 


Mary A. Townsend. 


AR up the lonely mountain side my wandering footsteps led; 
The moss lay thick beneath my feet, the pine sighed overhead. 
The trace of a dismantled fort lay in the forest nave, 

And in the shadow near my path I saw a soldier’s grave. 

The bramble wrestled with the weed upon the lowly mound. 

The simple headboard, rudely writ, had rotted to the ground; 

I raised it with a reverent hand, from dust its words to clear, 

But time had blotted all but these—“ A Georgia Volunteer.” 

I saw the toad and scaly snake from tangled covert start, 

And hide themselves among the weeds above the dead man’s heart; 
But undisturbed, in sleep profound, unheeding there he lay ; 

His coffin but the mountain soil, his shroud Confederate gray. 

I heard the Shenandoah roll along the vale below, 

I saw the Alleghenies rise towards the realms of snow. 

The “Valley Campaign” rose to mind—its leader’s name—and then 
I knew the sleeper had been one of Stonewall Jackson’s men. 


Yet whence he came, what bp shall say—whose tongue will ever tell— 
What desolate hearths and hearts have been because he fell? 

What sad-eyed maiden braids her hair, her hair which he held dear? 
One lock of which, perchance, lies with the Georgia Volunteer! 

What mother, with long watching eyes and white lips cold and dumb. 
Waits with appalling patience for her darling boy to come? 

Her boy 1 whose mountain grave swells up but one of many a scar 
Cut on the face of our fair land by gory-handed war. 

What fights he fought, what wounds he wore, are all unknown to fame; 

Remember, on his lonely grave there is not e’en a name 1 

That he fought well and bravely, too, and held his country dear. 

We know, else he had never been a Georgia Volunteer. 

He sleeps — what need to question now if he were wrong or right ? 

He knows, ere this, whose cause was just in God the Father’s sight. 

He wields no warlike weapons now, returns no foeman’s thrust— 

Who but a coward would revile an honored soldier’s dust ? 



Roll, Shenandoah, proudly roll, adown thy rocky glen; 

Above thee lies the grave of one of Stonewall Jackson’s men. 
Beneath the cedar and the pine, in solitude austere. 
Unknown, unnamed, forgotten, lies a Georgia Volunteer. 


* 



©Jfte (picftet (Sjuarcj. 



Ethel Lynn Beers. 


“ ^77' LL quiet along the Potomac,” they say, 

“ Except now and then a stray picket 

Is shot, as he walks on his beat, to and fro, 

By a rifleman off in the thicket. 

'Tis nothing—a private or two, now and then. 
Will not count in the news of the battle ; 

Not an officer lost—only one of the men, 
Moaning out, all alone, the death-rattle.” 

All quiet along the Potomac to-night, 

Where the soldiers lie peacefully dreaming; 

Their tents in the rays of the clear autumn moon 
Or the light of the watchfires are gleaming. 

A tremulous sigh, as the gentle night-wind 
Through the forest-leaves softly is creeping. 

While stars up above, with their glittering eyes. 
Keep guard—for the army is sleeping. 

There’s only the sound of the lone sentry’s tread, 
As he tramps from the rock to the fountain, 

And thinks of the two in the low trundle-bed 
Far away in the cot on the mountain. 

His musket falls slack—his face, dark and grim. 
Grows gentle with memories tender. 


As he mutters a prayer for the children asleep— 

For their mother—may Heaven defend her ! 

The moon seems to shine just as brightly as then. 
That night, when the love yet unspoken 

Leaped up to his lips—when low-murmured vows 
Were pledged to be ever unbroken. 

Then, drawing his sleeve roughly over his eyes. 

He dashes off tears that are welling, 

And gathers his gun closer up to its place 
As if to keep down the heart-swelling. 

He passes the fountain, the blasted pine-tree— 

The footstep is lagging and weary ; 

Yet onward he goes, through the broad belt of light 
Toward the shades of the forest so dreary. 

Hark 1 was it night-wind that rustled the leaves ? 
Was it moonlight so wondrously flashing? 

It looked like a rifle —“ Ah ! Mary, good-by t” 

And the life-blood is ebbing and plashing. 

All quiet along the Potomac to-night, 

No sound save the rush of the river ; 

While soft falls the dew on the face of the dead— 
The picket’s off duty forever. 



















































FAMILIAR POEMS. 


627 



O UR bugles sang truce—for the night-cloud had lowered; 

And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky ; 

And thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered, 

The weary to sleep, the wounded to die. 

When reposing that night on my pallet of straw, 

By the wolf-scaring faggot that guarded the slain. 

At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw, 

And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again. 

Methought from the battle-field’s dreadful array. 

Far, far I had roamed on a desolate track : 

'Twas autumn—and sunshine arose on the way, 

To the home of my fathers, that welcomed me back. 


I flew to the pleasant field traversed so oft 
In life’s morning march when my bosom was young; 

I heard my own mountain goats bleating aloft, 

And knew the sweet strain the corn-reapers sung. 

Then pledged we the wine-cup, and fondly I swore 
From my home and my weeping friends never to part; 

My little ones kissed me a thousand times o’er, 

And my wife sobbed aloud in her fulness of heart. 

“ Stay, stay with us—rest, thou art weary and worn 
And fain was their war-broken soldier to stay ; 

But sorrow returned with the dawning of morn, 

And the voice in my dreaming melted away. 



Oliver Wendell Holmes. 


OME, dear old comrade, you and I 
Will steal an hour from days gone by— 
The shining days when life was new, 

And all was bright as morning dew, 

The lusty days of long ago. 

When you were Bill and I was Joe. 

Your name may flaunt a titled trail. 

Proud as a cockerel’s rainbow tail; 

And mine as brief appendix wear 
As Tam O’Shanter’s luckless mare ; 

To-day, old friend, remember still 
That I am Joe and you are Bill. 

You’ve won the great world’s envied prize. 
And grand you look in people’s eyes. 

With HON. and LL.D., 

In big brave letters, fair to see— 

Your fist, old fellow 1 off they go !— 

How are you. Bill ? How are you, Joe ? 


You’ve worn the judge’s ermine robe ; 

You’ve taught your name to half the globe; 
You’ve sung mankind a deathless strain ; 
You’ve made the dead past live again ; 

The world may call you what it will. 

But you and I are Joe and Bill. 

The chaffing young folks stare and say, 

“ See those old buffers, bent and gray ; 

They talk like fellows in their teens ! 

Mad, poor old boys 1 That’s what it means”— 
And shake their heads ; they little know 
The throbbing hearts of Bill and Joe— 

How Bill forgets his hour of pride. 

While Joe sits smiling at his side ; 

How Joe, in spite of time’s disguise. 

Finds the old schoolmate in his eyes— 

Those calm, stern eyes that melt and fill 
As Joe looks fondly up at Bill. 


Ah, pensive scholar ! what is fame ? 

A fitful tongue of leaping flame ; 

A giddy whirlwind’s fickle gust. 

That lifts a pinch of mortal dust: 

A few swift years, and who can show 
Which dust was Bill, and which was Joe ? 

The weary idol takes his stand. 

Holds out his bruised and aching hand, 
While gaping thousands come and go— 
How vain it seems, this empty show !—■ 
Till all at once his pulses thrill : 

'Tis poor old Joe’s “ God bless you, Bill 1” 

And shall we breathe in happier spheres 
The names that pleased our mortal ears— 
In some sweet lull of harp and song. 

For earth-born spirits none too long— 

Just whispering of the world below, 

Where this was Bill, and that was Joe? 




G^lYaet j?rorrj feucife. 

Owen Meredith. 



E may live without poetry, music and art; 

We may live without conscience and live without heart; 
We may live without friends; we may live without books; 

But civilized man cannot live without cooks. 


We may live without books,— what is knowledge but grieving? 
We may live without hope,—what is hope but deceiving ? 

We may live without love,— what is passion but pining? 

But where is the man that can live without dining ? 






























































-fa 


(IJfce cBong °f ® arri p* 




-s- 


IVE us a song ! ” the soldiers cried, 
VJ, The outer trenches guarding, 

When the heated guns of the camps allied 
Grew weary of bombarding. 

The dark Redan, in silent scoff, 

Lay grim and threatening under ; 

And the tawny mound of the Malakoff 
No longer belched its thunder. 

There was a pause. A guardsman said, 
“We storm the forts to-morrow; 

Sing while we may, another day 
Will bring enough of sorrow." 

They lay along the battery’s side, 

Below the smoking cannon : 

Brave hearts from Severn and from Clyde, 
And from the banks of Shannon. 


Bayard Taylor. 


<$> 


They sang of love, and not of fame; 

Forgot was Britain’s glory : 

Each heart recalled a different name, 
But all sang “ Annie Laurie." 

Voice after voice caught up the song, 
Until its tender passion 
Rose like an anthem, rich and strong, 
Their battle-eve confession. 

Dear girl, her name he dared not speak, 
But as the song grew louder, 
Something upon the soldier’s cheek 
Washed off the stains of powder. 

w 


Beyond the darkening ocean burned 
The bloody sunset’s embers. 

While the Crimean valleys learned 
How English love remembers. 

And once again a fire of hell 

Rained on the Russian quarters, 

With scream of shot, and burst of shell, 
And bellowing of the mortars ! 

And Irish Nora’s eyes are dim 
For a singer dumb and gory ; 

And English Mary mourns for him 
Who sang of “ Annie Laurie.” 

Sleep, soldiers ! still in honored rest 
Your truth and valor wearing: 

The bravest are the tenderest,— 

The loving are the daring. 



X F I had known in the morning 
How wearily all the day 
The words unkind 
Would trouble my mind 
I said when you went away, 

I had been more careful, darling, 

Nor given you needless pain; 

But we vex ‘ ‘ our own ” 

With look and tone 

We might never take back again. 


Margaret E. Sangster. 

For though in the quiet evening 
You may give me the kiss of peace. 
Yet it might be 
That never for me 
The pain of the heart should cease. 
How many go forth in the morning 
That never come home at night! 
And hearts have broken 
For harsh words spoken, 

That sorrow can ne’er set right. 


We have careful thoughts for the stranger, 
And smiles for the sometime guest, 

But oft for “ our own ” 

The bitter tone, 

Though we love “ our own ” the best. 

Ah, lips with the curve impatient! 

Ah, brow with that look of scorn ! 

’ Twere a cruel fate, 

Were the night too late 

To undo the work of morn. 


> (Hftere Ro ©eatfi. 

_ 


\ I 7 HERE is no death ! The stars go down 
, ^ , To rise upon some fairer shore : 

And bright in Heaven’s jewelled crown 
They shine forevermore. 

There is no death ! The dust we tread 
Shall change beneath the summer showers 
To golden grain or mellow fruit, 

Or rainbow-tinted flowers. 

There is no death ! The forest leaves 
Convert to life the viewless air; 

The rocks disorganize to feed 
The hungry moss they bear. 




J. L. McCreery, 

There is no death ! The leaves may fall, 
And flowers may fade and pass away ; 

They only wait through wintry hours 
The coming of the May. 

There is no death ! An angel form 
Walks o’er the earth with silent tread ; 

He bears our best loved things away ; 

And then we call them “ dead." 

He leaves our hearts all desolate, 

He plucks our fairest, sweetest flowers ; 

Transplanted into bliss, they now 
Adorn immortal bowers. 

The bird-like voice, whose joyous tones 
Made glad these scenes of sin and strife, 

Sings now an everlasting song 
Around the tree of life. 



Where’er he sees a smile too bright. 

Or heart too pure for taint and vice. 

He bears it to that world of light, 

To dwell in Paradise. 

Born unto that undying life, 

They leave us but to come again ; 

With joy we welcome them the same— 
Except their sin and pain. 

And ever near us, though unseen. 

The dear immortal spirits tread ; 

For all the boundless universe 
Is life —there are no dead. 




\ 


“7 




<5 
































































' 



























































<5 


630 




FAMILIAR POEMS. 





MaftirV an Qcjifor ©uteri o’ JTim. 


-sSK9«- 





Will M. Carleton. 


“rr. oc 
If* i 


OOD mornin’, sir, Mr. Printer; how is your body to-day? 


'm glad you’re to home, for you fellers is al’ays a runnin’ away. 
Your paper last week wa’n’t so spicy nor sharp as the one week before; 

But I s’pose when the campaign is opened, you’ll be whoopin’ it up to ’em 
more. 

That feller that’s printin’ The Smasher is goin’ for you perty smart; 

And our folks said this mornin’ at breakfast, they thought he was gettin’ the 
start. 

But I hushed ’em right up in a minute, and said a good word for you; 

I told ’em I b’lieved you was tryin’ to do just as well as you knew; 

And I told ’em that some one was sayin’, and whoever ’twas it is so, 

That you can’t expect much of no one man, nor blame him for what he don’t 
know. 

But, layin’ aside pleasure for business, I’ve brought you my little boy Jim ; 
And I thought I would see if you couldn’t make an editor outen o’ him. 

“ My family stock is increasin’, while other folks seem to run short. 

I’ve got a right smart of a family—it’s one of the old-fashioned sort: 

There’s Ichabod, Isaac and Israel, a workin’ away on the farm, 

They do ’bout as much as one good boy, and make things go off like a 
charm. 

There’s Moses and Aaron are sly ones, and slip like a couple of eels ; 

But they’re tol’able steady in one thing—they al’ays git round to their 
meals. 

There’s Peter, is busy inventin’ (though what he invents I can’t see), 

And Joseph is studyin’ medicine—and both of ’em boardin’ with me. 
There’s Abram and Albert is married, each workin’ my farm for himself, 
And Sam smashed his nose at a shootin’, and so he is laid on the shelf. 

The rest of the boys are all growin’ ’cept this little runt, which is Jim, 

And I thought that perhaps I’d be makin’ an editor outen o’ him. 

“ He ain’t no great shakes for to labor, though I’ve labored with him a good 
deal. 

And give him some strappin’ good arguments I know he couldn’t help but 
to feel; 

But he’s built out of second-growth timber, and nothin’ about him is big, 
Exceptin’ his appetite only, and there he’s as good as a pig. 

I keep him carryin’ luncheons, and fillin’ and bringin’ the jugs, 

And take him among the pertatoes, and set him to pickin’ the bugs ; 

And then there’s things to be doin’ a helpin’, the women in-doors ; 

There’s churnin’ and washin’ of dishes, and other descriptions of chores; 


But he don't take to nothin’ but victuals, and he’ll never be much, I’m 
afraid. 

So I thought it would be a good notion to larn him the editor’s trade. 

His body’s too small for a farmer, his judgment is rather too slim, 

But I thought we perhaps could be makin’ an editor outen o’ him. 

“ It ain’t much to get up a paper, it wouldn’t take him long for to learn ; 

He could feed the machine, I’m thinkin’, with a good strappin’ fellow to 
turn. 

And things that was once hard in doin’ is easy enough now to do; 

Just keep your eye on your machinery, and crack your arrangements right 
through. 

I used for to wonder at readin’, and where it was got up, and how; 

But ’tis most of it made by machinery—I can see it all plain enough now. 
And poetry, too, is constructed by machines of different designs. 

Each one with a gauge and a chopper, to see to the length of the lines; 

And I hear a New York clairvoyant is runnin’ one sleeker than grease. 

And a -rentin’ her heaven-born productions at a couple of dollars apiece ; 
An’ since the whole trade has growed easy, ’twould be easy enough, I’ve a 
whim, 

If you was agreed, to be makin’ an editor outen o’ Jim.” 

The editor sat in his sanctum and looked the old man in the eye, 

Then glanced at the grinning young hopeful, and mournfully made his reply : 
“ Is your son a small unbound edition of Moses and Solomon both ? 

Can he compass his spirit with meekness, and strangle a natural oath ? 

Can he leave all his wrongs to the future, and carry his heart in his cheek ? 
Can he do an hour’s work in a minute, and live on a sixpence a week? 

Can he courteously talk to an equal, and browbeat an impudent dunce? 

Can he keep things in apple-pie order, and do half-a-dozen at once ? 

“ Can he press all the springs of knowledge with quick and reliable touch, 
And be sure that he knows how much to know, and knows how to not know 
too much ? 

Does he know how to spur up his virtue, and put a check-rein on his pride? 
Can he carry a gentleman’s manners within a rhinoceros’ hide ? 

Can he know all, and do all, and be all, with cheerfulness, courage and vim ? 
If so, we perhaps can be ‘ makin’ an editor outen o’ him.’ ” 

The farmer stood curiously listening, while wonder his visage o’erspread, 
And he said: “Jim, I guess we’ll be goin’; he’s probably out of his head.” 







Will M. Carleton. 


X HICH this railway smash reminds me, in an underhanded way, 
Of a lightning-rod dispenser that came down on me one day ; 
Oiled to order in his motions—sanctimonious in his mien— 

Hands as white as any baby’s an’ a face unnat’ral clean; 

Not a wrinkle had his raiment, teeth and linen glittered white, 

And his new-constructed neck-tie was an interestin’ sight! 

Which I almost wish a razor had made red that white-skinned throat, 
And that new-constructed neck-tie had composed a hangman’s knot, 
Ere he brought his sleek-trimmed carcass for my women folks to see, 
And his buzz-saw tongue a-runnin’ for to gouge a gash in me. 

Still I couldn’t help but like him—as I fear I al’ays must. 

The gold o’ my own doctrine in a fellow heap o’ dust; 

For I saw that my opinions, when I fired them round by round, 
Brought back an answerin’ volley of a mighty similar sound. 


I touched him on religion, and the joys my heart had known ; 

And I found that he had very similar notions of his own ! 

I told him of the doubtings that made sad my boyhood years ; 

Why, he’d laid awake till morning with that same old breed of fears ! 

I pointed up the pathway that I hoped to heaven to go : 

H e was on that very ladder, only just a round below ! 

Our politics was different, and at first he galled and winced ; 

But I arg’ed him so able, he was very soon convinced. 

And ’twas gettin' tow’rd the middle of a hungry summer day— 
There was dinner on the table, and I asked him, would he stay? 

And he sat him down among us—everlastin’ trim and neat— 

And he asked a short crisp blessin’ almost good enough to eat! 

Then he fired up on the mercies of our Everlastin’ Friend, 























































FAMILIAR POEMS. 


631 


Till he gi’n the Lord Almighty a good, first-class recommend: 

And for full an hour we listened to that sugar-coated scamp— 
Talkin’ like a blessed angel—eatin’ like a blasted tramp 1 

My wife—she liked the stranger, smiling on him warm and sweet; 
(It al’ays flatters women when their guests are on the eat!) 

And he hinted that some ladies never lose their youthful charms, 
And caressed her yearlin’ baby, and received it in his arms. 

My sons and daughters liked him—for he had progressive views, 
And he chewed the cud o’ fancy, and gi’n down the latest news : 
And I couldn’t help but like him—as I fear I al’ays must, 

The gold of my own doctrines in a fellow-heap o’ dust. 

He was chiselin’ desolation through a piece of apple-pie, 

When he paused and gazed upon us, with a tear in his off eye, 

And said, “Oh, happy family !—your joys they make me sad ! 
They all the time remind me of the dear ones once / had 1 
A babe as sweet as this one; a wife almost as fair; 

A little girl with ringlets, like that one over there. 

But had I not neglected the means within my way. 

Then they might still be living, and loving me to-day. 

“ One night there came a tempest; the thunder peals were dire ; 
The clouds that marched above us were shooting bolts of fire; 

In my own house I lying, was thinking, to my shame, 

How little I had guarded against those bolts of flame, 

When crash ! — through roof and ceiling the deadly lightning cleft. 
And killed my wife and children, and only I was left! 

“ Since then afar I’ve wandered, and naught for life have cared. 
Save to save others’ loved ones whose lives have yet been spared ; 
Since then it is my mission, where’er by sorrow tossed. 

To sell to worthy people good lightning-rods at cost. 

With sure and strong protection I’ll clothe your buildings o’er; 


'Twill cost you—twenty dollars (perhaps a trifle more; 

Whatever else it comes to, at lowest price I’ll put; 

You simply sign a contract to pay so much per foot).’’ 

I —signed it! while my family, all approvin’, stood about; 

The villain dropped a tear on’t—but he didn’t blot it out! 

That self-same day, with wagons, came some rascals great and small; 

They hopped up on my buildin’s just as if they owned ’em all ; 

They hewed ’em and they hacked ’em—agin’ my loud desires— 

They trimmed ’em off with gewgaws, and they bound ’em down with wires ; 
They hacked ’em and they hewed ’em and they hewed and hacked ’em still, 
And every precious minute kep’ a runnin’ up the bill. 

To find my soft-spoke neighbor, did I rave and rush and run; 

He was suppin’ with a neighbor, just a few miles further on. 

“ Do you think,” I loudly shouted, “ that I need a mile o’ wire 
For to save each separate hay-cock out o’ heaven’s consumin’ fire ? 

Did you think, to keep my buildin’s out o’ some uncertain harm, 

I was goin’ to deed you over all the balance of my farm ! ” 

He silenced me with silence in a very little while. 

And then trotted out the contract with a reassuring smile ; 

And for half an hour explained it, with exasperatin’ skill, 

While his myrmurdums kep’ probably a runnin’ up my bill. 

He held me to that contract with a firmness queer to see; 

’Twas the very first occasion he had disagreed with me ! 

And for that ’ere thunder story, ere the rascal finally went, 

I paid two hundred dollars, if I paid a single cent. 

And if any lightnin’-rodist wants a dinner dialogue 
With the restaurant department of an enterprisin’ dog, 

Let him set his mouth a-runnin’ just inside my outside gate, 

And I’ll bet two hundred dollars that he won’t have long to wait. 



Petroleum V. Nasby. 


HE isn’t half so handsome as when, twenty years agone. 

At her old home in Piketon, Parson Avery made us one ; 

The great house crowded full of guests of every degree, 

The girls all envying Hannah Jane, the boys all envying me. 

Her fingers then were taper, and her skin as white as milk, 

Her brown hair—what a mess it was ! and soft and fine as silk ; 

No wind-moved willow by a brook had ever such a grace, 

The form of Aphrodite, with a pure Madonna face. 

She had but meagre schooling; her little notes to me 
Were full of crooked pot-hooks, and the worst orthography : 

Her “ dear ” she spelled with double e, and “ kiss ” with but one s; 
But when one’s crazed with passion, what s a letter more or less ? 

She blundered in her writing, and she blundered when she spoke, 
And every rule of syntax, that old Murray made, she broke ; 

But she was beautiful and fresh, and I—well, I was young ; 

Her form and face o’erbalanced all the blunders of her tongue. 

I was but little better. True, I’d longer been at school; 

My tongue and pen were run, perhaps, a little more by rule ; 

But that was all. The neighbors round, who both of us well knew. 
Said—which I believe—she was the better of the two. 

All’s changed : the light of seventeen’s no longer in her eyes ; 

Her wavy hair is gone—that loss the coiffeur’s art supplies ; 

Her form is thin and angular; she slightly forward bends; 

Her fingers, once so shapely, now are stumpy at the ends. 


She knows but very little, and in little are we one; 

The beauty rare, that more than hid that great defect, is gone. 

My parvenu relations now deride my homely wife. 

And pity me that I am tied to such a clod for life. 

I know there is a difference; at reception and levee, 

The brightest, wittiest and most famed of women smile on me ; 

And everywhere I hold my place among the greatest men ; 

And sometimes sigh, with Whittier’s Judge, “ Alas ! it might have been.” 

When they all crowd around me, stately dames and brilliant belles, 

And yield to me the homage that all great success compels. 

Discussing art and state-craft, and literature as well, 

From Homer down to Thackeray, and Swedenborg on “ Hell,” 

I can’t forget that from these streams my wife has never quaffed, 

Has never with Ophelia wept, nor with Jack Falstaff laughed ; 

Of authors, actors, artists—why, she hardly knows the names ; 

She slept while I was speaking on the Alabama claims. 

I can’t forget—just at this point another form appears— 

The wife I wedded as she was before my prosperous years ; 

I travel o’er the dreary road we travelled side by side, 

And wonder what my share would be, if Justice should divide. 

She had four hundred dollars left her from the old estate 
On that we married, and, thus poorly armored, faced our fate. 

I wrestled with my books ; her task was harder far than mine— 

’Twas how to make two hundred dollars do the work of nine. 












































632 


FAMILIAR POEMS 


At last I was admitted ; then I had my legal lore, 

An office with a stove and desk, of books perhaps a score ; 

She had her beauty and her youth, and some housewifely skill. 

And love for me and faith in me, and back of that a will. 

I had no friends behind me—no influence to aid ; 

I worked and fought for every little inch of ground I made. 

And how she fought beside me ! never woman lived on less ; 

In two long years she never spent a single cent for dress. 

Ah! how she cried for joy when my first legal fight was won, 

When our eclipse passed partly by, and we stood in the sun 1 
The fee was fifty dollars—’t was the work of half a year— 

First captive, lean and scraggy, of my legal bow and spear. 

I well remember when my coat (the only one I had) 

Was seedy grown and threadbare, and, in fact, most shocking bad; 
The tailor’s stern remark when I a modest order made : 

“ Cash is the basis, sir, on which we tailors do our trade.” 


Her winter cloak was in his shop by noon that very day; 

She wrought on hickory shirts at night that tailor’s skill to pay ; 

I got a coat, and wo^ it; but alas ! poor Hannah Jane 
Ne’er went to church or lecture till warm weather came again. 

I 

Our second season she refused a cloak of any sort. 

That I might have a decent suit in which t’ appear in court; 

She made her last year’s bonnet do, that I might have a hat : 
Talk of the old-time, flame-enveloped martyrs after that 1 

No negro ever worked so hard ; a servant’s pay to save. 

She made herself most willingly a household drudge and slave. 
What wonder that she never read a magazine or book, 
Combining as she did in one nurse, housemaid, seamstress, cook. 

What wonder that the beauty fled, that I once so adored 1 
Her beautiful complexion my fierce kitchen fire devoured ; 

Her plump, soft, rounded arm was once too fair to be concealed ; 
Hard work for me that softness into sinewy strength congealed. 


I was her altar, and her love the sacrificial flame ; 

Ah 1 with what pure devotion she to that altar came. 

And, tearful, flung thereon—alas 1 I did not know it then— 

All that she was, and more than that, all that she might have been! 


••o-O-O' 



VOHN ANDERSON, my jo, John, 
When we were first acquent, 

Your locks were like the raven, 

Your bonnie brow was brent; 

But now your brow is beld, John, 

Your locks are like the snaw; 

But blessings on your frosty pow, 

John Anderson, my jo. 


eg — o..o - *-— 5) 

eKnSLer&on, ^o. 

*— ~ 3 ) 

Robert Burns. 




John Anderson, my jo, John, 

We clamb the hill thegither ; 
And mony a canty day, John, 
We’ve had wi’ ane anither. 
Now we maun totter down, John, 
But hand in hand we’ll go ; 
And sleep thegither at the foot, 
John Anderson, my jo. 




I©?°- 


(Jfome, <§ooeet Jfome. 


SSL 


John Howard Payne. 

As published by Mr. Payne , in New York, in 1831. 




* jUTlD pleasures and palaces though we may roam, 

Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home. 

A charm from the skies seems to hallow us there. 

Which seek through the world, is ne’er met with elsewhere. 

Home ! home 1 sweet, sweet home 1 
There’s no place like home 1 there’s no place like home 1 


How sweet ’tis to sit ’neath a fond father’s smile, 

And the cares of a mother to soothe and beguile! 

Let others delight ’mid new pleasures to roam. 

But give, oh ! give me the pleasures of home. 

Home ! home ! sweet, sweet home ! 

There’s no place like home ! there’s no place like home 1 


An exile from home, splendor dazzles in vain ; 

Oh, give me my lowly thatched cottage again. 

The birds singing gaily that come to my call— 

Give me them, with the peace of mind dearer than all. 

Homel home! sweet, sweet home 1 
There’s no place like home 1 there’s no place like home! 


To thee I’ll return, overburdened with care; 

The heart’s dearest solace will smile on me there. 

No more from that cottage again will I roam; 

Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home. 

Home ! home ! sweet, sweet home 1 
There’s no place like home ! there’s no place like home ! 























































Thomas Moore, 


T -T 1 AINTLY as tolls the 
evening chime, 

Our voices keep tune, and 
our oars keep time. 
Soon as the woods on 
the shore look dim, 
We’ll sing at St. Ann’s 
our parting hymn ; 
Row, brothers, row ! the 
stream runs fast, 

The rapids are near and 
the daylight’s past 1 




Utawa’s tide! this trem¬ 
bling moon 

Shall see us afloat o’er thy 
surges soon. 

Saint of this green isle, 
hear our prayers — 

Oh ! grant us cool heavens 
and favoring airs! 

Blow, breezes, blow ! the 
stream runs fast. 

The rapids are near, and 
the daylight’s past! 


iHMwiffi 


Why should we yet our 
sail unfurl ? 

There is not a breath the 
blue wave to curl. 

But when the wind blows 
off the shore, 

Oh ! sweetly we’ll rest our 
weary oar. 

Blow, breezes, blow ! the 
stream runs fast, 

The rapids are near, and 
the daylight’s past! 






















































































































































































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Theodore O’Hara. 


The Legislature of Kentucky caused the dead of that State who fell at Buena Vista to be brought home and interred at Frankfort, under a 
splendid monument. Theodore O’Hara, a gifted Irish-Kentuckian soldier and scholar, was selected the orator and 
poet of the occasion, whence this beautiful eulogy, which has the same application to-day. 


Y I T HE muffled drum’s sad roll has beat 
The soldier’s last tattoo ; 

No more on life’s parade shall meet 
That brave and fallen few. 

On fame’s eternal camping-ground 
Their silent tents are spread. 

And glory guards, with solemn round, 
The bivouac of the dead. 

No rumor of the foe’s advance 
Now swells upon the wind ; 

No troubled thought at midnight haunts 
Of loved ones left behind ; 

No vision of the morrow’s strife 
The warrior’s dream alarms; 

No braying horn nor screaming file 
At dawn shall call to arms. 

Their shivered swords are red with rust. 
Their plumed heads are bowed; 

Their haughty banner, trailed in dust, 

Is now their martial shroud. 

And plenteous funeral tears have washed 
The red stains from each brow, 

And the proud forms, by battle gashed, 
Are free from anguish now. 

The neighing troop, the flashing blade, 
The bugle’s stirring blast. 

The charge, the dreadful cannonade. 

The din and shout are past; 

Nor war’s wild note nor glory’s peal 
Shall thrill with fierce delight 

Those breasts that never more may feel 
The rapture of the fight. 


Like the fierce northern hurricane 
That sweeps his great plateau. 
Flushed with the triumph yet to gain 
Came down the serried foe. 

Who heard the thunder of the fray 
Break o’er the field beneath 
Knew well the watchword of that day 
Was “ Victory or death.” 

Long had the doubtful conflict raged 
O’er all that stricken plain— 

For never fiercer fight had waged 
The vengeful blood of Spain— 

And still the storm of battle blew, 

Still swelled the gory tide ; 

Not long, our stout old chieftain knew. 
Such odds his strength could bide. 

’Twas in that hour his stern command 
Called to a martyr’s grave 
The flower of his beloved land, 

The nation’s flag to save. 

By rivers of their fathers’ gore 
His first-born laurels grew, 

And well he deemed the sons would pour 
Their lives for glory, too. 

Full many a mother’s breath had swept 
O’er Angostura’s plain— 

And long the pitying sky has wept 
Above the moldering slain. 

The raven’s scream, or eagle’s flight. 

Or shepherd’s pensive lay, 

Alone awakes each sullen height 
That frowned o’er that dread fray. 


Sons of the Dark and Bloody Ground, 

Ye must not slumber there. 

Where stranger steps and tongues resound 
Along the heedless air ; 

Your own proud land’s heroic soil 
Shall be your fitter grave— 

She claims from war his richest spoil— 

The ashes of her brave. 

So, ’neath their parent turf they rest. 

Far from the gory field, 

Borne to a Spartan mother’s breast. 

On many a bloody shield ; 

The sunshine of their native sky 
Smiles sadly on them here, 

And kindest eyes and hearts watch by 
The heroes’ sepulchre. 

Rest on, embalmed and sainted dead. 

Dear as the blood ye gave ; 

No impious footstep here shall tread 
The herbage of your grave ; 

Nor shall your glory be forgot 
While fame her record keeps 
Or honor points the hallowed spot 
Where valor proudly sleeps. 

Yon marble minstrel’s voiceless stone 
In deathless song shall tell. 

When many a vanished age hath flown, 

The story how ye fell; 

Nor wreck, nor change, nor winter’s blight, 
Nor Time’s remorseless doom. 

Shall dim one ray of glory’s light 
That gilds your deathless tomb. 


tfie SJfocjoer^. 


Oliver Wendell Holmes. 


HEN Eve had led her lord away. 
And Cain had killed his brother, 
The stars and flowers, the poets say, 
Agreed with one another 




To cheat the cunning tempter’s art, 

And teach the race its duty, 

By keeping on its wicked heart 
Their eyes of light and beauty, 

A million sleepless lids, they say, 

Will be at least a warning ; 

And so the flowers would watch by day, 
The stars from eve to morning. 



On hill and prairie, field and lawn. 

Their dewy eyes upturning, 

The flowers still watch from reddening dawn 
Till western skies are burning. 

Alas ! each hour of daylight tells 
A tale of shame so crushing. 

That some turn white as sea-bleached shells. 
And some are always blushing. 

But when the patient stars look down 
On all their light discovers, 

The traitor’s smile, the murderer’s frown. 
The lips of lying lovers, 


They try to shut their saddening eyes, 
And in the vain endeavor 
We see them twinkling in the skies, 
And so they wink forever. 


<s 


O 










































Jessie McGregor 

In “ Jack-in-the-Pulpit ,’ 
Nicholas." 


I F words 
were birds, 

And swiftly flew 
From tips 
To lips 

Owned, dear, by you, 

Would they, 

To-day, 

Be hawks and crows ? 

Or blue, 

jyg And true, 

’’jP* And sweet? Who knows? 


Let’s play 
To-day 

We choose the best; 
Birds blue 
And true. 

With dove-like breast! 
’Tis queer, 

My dear. 

We never knew 
That words, 

Like birds, 

Had wings and flew 1 


t 


I 




















































































































































































































































































































636 


FAMILIAR POEMS. 



X SAY there ! P’r’aps 
Some on you chaps 
Might know Jim Wild? 
Well—no offence : 

Thar aint no sense 
In gettin’ riled ! 

Jim was my chum 
Up on the Bar : 

That’s why I come 

Down from up thar. 
Lookin’ for Jim. 

Thank ye, sir ! you 
Ain’t of that crew— 

Blest if you are ! 

Money?—Not much : 

That ain’t my kind ; 

I ain’t no such. 

Rum?—I don’t mind, 

Seein’ it’s you. 


Well, this yer Jim, 

Did you know him?— 

Jess ’bout your size; 

Same kind of eyes ?— 

Well, that is strange : 

Why, it’s two year 
Since he come here. 
Sick, for a change. 

Well, here’s to us ? 

Eh? 

The deuce you say ! 

Dead? 

That little cuss ? 

What makes you star— 
You, over thar? 

Can’t a man drop 
’s glass in yer shop 
But you must rar’ ? 

It wouldn’t take 
Derned much to break 
You and your bar 


Dead ! 

Poor—little—Jim ! 

—Why there was me, 
Jones, and Bob Lee, 
Harry and Ben— 
No-account men : 

Then to take him ! 

Well, thar— Good-by— 
No more, sir,—I— 

Eh? 

What’s that you say ?— 
Why, dern it!—sho 1— 
No ? Yes ! By Jo ! 
Sold? 

Sold ! Why, you limb. 
You ornery 
Derned old 
Long-legged Jim! 










M 


ame 


SL. 






•>§- 


-O-K 


Anonymous. 


•fc ->$• r ] 


O UR beautiful Maggie was married to-day— 

Beautiful Maggie, with soft brown hair. 

Whose shadows fall o’er a face as fair 
As the snowy blooms of the early May ; 

We have kissed her lips and sent her away. 

With many a blessing and many a prayer. 

The pet of our house who was married to-day. 

The sunshine is gone from the old south room, 

Where she sat through the long, bright summer hours. 

And the odor has gone from the window flowers. 

And something is lost of their delicate bloom. 

And a shadow creeps over the house with its gloom; 

A shadow that over our paradise lowers. 

For we see her no more in the old south room. 

I thought that the song of the robin this eve, 

As he sang to his mate on the sycamore tree. 

Had minors of sadness to temper his glee. 

As if he for the loss of our darling did grieve. 

And asked, “ Where is Maggie? ” and “ Why did she leave— 
The maiden who carrolled sweet duets with me ? " 

For she mocked not the song of the robin this eve. 


The pictures seem dim where they hang on the wall; 

Though they cost but a trifle, they always looked fair, 
Whether lamplight or sunlight illumined them there— 

I think ’twas her presence that brightens them all. 

Since Maggie no longer can come to our call. 

With her eyes full of laughter, unshadowed by care, 
The pictures seem dim where they hang on the wall. 

I lounge through the garden, I stand by the gate— 

She stood there to greet me last eve at this hour, 

Every eve, through the summer, in sunshine or shower. 
Just stood by the postern, my coming to wait— 

Dear Maggie, her heart with its welcome elate. 

To give me a smile, and a kiss, and a flower— 

Oh ! when will she meet me again by the gate ? 

She loved us and left us—she loves, and is gone 

With the one she loves best, as his beautiful bride. 
How fondly he called her his joy and his pride. 

Our joy and our pride, whom he claims as his own ! 

But can he, like us, prize the heart he has won— 

The heart that now trustingly throbs by his side ? 

God knows ! and we know that she loves and is gone. 













































(Hfie ©eatft. oj? tfte ©Jfocjoer^), 

William Cullen Bryant. 


TI J HE melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, 
J 11. Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows 
* * brown and sear. 

Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the autumn leaves lie dead ; 
They rustle to the eddying gust, and to the rabbit’s tread. 
The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrubs the jay, 
And from the wood-top calls the crow through all the gloomy 
day. 


Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers, that lately sprang 
and stood, 

In brighter light and softer airs, a beauteous sisterhood? 

Alas ! they all are in their graves ; the gentle race of flowers 
Are lying in their lowly beds with the fair and good of ours. 
The rain is falling where they lie ; but the cold November rain 
Calls not from out the gloomy earth the lovely ones again. 


And then I think of one who in her youthful beauty died, 

The fair meek blossom that grew up and faded by my side. 

In the cold moist earth we laid her, when the forests cast the leaf. 
And we wept that one so lovely should have a life so brief; 

Yet not unmeet it was that one, like that young friend of oars. 

So gentle and so beautiful, should perish with the flowers. 


























































FAMILIAR POEMS. 


J- 


A 


ID 


638 





(Ufie ©Poking ^cene. 







S S^—V- »o4o— *7^? e) S' *'■ 

T. Buchanan Read. 

The following is pronounced by the Westminster Review to be unquestionably the finest American poem ever written. 


ITHIN this sober realm of leafless trees. 
The russet year inhaled the dreamy air, 
Like some tanned reaper in his hour of ease. 
When all the fields are lying brown and bare. 

The gray barns looking from their hazy hills 
O’er the dim waters widening in the vales. 
Sent down the air a greeting to the mills, 

On the dull thunder of alternate flails. 


Alone, from out the stubble piped the quail, 

And croaked the crow through all the dreamy gloom; 
Alone the pheasant, drumming in the vale. 

Made echo to the distant cottage loom. 

There was no bud, no bloom upon the bowers ; 

The spiders wove their thin shrouds night by night; 
The thistle-down, the only ghost of flowers, 

Sailed slowly by—passed noiseless out of sight. 



All sights were mellowed and all sounds subdued, 

The hills seemed further and the streams sang low; 

As in a dream the distant woodman hewed 
His winter log with many a muffled blow. 

The embattled forests, erewhile armed in gold, 

Their banners bright with every martial hue. 

Now stood, like some sad beaten host of old, 
Withdrawn afar in Time’s remotest blue. 

On slumberous wings the vulture tried his flight: 

The dove scarce heard his sighing mate’s complaint; 

And, like a star slow drowning in the light. 

The village church-vane seemed to pale and faint. 

The sentinel cock upon the hill-side crew— 

Crew thrice, and all was stiller than before— 

Silent till some replying wanderer blew 

His alien horn, and then was heard no more. 

Where erst the jay within the elm’s tall crest 

Made garrulous trouble round the unfledged young: 

And where the oriole hung her swaying nest 
By every light wind like a censer swung ; 

Where sang the noisy masons of the eaves, 

The busy swallows circling ever near. 

Foreboding, as the rustic mind believes, 

An early harvest and a plenteous year; 

Where every bird which charmed the vernal feast 
Shook the sweet slumber from its wings at morn. 

To warn the reapers of the rosy east— 

All now was songless, empty, and forlorn 


Amid all this, in this most cheerless air, 

And where the woodbine sheds upon the porch 

Its crimson leaves, as if the year stood there 
Firing the floor with his inverted torch— 

Amid all this, the centre of the scene, 

The white-haired matron, with monotonous tread, 

Plied her swift wheel, and with her joyless mien 
Sat like a Fate, and watched the flying thread. 

She had known sorrow. He had walked with her. 

Oft supped, and broke with her the ashen crust; 

And in the dead leaves still she heard the stir 
Of his black mantletrailing in the dust. 

While yet her cheek was bright with summer bloom, 
Her country summoned, and she gave her all; 

And twice War bowed to her his sable plume— 
Re-gave the swords to rust upon her wall. 

Re-gave the swords—but not the hand that drew, 

And struck for liberty the dying blow ; 

Nor him who, to his sire and country true, 

Fell, ’mid the ranks of the invading foe. 

Long, but not loud, the droning wheel went on, 

Like the low murmur of a hive at noon; 

Long, but not loud, the memory of the gone 

Breathed through her lips a sad and tremulous tusie. 

At last the thread was snapped—her head was bowed, 
Life dropped the distaff through his hands serene ; 

And loving neighbors smoothed her careful shroud— 
While Death and Winter closed the autumn scene. 








































DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


639 


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Arranged both Topically and Alphabetically. 


Mme. iF<' Stael. 


Lord Thurlozo. 


Absence. 

Conspicuous by his absence. 

Sed priufulgebant Cassius atque Brutus, eo ipso 
quod effigies eorum non videbantur. 

Tacitus. 

Absence makes the heart grow fonder; 

Isle of Beauty, fare thee well! 

Thomas Haynes Bayley. 

I dote on his very absence. 

Shakspere. 

Your absence of mind we have borne, till your presence of body 
came to be called in question by it. 

Lamb. 

Accident. 

A happy accident. 

The accident of an accident. 

Acquaintance. 

Should auld acquaintance be forgot, 

And never brought to min’? 

Should auld acquaintance be forgot, 

And days o’ lang syne? 

Burns. 

If there be no great love in the beginning, yet Heaven may decrease 
it upon better acquaintance, when we are married, and have more 
occasion to know one another: I hope upon familiarity will grow 
more contempt. 

Shakspere. 

Action. 

Statesman, yet friend to truth! of soul sincere, 

In action faithful, and in honor clear; 

Who broke no promise, serv’d no private end. 

Who gain’d no title, and who lost no friend. 

rope. 

What a piece of work is a man! IIow noble in reason ! how infinite 
in faculties! in form and moving, how express and admirable! in 
action, how like an angel! in apprehension, how like a god! 

Shakspere. 

For since these arms of mine had seven years’ pith, 

Till now some nine moons wasted, they have us’d 
Their dearest action in the tented field. 

Shakspere. 

In peace there’s nothing so becomes a man 
As modest stillness and humility; 

But when the blast of war blows in our ears. 

Then imitate the action of the tiger: 

Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood. 

Shakspere. 


With devotion’s visage, 

And pious action, we do sugar o’er 
The Devil himself. 

Shakspere. 

Adversity. 

A wretched soul, bruised with adversity. 

Shakspere. 

A man I am, cross’d with adversity. 

Shakspere. 

If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small. 

Old Testament. 

In the day of prosperity be joyful, but in the day of adversity consider. 

Old Testament. 

Sweet are the uses of adversity, 

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, 

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head; 

And this our life, exempt from public haunt, 

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, 
Sermons in stones, and good in everything. 

Shakspere. 

The aromatic plants bestow 
No spicy fragrance while they grow; 

But crush’d, or trodden to the ground, 

Diffuse their balmy sweets around. 

The wretch condemn’d with life to part, 

Still, still on hope relies ; 

And every pang that rends the heart 
Bids expectation rise. 


Goldsmith. 


Age. 


My way of life 

Is fall’ll into the sear, the yellow leaf; 

And that which should accompany old age, 

As honor, love, obedience, troops of friends, 

I must not look to have. 

Shakspere. 

Me, let the tender office long engage 
To rock the cradle of reposing age, 

With lenient arts extend a mother’s breath, 

Make languor smile, and smooth the bed of death: 
Explore the thought, explain the asking eye, 

And keep awhile one parent from the sky. 

Pope. 

The stars shall fade away, the sun himself 
Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years. 

Addison. 

In a good old age. 

Old Testament. 
His hair just grizzled 
As in a green old age. 

Dry den. 


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The Pyramids themselves, doting with age, have forgotten the names 
of their founders. 

Fuller. 

Alone. 


So lonely ’twas, that God himself 
Scarce seemed there to be. 


Coleridge. 


Like one that on a lonesome road 
Doth walk in fear and dread, 

And, having once turned round, walks on 
And turns no more his head, 

Because he knows a frightful fiend 
Doth close behind him tread. 

Coleridge. 

Alone! —that worn-out word, 

So idly, and so coldly heard; 

Yet all that poets sing, and grief hath known, 

Of hopes laid waste, knells in that word—A lone ! 

Bulwer Lytton. 

Ambition. 

When that the poor have cried, Coesar hath wept: 
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff. 

Shakspere. 

I have no spur 
To prick the sides of my intent; but only 
Vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself, 

And falls on the other. 

Shakspere. 

Here we may reign secure, and in my choice 
To reign is worth ambition, though in hell: 

Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven. 


Milton. 


Angels. 


O woman! lovely woman ! nature made thee 
To temper man; we had been brutes without you. 

Angels are painted fair, to look like you: 

There’s in you all that we believe in heaven: 

Amazing brightness, purity, and truth, 

Eternal joy, and everlasting love. 

Otway. 

He pass’d the flaming bounds of place and time: 

The living throne, the sapphire blaze, 

Where angels tremble while they gaze, 

He saw; but, blasted with excess of light, 

Closed his eyes in endless night. 

Gray. 

Argument. 

I have found you an argument;! am not obliged to find you an 
understanding. 

Johnson. 

It would be argument for a week, laughter for a month, and a good 
jest forever. 

Shakspere. 

He draweth out the thread of his verbosity finer than the staple of 
his argument. 

Shakspere. 

Babe. 

A babe in a house is a well-spring of pleasure. 


Tapper. 


And pity, like a naked, new-born babe. 


Shakspere. 


Oh! when a Mother meets on high 
The babe she lost in infancy, 

Hath she not then, for pains and fears, 
The day of woe, the watchful night, 
For all her sorrow, all her tears, 

An over-payment of delight? 


Battle. 


Southey. 


And leaving in battle no blot on his name, 

Look proudly to heaven from the death-bed of fame. 

Campbell. 

Ye mariners of England! 

That guard our native seas, 

Whose flag has braved a thousand years 
The battle and the breeze! 

Campbell. 

When the battle rages loud and long, 

And the stormy winds do blow. 

Campbell. 

And little of this great world can I speak, 

More than pertains to feats of broil and battle. 

Shakspere. 

But to the hero, when his sword 
Has won the battle for the free, 

Thy voice sounds like a prophet’s word. 

Halleck. 

Wut’s words to them whose faith and truth 
On War’s red techstone rang true metal, 

Who ventured life an’ love an’ youth 
For the gret prize o’ death in battle? 

Lowell. 

Beauty. 

So stands the statue that enchants the world, 

So bending tries to veil the matchless boast, 

The mingled beauties of exulting Greece. 

Thomson. 

In naked beauty, more adorn’d, 

More lovely, than Pandora. 


Milton. 


She walks in beauty, like the night 
Of cloudless climes and starry skies ; 
And all that’s best of dark and bright 
Meet in her aspect and her eyes; 
Thus mellow’d to that tender light 
Which Heaven to gaudy day denies. 


Blessing. 


Byron. 


Blessings be with them, and eternal praise, 

Who gave us nobler loves, and nobler cares, 

The Poets, who on earth have made us heirs 
Of truth and pure delight by heavenly lays! 

Wordsworth. 

Blessings on him who invented sleep, the mantle that covers all 
human thoughts, the food that appeases hunger, the drink that 
quenches thirst, the fire that warms cold, the cold that moderates heat, 
and lastly, the general coin that purchases all things, the balance and 
weight that equals the shepherd with the king, and the simple with the 
wise. 

Cervantes. 

Hush, my dear, lie still and slumber! 

Holy angels guard thy bed! 

Heavenly blessings without number 
Gently falling on thy head. 

Watts. 


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Blush. 

But ’neath yon crimson tree, 

Lover to listening- maid might breathe his flame, 

Nor mark, within its roseate canopy, 

Her blush of maiden shame. 

Bryant. 

We grieved, we sighed, we wept: we never blushed before. 

Cowley. 

This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth 
The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms, 

And bears his blushing honors thick upon him: 

The third day, comes a frost, a killing frost; 

And—when he thinks, good easy man, full surely 
His greatness is a ripening—nips his root, 

And then he falls. 

Shakspere. 

To the nuptial bower I led her, blushing like the morn. 

Milton. 

Burden. 

Every man shall bear his own burden. 

New Testament. 

For other things mild Heav’n a time ordains, 

And disapproves that care, though wise in show, 

That with superfluous burden loads the day. 

And, when God sends a cheerful hour, refrains. 

Milton. 

And the gay grandsire, skill’d in gestic lore, 

Has frisk’d beneath the burden of threescore. 

Goldsmith. 

Out from the heart of Nature rolled 
The burdens of the Bible old. 

Emerson. 

Business. 

A dinner lubricates business. 

Lord Stowell. 

Seest thou a man diligent in his business? he shall stand before 
kings ; he shall not stand before mean men. 

Old Testament. 

Of seeming arms to make a short essay, 

Then hasten to be drunk, the business of the day. 

Dryden. 

Despatch is the soul of business. 

Chesterfield. 

How doth the little busy bee 
Improve each shining hour? 


Watts. 


The armorers, accomplishing the knights, 

With busy hammers closing rivets up, 

Give dreadful note of preparation. 

Shakspere. 

Calm. 

Rest here, distrest by poverty no more, 

Here find that calm thou gav’st so oft before; 

Sleep, undisturb’d, within this peaceful shrine, 

Till angels wake thee with a note like thine! 

Johnson. 

Ne’er saw I, never felt, a calm so deep ! 

The river glideth at his own sweet will; 

Dear God! the very houses seem asleep; 

And all that mighty fieart is lying still! 

Wordsworth. 


And, through the heat of conflict, keeps the law 
In calmness made, and sees what he foresaw. 

Wordsworth. 

Care. 

Care to our coffin adds a nail, no doubt, 

And every grin, so merry, draws one out. 

Wolcot. 

Let the world glide, let the world go: 

A fig for care, and a fig for woe! 

If I can’t pay, why, I can owe, 

And death makes equal the high and low. 

Jleywood. 

Shall I, wasting in despair, 

Die because a woman’s fair? 

Or make pale my cheeks with care, 

’Cause another’s rosy are? 

Be she fairer than the day, 

Or the flow’ry meads in May, 

If she be not so to me, 

What care I how fair she be? 


Hang sorrow! care will kill a cat. 
And threescore let’s be merry. 

If the heart of a man is depress’d with cares, 
The mist is dispell’d when a woman appears. 


Wither. 


Wither. 


Gay. 


Charity. 

An old man, broken with the storms of state, 

Is come to lay his weary bones among ye; 

Give him a little earth for charity! 

Shakspere. 

In Faith and Hope the world will disagree, 

But all mankind’s concern is Charity. 

Pope. 

Charity shall cover the multitude of sins. 

New Testament. 

Careless their merits or their faults to scan, 

His pity gave ere charity began. 


Goldsmith. 


Chastity. 


Early, bright, transient, chaste, as the morning, 
She sparkled, was exhaled, and went to heaven. 


Toung. 


As chaste as unsunned snow. 


Shakspere. 

That chastity of honor which felt a stain like a wound. 

Burke. 

So dear to Heaven is saintly chastity, 

That, when a soul is found sincerely so, 

A thousand liveried angels lackey her, 

Driving far off each thing of sin and guilt. 


Milton. 


Childhood. 

Ah, happy hills ! ah, pleasing shade! 

Ah, fields belov’d in vain ! 

Where once my careless childhood stray’d, 
A stranger yet to pain ! 


Gray. 


I have had playmates, I have had companions, 

In my days of childhood, in my joyful school-days: 
All are gone, the old familiar faces. 


Lamb. 


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642 


DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


The childhood shows the man 
As morning shows the day. 

Milton. 

The children like olive plants round about thy table. 

Old Testament. 

By sports like these are all their cares beguil’d; 

The sports of children satisfy the child. 

Goldsmith. 

Dancing. 

Midnight shout and revelry, 

Tipsy dance and jollity. 

Milton. 


Ease. 

H ow blest is he who crowns, in shades like these, 

A youth of labor with an age of ease! 

Goldsmith. 

Shall I not take mine ease in mine inn? 

Shakspere. 

Nor peace nor ease the heart can know, 

Which, like the needle true, 

Turns at the touch of joy or woe, 

But, turning, trembles too. 

Mrs. Greville. 

Error. 


On with the dance ! let joy be unconfined. 

Byron. 

And bear about the mockery of woe 
To midnight dances and the public show. 

Pope. 


Doubt. 


No hinge, nor loop 
To hang a doubt on. 


Shakspere. 


Doubt thou the stars are fire, 

Doubt that the sun doth move; 

Doubt truth to be a liar, 

But never doubt I love. 

Shakspere. 


And better had they ne’er been born, 

Who read to doubt, or read to scorn. 

Scott. 


To err is human, to forgive divine. 

Pope. 

Truth crushed to earth shall rise again; 

The eternal years of God are hers; 

But Error, wounded, writhes with pain, 

And dies among his worshippers. 

Byron. 


Eternity. 

’Tis the divinity that stirs within us; 

’Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter, 

And intimates eternity to man. 

Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought! 

Addison. 

But there are wanderers o’er Eternity 

Whose bark drives on and on, and anchor’d ne’er shall be. 

Byron. 


Dreams. 


Faith. 


Plunt half a day for a forgotten dream. 

Wordsworth. 

Who has not felt how sadly sweet 

The dream of home, the dream of home, 

Steals o’er the heart, too soon to fleet, 

When far o’er sea or land we roam? 

Moore. 

True, I talk of dreams, 

Which are the children of an idle brain, 

Begot of nothing but vain fantasy. 

Shakspere. 


Dust. 


Happy he 

With such a mother! faith in womanhood 
Beats with his blood, and trust in all things high 
Comes easy to him, and, though he trip and fall, 

Pie shall not blind his soul with clay. 

Tennyson. 

One in whom persuasion and belief 
Had ripened into faith, and faith become 
A passionate intuition. 

Wordsworth.' 


Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things 
not seen. 


New Testament. 


How lov’d, how honor’d once, avails thee not, 

To whom related, or by whom begot: 

A heap of dust alone remains of thee; 

’Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be! 

Pope. 

The knight’s bones are dust, 

And his good sword rust; 

His soul is with the saints, I trust. 

Coleridge. 


Earth. 

Earth felt the wound ; and Nature from her seat, 
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe, 

That all was lost. 

Milton. 

The common growth of Mother Earth 
Suffices me—her tears, her mirth, 

Her humblest mirth and tears. 

Wordsworth. 

Earth, with her thousand voices, praises God. 

Coleridge. 


Farewell. 

I only know we loved in vain— 

I only feel—Farewell!—Farewell! 

Byron. 

Oh, now, forever, 

Farewell the tranquil mind ! farewell content! 
Farewell the ploomed troop, and the big wars, 

That make ambition virtue ! Oh, farewell! 

Farewell the neighing steed, and the shrill trump, 

The spirit-stirring drum, th’ ear-piercing fife, 

The royal banner, and all quality, 

Pride, pomp and circumstance of glorious war! 

And, O you mortal engines, whose rude throats 
The immortal Jove’s dread clamors counterfeit, 
Farewell! Othello’s occupation’s gone ! 

Shakspere. 


Folly. 


A fool must now and then be right by chance. 

Ccrwper. 



























DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


643 


For fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

Pope. 

Of all causes which conspire to blind 

Man’s erring judgment, and misguide the mind, 

What the weak head with strongest bias rules, 

Is pride, the never-failing vice of fools. 

Pope. 


Forgetfulness. 


Go, forget me—why should sorrow 
O’er that brow a shadow fling? 

Go, forget me—and to-morrow 
Brightly smile and sweetly sing. 

Smile—though I shall not be near thee; 

Sing—though I shall never hear thee. 

Wolfe. 


Freedom. 


We must be free or die, who speak the tongue 
That Shakspere spake; the faith and morals hold 
Which Milton held. 

Wordsworth. 


I am as free as nature first made man, 

Ere the base laws of servitude began, 

When wild in the woods the noble savage ran. 

Dryden. 

No. Freedom has a thousand charms to show, 

That slaves, howe’er contented, never know. 

Covjper. 

That this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and 
that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not 
perish from the earth. 

Abraham Lincoln. 


Glory. 

’Tis beauty calls, and glory leads the way. 

Lee. 

Avoid shame, but do not seek glory—nothing so expensive as glory. 

Sydney Smith. 

I have touch’d the highest point of all my greatness, 

And from that full meridian of my glory 

I haste now to my setting: I shall fall 

Like a bright exhalation in the evening, * 

And no man see me more. 

Byron. 


God. 


Had I but serv’d my God with half the zeal 
I serv’d my king, he would not in mine age 
Have left me naked to mine enemies. 

Shakspere. 

Just are the ways of God, 

And justifiable to men ; 

Unless there be who think not God at all. 

Milton. 

God helps them that help themselves. 

Franklin. 

Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind 
Sees God in clouds, or hears him in the wind; 

His soul proud Science never taught to stray 
Far as the solar walk or milky way. 

Pope. 

God sendeth, and giveth, both mouth and the meat. 

Thomas Tusser. 


Happiness. 


Domestic Happiness, thou only bliss 
Of Paradise that has surviv’d the fall! 

Cowper. 

O happiness! our being’s end and aim! 

Good, pleasure, ease, content! whate’er thy name: 
That something still which prompts th’ eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die. 

Pope. 


How bitter a thing it is to look into happiness through another 


man s eyes I 


C/f/r h cYypyp 


All who joy would win 
Must share it; 

Happiness was born a twin. 

Byron. 


Heaven. 

’Tis heaven alone that is given away; 

’Tis only God may be had for the asking. 

Lowell. 

Thus, when the lamp that lighted 
The traveller at first goes out, 

He feels awhile benighted, 

And looks around in fear and doubt. 

But soon, the prospect clearing, 

By cloudless starlight on he treads, 

And thinks no lamp so cheering 
As that light which heaven sheds. 

Moore. 

Sit, Jessica; look, how the floor of heaven 
Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold ; 

There’s not the smallest orb which thou behold’st 
But in his motion like an angel sings, 

Still quiring to the young-eyed cherubins: 

Such harmony is in immortal souls; 

But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay 
Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it. 

Shakspere. 

II eaven open’d wide 

Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound 
On golden hinges moving. 

Milton. 

To heirs unknown descends th’ unguarded store, 

Or wanders, heaven-directed, to the poor. 

Pope. 


Hell. 

Hell is paved with good intentions. 

fohnson. 

Which way shall I fly, 
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? 

Which way I fly is hell; myself am hell; 

And, in the lowest deep, a lower deep, 

Still threat’ning to devour me, opens wide, 

To which the hell I suffer seems a heaven. 

Milton. 

Full little knowest thou that hast not tried, 

What hell it is in suing long to bide ; 

To loose good dayes that might be better spent, 

To wast long nights in pensive discontent; 

To speed to-day, to be put back to-morrow; 

To feed on hope, to pine with feare and sorrow. 

Spenser. 


Grief. 


Honesty. 


Every one can master a grief but he that has it. 

Shakspere. 


Every honest miller has a golden thumb. 

Old Saying. 


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644 DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


Hope. 

First, then, a woman will, or won’t, depend on’t; 

If she will do’t, she will; and there’s an end on’t. 

Thus heavenly hope is all serene, 

But earthly hope, how bright soe’er, 

Still fluctuates o’er this changing scene, 

As false and fleeting as ’iis fair. 

Ileber. 

Cease, every joy, to glimmer on my mind, 

But leave—0I1! leave the light of Hope behind ! 

What though my winged hours of bliss have been, 

Like angel-visits, few and far between. 

Campbell. 

Hope! thou nurse of young desire. 

Bickerstaff. 

Hope springs eternal in the human breast: 

Man never is, but always to be blest. 

The soul, uneasy, and confin’d from home, 

Rests and expatiates in a life to come. 

Pope. 

Sail on, O Ship of State! 

Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 

Humanity with all its fears, 

With all the hopes of future years, 

Is hanging breathless on thy fate! 

Longfellow. 

But if she won’t, since safe and sound your trust is, 

Fear is affront, and jealousy injustice. 

Hill. 

Jesting. 

Of all the griefs that harass the distrest, 

Sure the most bitter is a scornful jest. 

Johnsofi. 

A jest’s prosperity lies in the ear 

Of him that hears it, never in the tongue 

Of him that makes it. 

Shahspere. 

Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee 

Jest, and youthful Jollity, 

Quips, and Cranks, and wanton Wiles, 

Nods, and Becks, and wreathed Smiles. 

Milton. 

Joy. 

And e’en while fashion’s brightest arts decoy, 

The heart, distrusting, asks if this be joy. 

Goldsmith. 

Idleness. 

Reason’s whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 

Life in three words—health, peace and competence. 

How various his employments, whom the world 

Calls idle; and who justly in return 

Esteems that busy world an idler too ! 

Cowper. 

In idle wishes fools supinely stay; 

Be there a will, and wisdom finds a way. 

Crabbe. 

Pope. 

Silence is the perfectest herald of joy: I were but little happy, if I 
could say how much. 

Shahspere. 

Bliss in possession will not last; 

Remember’d joys are never past; 

At once the fountain, stream and sea, 

Immortality. 

They were, they are, they yet shall be 

Montgomery. 

There is no death! an angel form 

Walks o’er the earth with silent tread, 

He bears our best-loved things away, • 

And then we call them “ dead.” 

Harvey. 

There is no death ! What seems so is transition, 

This life of mortal breath 

Is but a suburb of the life elysian, 

Whose portal we call death. 

Longfellow. 

Though inland far we be, 

Our souls have sight of that immortal sea 

Which brought us hither. 

Wordsworth. 

Our dissatisfaction with any other solution is the blazing evidence of 
immortality. 

Emerson. 

There’s not a joy the world can give like that it takes away. 

Byron. 

From our own selves our joys must flow, 

And that dear hut—our home. 

Colton. 

Oh, the Joys that came down shower-like, 

Of Friendship, Love and Liberty, 

Ere I was old ! 

Coleridge. 

Justice. 

Fiat Justitia ruat coelum. 

Terence. 

We but teach 

Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return 

To plague the inventor. This even-handed justice 

Innocence. 

To our own lips. 

Shahspere. 

An age that melts in unperceiv’d decay, 

And glides in modest innocence away. 

Johnson. 

He’s armed without that’s innocent within. 

Pope. 

What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted? 

Thrice is he arm’d that hath his quarrel just; 

And he but naked, though lock’d up in steel, 

Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. 

Shahspere. 

Jealousy. 

Between two hawks, which flies the higher pitch; 

Trifles, light as air, 

Are to the jealous confirmations strong 

As proofs of Holy Writ. 

Shahspere. 

Love is strong as death; jealousy is cruel as the grave. 

Old Testament. 

Between two horses, which doth bear him best; 

Between two girls, which hath the merriest eye— 

I have, perhaps, some shallow spirit of judgment; 

But in these nice sharp quillets of the law, 

Good faith, I am no wiser than a daw. 

Shahspere. 

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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


645 


Kindness. 

Assume a virtue, if you have it not. 

I must be cruel, only to be kind: 

Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind. 

Shakspere. 

Howe’er it be, it seems to me, 

’Tis only noble to be good. 

Kind hearts are more than coronets, 

And simple faith than Norman blood. 

Tennyson. 

And kind as kings upon their coronation day. 

Dryden. 

Yet do I fear thy nature: 

It is too full o’ the milk of human kindness. 

Shakspere. 

The King. 

Not all the waters in the rough, rude sea 
Can wash the balm from an anointed king. 

' Shakspere. 

A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king; and eat of 
the fish that hath fed of that worm. 

Shakspere. 

Ay, every inch a king. 

Shakspere. 

The king’s name is a tower of strength. 

Shakspere. 

The right divine of kings to govern wrong. 

Shakspere. 

Kissing. 

Be plain in dress, and sober in your diet; 

In short, my deary: kiss me and be quiet. 

Montague. 

Then come kiss me, sweet-and-twenty. 

Shakspere. 

O Love, O fire! once he drew 

With one long kiss my whole soul through 

My lips, as sunlight drinketh dew. 

Tennyson. 

The kiss, snatched hasty from the sidelong maid. 

Thomson. 


Along, long kiss, a kiss of youth and love. 


Knavery. 


Byron. 


Now will I show myself to have more of the serpent than the dove; 
that is, more knave than fool. 


Whip me such honest knaves. 

Knowledge. 


Marlowe. 

Shakspere. 


Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we 
know where we can find information upon it. 

Johnson. 


Half our knowledge we must snatch, not take. 
Knowledge is power. 


Pope. 


Bacon. 

A wise man is strong; yea, a man of knowledge increaseth strength. 

Old Testament. 

Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; 
natural philosophy, deep ; morals, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to 
contend. 

Bacon. 


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Labor. 

Man goeth forth unto his work and to his labor until the evening. 

Old Testament. 


Honest labor bears a lovely face. 

So he with difficulty and labor hard 
Mov’d on, with difficulty and labor he. 


Dekkcr. 


Milton. 


The laborer is worthy of his hire. 

New Testament. 

The Ladies. 

A lion among ladies is a most dreadful thing. 

Shakspere. 

If ladies be but young and fair, 

They have the gift to know it. 

Shakspere. 

Ladies, whose bright eyes 
Rain influence, and judge the prize. 


Milton. 


And when a lady’s in the case, 

You know all other things give place. 

The Land. 


Gay. 


Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 

When wealth accumulates and men decay; 

Princes and lords may flourish and may fade, 

A breath can make them as a breath has made, 

But an honest peasantry, a country’s pride, 

When once destroyed, can never be supplied. 

Goldsmith. 

Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 

Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land! 

Whose heart hath ne’er within him burned, 

As home his footsteps he hath turned 
From wandering on a foreign strand? 


Scott. 


There’s nae sorrow there, John, 
There’s neither cauld nor care, John, 
The day is aye fair, 

In the land o’ the leal. 


Laughter. 

They laugh that win. 


Lady Nairne. 


Shakspere. 


There was a laughing Devil in his sneer. 

Byron. 

You hear that boy laughing?—you think he’s all fun; 
But the angels laugh, too, at the good he has done; 

The children laugh loud as they troop to his call, 

And the poor man that knows him laughs loudest of all! 

Holmes. 

And Laughter holding both his sides. 


Milton. 


The Law. 


1 Clo. Argal, he that is not guilty of his own death shortens not his 

own life. 

2 Clo. But is this law? 

1 Clo. Ay, marry, is’t; crowner’s-quest law. 

Shakspere. 

When law ends, tvranny begins. 

Pitt. 




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646 


DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


No man e’er felt the halter draw, 

With good opinion of the law. 

Trumbull. 

Of Law there can be no less acknowledged, than that her seat is the 
bosom of God, her voice the harmony of the world: all things in heaven 
and earth do her homage, the very least as feeling her care, and the 
greatest as not exempted from her power. 

Hooker. 

The law is a sort of hocus-pocus science, that smiles in yer face 
while it picks yer pocket; and the glorious uncertainty of it is of mair 
use to the professors than the justice of it. 

Macklin. 

Learning. 

Some for renown on scraps of learning dote, 

And think they grow immortal as they quote. 

Toung. 

With just enough of learning to misquote. 

Byron. 


Liberty. 


Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of 
chains and slavery? Forbid it Almighty God! I know not what 
course others may take; but, as for me, give me liberty, or give me 
death. 

Patrick Henry. 

Liberty’s in every blow! 

Let us do or die. 


Burns. 


O liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 

Mine. Roland. 


Behold ! in liberty’s unclouded blaze 
We lift our heads, a race of other days. 

Sprague. 




Life. 

I do not set my life at a pin’s fee. 

Shakspere. 

The world’s a bubble, and the life of man 
Less than a span. 

Bacon. 

We are such stuff 

As dreams are made on: and our little life 
Is rounded with a sleep. 

Shakspere. 

A sacred burden is this life ye bear, 

Look on it, lift it, bear it solemnly, 

Stand up and walk beneath it steadfastly. 

Fail not for sorrow, falter not for sin, 

But onward, upward, till the goal ye win. 

Kemble. 

Life’s but a means unto an end; that end 
Beginning, me'in and end to all things—God. 

Bailey. 

That life is long which answers life’s great end. 

Toung. 

Our life is but a winter day 
Some only breakfast and away 
others to dinner stay 
and are full fed 
the oldest man but sups 
and goes to bed 
large is his debt 
that lingers out the day 
he that goes soonest 
has the least to pay. 

Epitaph. 


Love. 

A mighty pain to love it is, 

And ’tis a pain that pain to miss ; 

But of all pain, the greatest pain 
It is to love, but love in vain. 

Cowley. 

Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind, 

And therefore is wing’d Cupid painted blind. 

Shakspere. 

Mightier far 

Than strength of nerve or sinew, or the sway 
Of magic potent over sun and star, 

Is Love, though oft to agony distrest, 

And though his favorite seat be feeble woman’s breast. 

Wordsworth. 


But to see her was to love her, 

Love but her and love forever. 

Burns. 


Had we never loved sae kindly, 

Had we never loved sae blindly, 

Never met or never parted, 

We had ne’er been broken -hearted. 

Burns. 


Men have died 
not from love. 


from time to time and worms have eaten them, but 

Shakspere. 


Oh, my luve’s like a red, red rose, 

That’s newly sprung in June, 

Oh, my luve’s like a melodie 
That’s sweetly played in tune. 

Burns. 


Alas ! the love of woman ! it is known 
To be a lovely and a fearful thing. 

Byron. 

Man’s love is of man’s life a thing apart, 

’Tis woman’s whole existence. 

Byron. 

For stony limits cannot hold love out. 

Shakspere. 


Madness. 

Great wit is sure to madness near allied, 

And thin partitions do their bounds divide. 

Dryden. 

This is very midsummer madness. 

Shakspere. 

Though this be madness, yet there’s method in’t. 

Shakspere. 

To be wroth with one we love 
Doth work like madness on the brain. 

Coleridge. 

And moody madness laughing wild, 

Amid severest woe. 

Gray. 

Cure her of that: 

Canst thou not minister to a mind diseas’d, 

Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow, 

Raze out the written troubles of the brain? 

Shakspere. 


Maidenhood. 

Maidens, like moths, are ever caught by glare, 

And Mammon wins his way where Seraphs might despair. 

Byron. 




























The maid who modestly conceals 
Her beauties, while she hides, reveals; 

Give but a glimpse, and fancy draws 
Whate’er the Grecian Venus was. 

Edward Moore. 

She dwelt among the untrodden ways 
Beside the spring of Love, 

A maid whom there were none to praise 
And very few to love. 

Wordsworth. 

And when once the young heart of a maiden is stolen, 
The maiden herself will steal after it soon. 

Moore. 

Longfellow. 
Johnson. 


Standing with reluctant feet 
Where the brook and river meet, 
Womanhood and childhood fleet! 

Wretched un-idea’d girls. 


Man. 

An honest man’s the noblest work of God. 
A very unclubable man. 


Pope. 


Johnson. 

Before man made us citizens, great Nature made us men. 

Lowell. 

I dare do all that may become a man; 

Who dares do more is none. 

Shakspere. 

Adam the goodliest man of men since born 
His sons; the fairest of her daughters Eve. 

Milton. 

For contemplation he and valor form’d, 

For softness she and sweet attractive grace; 

He for God only, she for God in him. 

His fair large front and eyes sublime declar’d 
Absolute rule. 

Milton. 

Like leaves on trees the race of man is found, 

Now green in youth, now withering on the ground: 
Another race the following spring supplies; 

They fall successive, and successive rise. 

Pope. 

All the world’s a stage 
And all the men and women merely players; 

They have their exits and their entrances; 

And one man in his time plays many parts— 

His acts being seven ages. At first, the Infant, 
Mewling and puking in the nurse’s arms. 

Then the whining School-boy, with his satchel 
And shining morning face, creeping like snail 
Unwillingly to school. And then the Lover, 

Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad 
Made to his mistress’ eyebrow. Then a Soldier, 

Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard; 
Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel, 
Seeking the bubble reputation 

Bven to the cannon’s mouth. And then the Justice, 
In fair round belly with good capon lin’d, 

With eyes severe and beard of formal cut, 

Full of wise saws and modern instances— 

And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts 
Into the lean and slipper’d Pantaloon, 

His youthful hose well sav’d, a world too wide 
For his shrunk shank ; and his big manly voice, 
Turning again toward childish treble, pipes 
And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, 


That ends this strange, eventful history, 

Is second childishness and mere oblivion; 

Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans—everything. 

Shakspere. 

Marriage. 


Choose not alone a proper mate, 
But proper time to marry. 


Cooper. 


Let me not to the marriage of true minds 
Admit impediments: love is not love 
Which alters when it alteration finds. 

Shakspere. 

How much the wife is dearer than the bride. 

Lyttelton. 

Such duty as the subject owes the prince, 

Even such a woman oweth to her husband. 

Shakspere. 

You are my true and honorable wife ; 

As dear to me as are the ruddy drops 
That visit my sad heart. 

Shakspere. 

With secret course, which no loud storms annoy, 

Glides the smooth current of domestic joy. 

Johnson. 

Is not marriage an open question when it is alleged from the be¬ 
ginning of the world that such as are in the institution wish to get 
out, and such as are out wish to get in? 

R. W. Emerson. 

She what was honor knew, 

And with obsequious majesty approv’d 
My pleaded reason. To the nuptial bower 
I led her, blushing like the morn: all heaven, 

And happy constellations on that hour 
Shed their selectest influence; the earth 
Gave sign of gratulation, and each hill; 

Joyous the birds; fresh gales and gentle airs 
Whisper’d it to the woods, and from their wings 
Flung rose, flung odors from the spicy shrub. 

Milton. 

Melancholy. 

Sweet bird, that shunn’st the noise of folly, 

Most musical, most melancholy ! 

Milton. 

And, with a green and yellow melancholy, 

She sat, like Patience on a monument, 

Smiling at grief. 

Shakspere. 

Go—you may call it madness, folly; 

You shall not chase my gloom away! 

There’s such a charm in melancholy 
I would not, if I could, be gay. 

Rogers. 

There’s naught in this life sweet. 

If man were wise to see’t. 

But only melancholy; 

Oh, sweetest Melancholy! 

Fletcher. 

The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year, 

Of wailing winds, and naked woods, and meadows brown and sear. 

Bryant. 

Memory. 

Time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary. 

Blackstone. 


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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


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And, when the stream 

Which overflowed the soul was passed away, 

A consciousness remained that it had left, 

Deposited upon the silent shore 
Of memory, images and precious thoughts 
That shall not die, and cannot be destroyed. 

Wordsworth. 

Music, when soft voices die, 

Vibrates in the'memory; 

Odors, when sweet violets sicken, 

Live within the sense they quicken. 

Shelley. 

This is the truth the poet sings, 

That a sorrow’s crown of sorrow is remembering happier things. 

Tennyson. 

While memory holds a seat 
In this distracted globe. Remember thee? 

Yea, from the table of my memory 
I’ll wipe away all trivial fond records. 

Shakspere. 

The memory of the just is blessed. 

Old Testament. 

Mercy. 

The quality of mercy is not strain’d; 

It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
Upon the place beneath: it is twice bless’d; 

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes: 

’Tis mightiest in the mightiest: it becomes 
The throned monarch better than his crown : 

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power, 

The attribute to awe and majesty, 

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; 

Rut mercy is above this sceptred sway: 

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings. 

It is an attribute to God himself, 

And earthly power doth then show likest God’s, 
When mercy seasons justice. Therefore, Jew, 
Though justice be thy plea, consider this:— 

That in the course of justice none of us 
Should see salvation: we do pray for mercy, 

And that same prayer doth teach us all to render 
The deeds of mercy. 

Shakspere. 

Pope. 
Shakspere. 


V 


That mercy I to others show, 
That mercy show to me. 

Sweet mercy is nobility’s true badge. 


Mind. 

My mind to me a kingdom is; 

Such present joys therein I find 
That it excels all other bliss 

That earth affords or grows by kind: 
Though much I want which most would have, 
Yet still my mind forbids to crave. 


My mind to me an empire is 
While grace affordeth health. 


Dyer. 


Southwell. 


’Tis strange the mind, that very fiery particle, 

Should let itself be snuff’d out by an article. 

Byron. 

I, thus neglecting worldly ends, all dedicated 
To closeness, and the bettering of my mind. 

Shakspere. 


Be ye all of one mind. 

Old Testament. 

Vain, very vain, my weary search to find 
That bliss which only centres in the mind. 

Goldsmith. 

Misery. 

Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. 

Shakspere. 

Our sympathy is cold to the relation of distant misery. 

Gibbon. 

He gave to misery (all he had) a tear, 

He gain’d from Heaven (’twas all he wished) a friend. 

Gray. 

In misery’s darkest cavern known, 

His useful care was ever nigh 
Where hopeless anguish pour’d his groan, 

And lonely want retired to die. 

'Johnson. 

Modesty. 

He saw her charming, but he saw not half 
The charms her downcast modesty conceal’d. 

Thomson. 

The chariest maid is prodigal enough 
If she unmask her beauty to the moon. 

Shakspere. 

And on their own merits modest men are dumb. 

Col man. 

Not stepping o’er the bounds of modesty. 

Shakspere. 

Thy modesty’s a candle to thy merit. 

Fielding. 

Suit the action to the word, the word to the action, with this special 
observance, that you o’erstep not the modesty of nature. 

Shakspere. 

Money. 

Put money in thy purse. 

Shakspere. 

Get money; still get money, boy; 

No matter by what means. 

Jonson. 

The love of money is the root of all evil. 

New Testament. 

This bank-note world. 

llalleck. 

For what is worth in anything 
But so much money as ’twill bring? 


Butler. 


Hath a dog money? Is it possible 
A cur can lend three thousand ducats? 


Motherhood. 

A mother is a mother still, 

The holiest thing alive. 

Where yet was ever found a mother 
Who’d give her booby for another? 

Music. 


Shakspere. 


Coleridge. 


Gay. 


As sweet and musical 

As bright Apollo’s lute, strung with his hair; 

And when Love speaks, the voice of all the gods 
Makes heaven drowsy with the harmony. 

Shakspere. 


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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


649 


Bright gem instinct with music, vocal spark. 

Wordsworth. 

He makes sweet music with th’ enamel’d stones, 
Giving a gentle kiss to every sedge 
He overtaketh in his pilgrimage. 

Shakspere. 

Ilis very foot hath music in ’t 
. As he comes up the stairs. 

Mickle. 

Sundays observe: think when the bells do chime 
’Tis angels’ music. 

Herbert. 

That strain again ; it had a dying fall: 

Oh, it came o’er my ear like the sweet south, 

That breathes upon a bank of violets, 

Stealing and giving odor. 

Shakspere. 

It will discourse most eloquent music. 

Shakspere. 

The man that hath no music in himself, 

Nor is not mov'd with concord of sweet sounds, 

Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils: 

The motions of his spirit are dull as night, 

And his affections dark as Erebus. 

Let no such man be trusted. 

Shakspere. 

Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast, 

To soften rocks, or bend a knotted oak. 

Congreve. 

When Music, heavenly maid, was young, 

While yet in early Greece she sung. 

Collins. 

The music in my heart I bore 
Long after it was heard no more. 

Wordsworth. 


Nature. 

Come forth into the light of things ; 

Let nature be your teacher. 

Wordsworth. 

The course of nature is the art of God. 

Toung. 

One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

Shakspere. 

Diseased nature sometimes breaks forth 
In strange eruptions. 

Shakspere. 

Accuse not nature; she hath done her part: 

Do thou but thine. 

Milton. 


Night. 

Night is the time to weep ; 

To wet with unseen tears 

Those graves of memory where sleep 

The joys of other years. 

Montgomery. 

How beautiful is night! 

A dewy freshness fills the silent air; 

No mist obscures, nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, 
Breaks the serene of heaven: 

In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine 
Rolls through the dark-blue depths. 

Beneath her steady ray 
The desert-circle spreads, 

Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. 

How beautiful is night! 

Southey. 


Here in the body pent, 

Absent from Him I roam; 

Yet nightly pitch my moving tent 
A day’s march nearer home. 

Montgomery. 
O night, 

And storm, and darkness 1 ye are wondrous strong, 

Yet lovely in your strength, as is the light 
Of a dark eye in woman! 

Byron. 

Where eldest Night 
And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold 
Eternal anarchy amidst the noise 
Of endless wars, and by confusion stand. 

Milton. 

Murmuring, and with him fled the shades of night. 

Milton. 

You meaner beauties of the night, 

That poorly satisfy our eyes 

More by your number than your light, 

You common people of the skies— 

What are you when the moon shall rise? 

Wollen. 

Good night, good night: parting is such sweet sorrow, 
That I shall say good night till it be morrow. 

Shakspere. 


Pain. 


Rich the treasure, 

Sweet the pleasure, 

Sweet is pleasure after pain. 

Dry den. 

So when a raging fever burns, 

We shift from side to side by turns, 

And ’tis a poor relief we gain 
To change the place, but keep the pain. 

Walts. 


The labor we delight in physics pain. 

Shakspere. 

To frown at pleasure, and to smile in pain. 

Boung. 

Pains of love be sweeter far 
Than all other pleasures are. 

Dryden. 


Patience. 


This flower of wifely patience. 


Chaucer. 


The worst speak something good: if all want sense, 

God takes a text and preacheth patience. 

Herbert. 


Like patience on a monument. 

Shakspere. 

Patience and sorrow strove, 

Who should express her goodliest. 

Shakspere. 

’Tis all men’s office to speak patience 
To those that wring under the load of sorrow, 

But no man’s virtue, nor sufficiency, 

To be so moral when he shall endure 
The like himself. 

Shakspere. 

For there was never yet philosopher 
That could endure the toothache patiently. 

Shakspere. 

Arm the obdured breast 
With stubborn patience as with triple steel. 

Milton. 



























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650 


DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


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The best of men 

That e’er wore earth about him was a sufferer; 
A soft, meek, patient, humble, tranquil spirit. 
The first true gentleman that ever breathed. 

Patriotism. 


Dekker. 


Q) 


That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain 
force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow 
warmer among the ruins of Iona. 

\Johnson. 

Such is the patriot’s boast, where’er we roam, 

His first, best country ever is his home. 

Goldsmith. 

Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel. 

Johnson. 

Who dared to love their country and be poor. 

Pope. 

True patriots all; for be it understood 
We left our country for our country’s good. 

Barrington. 

Oh, Heaven! he cried, my bleeding country save. 

Campbell. 

My country, ’tis of thee, 

Sweet land of liberty— 

Of thee I sing. 

Samuel F. Smith. 

I was born an American; I live an American , I shall die an American. 

Webster. 

Our country—whether bounded by the St. John’s and the Sabine, or 
however otherwise bounded or described, and be the measurements 
more or less—still our country, to be cherished in all our hearts, to be 
defended by all our hands. 

Winthrop. 

Peace. 

Peace be within thy walls and prosperity within thv palaces. 

Old Testament. 

Peace hath her victories 
No less renown’d than war. 

Milton. 

Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace, 

To silence envious tongues. 

Shakspere. 

There never was a good war or a bad peace. 

Franklin. 

Peace, peace; when there is no peace. 

Old Testament. 
Where peace 

And rest can never dwell, hope never comes, 

That comes to all. 

Milton. 

The inglorious arts of peace. 

Marvell. 

Pity. 

She loved me for the dangers I had passed, 

And I loved her that she did pity them. 

Shakspere. 

He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord. 

Old Testament. 

For pity melts the mind to love. 

Dryden. 

Of all the paths lead to a woman’s love 
Pity’s the straightest. 

Beaumont and Fletcher. 

And pity, like a naked new-born babe, 

Striding the blast. 

Shakspere. 


/ 


Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 

Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door, 
Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span; 

Oh! give relief, and Heaven will bless your store. 

Moss. 

Pleasure. 


Dryden. 


Rich the treasure, 

Sweet the pleasure, 

Sweet is pleasure after pain. 

But pleasures are like poppies spread, 

You seize the flower, its bloom is shed; 

Or, like the snow-fall in the river, 

A moment white, then melts forever. 

Burns. 

The Puritans hated bearbaiting, not because it gave pain to the 
bear, but because it gave pleasure to the spectators. 


Macaulay. 


A man of pleasure is a man of pains. 


The soul’s calm sunshine and the heartfelt joy. 

Come live with me, and be my love, 

And we will all the pleasures prove 
That hills and valleys, dales and fields, 
Woods or steepy mountains, yields 


Toung. 

Pope. 


Marlowe. 


All human race, from China to Peru, 
Pleasure, howe’er disguis’d by art, pursue? 


Here Skugg 
Lies snug, 

As a bug 
In a rug. 

There’s little pleasure in the house 
When our gudeman’s awa’. 


War ton. 


Franklin. 


Mickle. 


No profit grows where is no pleasure ta’en; 

In brief, sir, study what you most affect. 

Shakspere. 

Poverty. 

Blessed is he that considereth the poor. 

Old Testament. 

Steep’d me in poverty to the very lips. 

Shakspere. 

He left a paper sealed up, wherein were found three articles as his 
last will: “I owe much, I have nothing, I give the rest to the poor.” 

Rabelais. 

With one hand he put 
A penny in the urn of poverty 
And with the other took a shilling out. 

Pollok. 

Poor naked wretches, wheresoe’er you are, 

That bide the pelting of this pitiless storm, 

How shall your houseless heads and unfed sides. 

Your loop’d and window’d raggedness, defend you 
From seasons such as these. 

Shakspere. 

Thou source of all my bliss, and all my woe, 

That found’st me poor at first, and keep’st me so. 

Goldsmith. 

Too poor for a bribe, and too proud to importune, 

He hath not the method of making a fortune. 


Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile 
The short and simple annals of the poor. 


Gray. 


Gray. 




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DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


651 


A poor, infirm, weak and despis’d old man. 

Shakspere.. 


Praise. 


The love of praise, howe’er concealed by art, 

Reigns more or less, and glows in ev’ry heart. 

Young. 

Praise God, from whom all blessings flow; 

Praise Him, all creatures here below! 

Praise Him above, ye heavenly host! 

Ken. 

Poetic Justice, with her lifted scale, 

\\ here, in nice balance, truth with gold she weighs, 
And solid pudding against empty praise. 

Pope. 

Of whom to be disprais’d were no small praise. 

Milton. 


Green be the turf above thee, 

Friend of my better days ; 

None knew thee but to love thee, 

Nor named thee but to praise. 

Halleck. 


Poets lose half the praise they should have got 
Could it be known what they discreetly blot. 

Waller. 


The sweeter sounds of woman’s praise. 

Macaulay. 

Praise undeserved is scandal in disguise. 

Pope. 


The rose that all are praising 
Is not the rose for me. 


Bayley. 


Pride. 


He passed a cottage with a double coach-house, 

A cottage of gentility; 

And he owned with a grin 
That his favorite sin 
Is pride that apes humility. 

Southey. 

My pride fell with my fortunes. 

Shakspere. 

Pride in their port, defiance in their eye. 

Goldsmith. 

Pride goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall. 

Old Testament. 

A falcon, towering in her pride of place, 

Was by a mousing owl hawk’d at and killed. 

Shakspere. 

In pride, in reasoning pride, our error lies; 

All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. 

Pride still is aiming at the blessed abodes; 

Men would be angels, angels would be gods. 

Pope. 

And the Devil did grin, for his darling sin 
Is pride that apes humility. 

Coleridge. 


Purity. 


Unto the pure all things are pure. 

New Testament. 

She was good as she was fair; 

None—none on earth above her! 

As pure in thought as angels are, 

To know her was to love her. 

Rogers. 


So his life has flowed 
From its mysterious urn a sacred stream, 

In whose calm depth the beautiful and pure 
Alone are mirror’d. 

Talfourd. 

We understood 

Her by her sight; her pure and eloquent blood 
Spoke in her cheeks, and so distinctly wrought, 

That one might almost say her body thought. 

Doune. 


The real simon pure. 


Centlivre. 


They say that a lion will turn and flee 
From a maid in the pride of her purity, 

But the maiden, if she be a wise little thing, 

Will keep out of the path of the beastly king. 

Anon. 


Chaste as the icicle, 

That’s curded by the frost from purest snow, 

And hangs on Dian’s temple. 

Shakspere. 


Quiet. 


All that are lovers of virtue, ... be quiet, and go a-Angling. 

Walton. 


Use three Physicians, 

Still-first Dr. Quiet, 

Next Dr. Mery-man 
And Dr. Dyet. 

Old work on Health. 
But quiet to quick bosoms is a hell. 

Byron. 

And join with thee calm Peace and Quiet, 

Spare Fast, that oft with gods doth diet. 

Milton. 


Study to be quiet. 


New Testament. 


Rain. 

Violets plucked, the sweetest rain 
Makes not fresh or grow again. 

Fletcher. 

The thirsty earth soaks up the rain, 

And drinks and gapes for drink again; 

The plants suck in the earth, and are 
With constant drinking fresh and fair. 

Cowley. 

For the rain it raineth every day. 

Shakspere. 

He shall come down like rain upon the mown grass. 

Old Testament. 

Ah, do not, when my heart hath scap’d this sorrow, 

Come in the rearward of a conquered woe; 

Give not a windy night a rainy morrow, 

To linger out a purpos’d overthrow. 

Shakspere. 

Reading. 

Learn to read slow; all other graces 
Will follow in their proper places. 

Walker. 

Read, mark, learn and inwardly digest. 

Book of Common Prayer. 
You write with ease to show your breeding, 

But easy writing’s cursed hard reading. 

Sheridan. 

Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing 
an exact man. 


Like the stained web that whitens in the sun, 
Grow pure by being purely shone upon. 


Moore. 


Bacon. 


























J- 


61 




652 


7 


DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


What is twice read is commonly better remembered than what is 
transcribed. 

Johnson. 

And better had they ne’er been born, 

Who read to doubt, or read to scorn. 

Scott. 

Reading- what they never wrote, 

Just fifteen minutes, huddle up their work, 

And with a well-bred whisper close the scene. 

Cowper. 

Reason. 

Reason is the life of the law; nay, the common law itself is nothing 
else but reason. . . . The law, which is perfection of reason. 

Coke. 

Sure, He that made us with such large discourse, 

Looking before and after, gave us not 
That capability and godlike reason 
To rust in us unus’d. 

Shakspere. 

Now see that noble and most sovereign reason, 

Like sweet bells jangled, out of tune and harsh. 

Shakspere. 

Give unto me, made lowly wise, 

The spirit of self-sacrifice; 

The confidence of reason give; 

And in the light of truth thy bondman let me live. 

Wordsworth. 

Error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to com¬ 
bat it. 

Jefferson. 

The ruling passion, be it what it will, 

The ruling passion conquers reason still. 

Pope. 

The intelligible forms of ancient poets, 

The fair humanities of old religion, 

The power, the beauty and the majesty, 

That had their haunts in dale, or piny mountain, 

Or forest, by slow stream, or pebbly spring, 

Or chasms and watery depths: all these have vanished ; 
They live no longer in the faith of reason. 

Coleridge. 

Religion. 

To be of no church is dangerous. Religion, of which the rewards 
are distant and which is animated only by Faith and Hope, will glide 
by degrees out of the mind, unless it be invigorated and reimpressed 
by external ordinances, by stated calls to worship and the salutary 
influence of example. 

Johnson. 

The writers against religion, whilst they oppose every system, are 
wisely careful never to set up any of their own. 

Burke. 

A little philosophy inclineth a man’s mind to atheism, but depth of 
philosophy bringeth men’s minds about to religion. 

Lord Bacon. 

Revenge. 

Which, if not victory, is yet revenge. 

Milton. 

Revenge, at first though sweet, 

Bitter ere long back on itself recoils. 

Milton. 

That practic’d falsehood under saintly shew, 

Deep malice to conceal, couch’d with revenge. 

Milton. 

If it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. 

Shakspere. 

Revenge is profitable; gratitude is expensive. 

Gibbon. 


& 




Sadness. 

Of all tales ’tis the saddest—and more sad 
Because it makes us smile. 

Byron. 

I had rather have a fool make me merry, than experience make 


me sad. 


Shakspere. 

Earth has no sorrow that Heaven cannot heal. 

Moore. 

But hushed be every thought that springs 
From out the bitterness of things. 

Wordsworth. 

But, sad as angels for the good man’s sin, 


Weep to record, and blush to give it in. 

Campbell. 

For seldom shall she hear a tale 

So sad, so tender, and so true. 

Shenstone. 

A sadder and a wiser man, 

He rose the morrow morn. 

Coleridge. 

And Mecca saddens at the long delay.. 

Thotnson. 


The Sea. 

They that go down to the sea in ships, that do business in great 
waters. 

Old Testament. 

I’ll example you with thievery: 

The sun’s a thief, and with his great attraction 
Robs the vast sea: the moon’s an arrant thief, 

And her pale fire she snatches from the sun: 

The sea’s a thief, whose liquid surge resolves 
The moon into salt tears. 

Shakspere. 

’Twas when the sea was roaring 
With hollow blasts of wind, 

A damsel lay deploring, 

All on a rock reclin’d. 

Gay. 

This narrow isthmus ’twixt two boundless seas, 

The past, the future, two eternities! 


Moore. 


On life’s vast ocean diversely we sail, 
Reason the card, but passion is the gale. 

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean—roll! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain; 
Man marks the earth with ruin—his control 
Stops with the shore. 


Pope. 


Byron. 


Shame. 


And lovelier things have mercy shown 
To every failing but their own; 

And every woe a tear can claim, 

Except an erring sister’s shame. 

Byron. 

Oh, shame to men ! devil with devil damn’d 
Firm concord holds ; men only disagree 
Of creatures rational. 

Milton. 

O shame ! where is thy blush! 

Shakspere. 

Avoid shame, but do not seek glory—nothing so expensive as glory. 

Sydney Smith. 

Honor and shame from no condition rise; 

Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 

Pope. 


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<5 

























DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 


6 53 


Men the most infamous are fond of fame, 

And those who fear not guilt, yet start at shame. 

Churchill. 

I have mark’d 

A thousand blushing apparitions 

To start into her face ; a thousand innocent shames, 

In angel whiteness, bear away those blushes. 

Shakspere. 

Sighing. 




A plague of sighing and grief! it blows a man up like a bladder. 

Shakspere. 

Sigh’d and look’d, and sigh’d again. 

Dry Jen. 

Speed the soft intercourse from soul to soul, 

And waft a sigh from Indus to the Pole. 

Pope. 

Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, 

Men were deceivers ever. 

Shakspere. 

Had sighed to many, though he loved hut one. 

Byron. 

I stood in Venice, on the Bridge of Sighs; 

A palace and a prison'on each hand. 

Byron. 

She gave me for my pains a world of sighs. 

Shakspere. 

The sigh that rends thy constant heart 
Shall break thy Edwin’s too. 

Goldsmith. 

Silence. 


There was a silence deep as death; 

And the boldest held his breath 
For a time. 

Campbell. 

The silent organ loudest chants 
The master’s requiem. 

Emerson. 

Come then, expressive silence, muse his praise. 

Thomson. 

Silence in love bewray's more woe 
Than words though ne’er so witty; 

A beggar that is dumb, you know, 

May challenge double pity. 

Raleigh. 

No hammers fell, no ponderous axes rung; 

Like some tall palm the mystic fabric sprung. 
Majestic silence! 

Heber. 

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad; 

Silence accompany’d; for beast and bird, 

They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 

Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale. 

Milton. 


Silence that dreadful bell! it frights the isle 
From her prosperity. 

Shakspere. 


Silence is the perfectest herald of joy; I were but little happy if I 
could say how much. 

Shakspere. 


Sleep. 


Methought I heard a voice cry, “Sleep no more! 
Macbeth does murder sleep”—the innocent sleep ; 

Sleep, that knits up the ravell’d sleeve of care. 

Shakspere. 


Thou hast been called, O Sleep ! the friend of woe; 

But ’tis the happy that have called thee so. 

Southey. 

He giveth his beloved sleep. 

Old Testament. 

Yet a little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep. 

Old Testament. 


Tired Nature’s sweet restorer, balmy sleep ! 

Young. 

Not poppy, nor mandragora, 

Nor all the drowsy syrups of the East, 

Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep 
Which t- ou ow’dst yesterday. 

Shakspere. 

On parent knees, a naked new-born child 
Weeping thou sat’st while all around thee smiled; 

So live, that, sinking in thy last long sleep, 

Calm thou may’st smile, while all around thee weep. 

"Jones. 

Now blessings light on him who first invented sleep : it covers a man 
all over, thoughts and all, like a cloak; it is meat for the hungry, 
drink for the thirsty, heat for the cold, and cold for the hot. 

Cervantes. 


Solitude. 


In the desert a fountain is springing, 

In the wide waste there still is a tree, 

And a bird in the solitude singing, 

Which speaks to my spirit of thee. 

Byron. 

I praise the Frenchman, his remark was shrewd, 

How sweet, how passing sweet is solitude ! 

But grant me still a friend in my retreat, 

Whom I may whisper, solitude is sweet. 

Cowper. 

He makes a solitude, and calls it peace. 

Byron. 

For solitude sometimes is best society, 

And short retirement urges sweet return. 

Milton. 

That inward eye 
Which is the bliss of solitude. 

Wordsworth. 


In solitude, where we are least alone. 

Byron. 

O Solitude! where are the charms 
That sages have seen in thy face? 

Cowper. 


There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 

There is a rapture on the lonely shore, 

There is society, where none intrudes, 

By the deep sea, and music in its roar: 

I love not Man the less, but Nature more. 

Byron. 


Strength. 


He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our 
skill; our antagonist is our helper. 

, Burke. 


Spring. 

Come, gentle Spring! ethereal mildness ! come. 

Thomson. 

When Spring unlocks the flowers to paint the laughing soil. 

Heber. 

Sweet Spring, full of sweet days and roses, 

A box where sweets compacted lie. 

Herbert. 



























o 


& 


But when shall spring visit the mouldering urn? 

Oh, when shall it dawn on the night of the grave? 

Beattie. 

Primrose, first-born child of Ver, 

Merry spring-time’s harbinger. 

Beaumont and Fletcher. 

In those vernal seasons of the year, when the air is calm and pleas¬ 
ant, it were an injury and sullenness against Nature not to go out and 
see her riches, and partake in her rejoicing with heaven and earth. 

Milton. 

The State. 

But in the gross and scope of mine opinion, 

This bodes some strange eruption to our state. 

Shakspere. 

What constitutes a state? 

****** 

Men who their duties know, 

But know their rights, and, knowing, dare maintain. 
****** 

And sovereign law, that state’s collected will, 

O’er thrones and globes elate, 

Sits empress, crowning good, repressing ill. 

Jones. 

A thousand years scarce serve to form a state; 

An hour may lay it in the dust. 

Byron. 

Here shall the Press the People’s right maintain, 

Unawed by influence and unbribed by gain ; 

Here patriot Truth her glorious precepts draw, 

Pledged to Religion, Liberty and Law. 

Story. 

States, as great engines, move slowly. 

Bacon. 

Methinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousing her¬ 
self like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks; 
methinks I see her as an eagle mewing her mighty youth, and kind¬ 
ling her undazzled eyes at the full mid-day beam. 

Milton. 

Talking. 

Then he will talk—good gods ! how he will talk 1 

Lee. 

Who think too little, and who talk too much. 

Dryden. 

Let your speech be always with grace, seasoned with salt. 

New Testament. 

The poetry of speech. 

Byron. 

Just at the age ’twixt boy and youth, 

When thought is speech, and speech is truth. 

Scott. 

Thought. 

But evil is wrought by want of thought 
As well as want of heart. 

Hood. 

They are never alone that are accompanied with noble thoughts. 

Sidney. 

And Thought leapt out to wed with Thought 
Ere Thought could wed itself with Speech. 

Tennyson. 

Like thoughts whose very sweetness yieldeth proof 
That they were born for immortality. 

Wordsworth. 

He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. 


Thought is deeper than all speech. 


Beattie. 

Cranch. 


With curious art the brain too finely wrought 
Preys on herself, and is destroyed by thought. 

Churchill. 

The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. 

Byron. 

Thought is the property of him who can entertain it, and of him 
who can adequately place it. 

Emerson. 

But words are things, and a small drop of ink, 

Falling, like dew, upon a thought, produces 
That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think. 

Byron. 

When to the sessions of sweet silent thought 
I summon up remembrance of things past. 

Shakspere. 

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, 

To teach the young idea how to shoot. 

Thomson. 

Thoughts, that voluntary move 
Harmonious numbers. 

Milton. 

Time. 

Even such is Time, that takes on trust 
Our youth, our joys, our all we have, 

And pays us but with age and dust; 

Who in the dark and silent grave, 

When we have wandered all our ways, 

Shuts up the story of our days; 

But from this earth, this grave, this dust, 

My God shall raise me up, I trust. 

Raleigh. 

And panting Time toiled after him in vain. 

Johnson. 

The signs of the times. 

New Testament. 

Thus the whirligig of Time brings in his revenges. 

Shakspere. 

Live to be the show and gaze o’ the time. 

Shakspere. 

The bell strikes one. We take no note of time, 

But from its loss. 

Toung. 

Gather ye rose-buds while ye may, 

Old Time is still a-flying, 

And this same flower, that smiles to-day, 
To-morrow will be dying. 

Herrick. 

Time has laid his hand 
Upon my heart, gently, not smiting it, 

But as a harper lays his open palm 
Upon his harp, to deaden its vibrations. 

Longfellow. 

His golden locks time hath to silver turned ; 

O time too swift! O swiftness never ceasing! 

His youth ’gainst time and age hath ever spurned, 

But spurn’d in vain ; youth waneth by increasing. 

Peele. 

Truth. 

Beauty is truth, truth beauty, that is all 
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. 

Keats. 

Truth from his lips prevail’d with double sway, 

And fools, who came to scoff, remain’d to pray. 

Goldsmith. 

No pleasure is comparable to standing on the vantage-ground of trut 1. 

Lord Bacon. 


/ 


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9 

■i 






























DICTIONARY OF PROSE AND POETICAL QUOTATIONS. 




655 


For truth has such a face and such a mien, 

As to be lov’d needs only to be seen. 

Dryden. 

Truth is as imposible to soil by any outward touch as is the sunbeam. 

Lord Bacon. 

Truth is the highest thing that man may keep. 

Chaucer. 

Great is truth, and mighty above all things. 

Old Testament. 

Truth is as impossible to be soiled by any outward touch as the 
sunbeam. 

Milton. 

Tyranny. 

Necessity is the argument of tyrants, it is the creed of slaves. 

Pitt. 

Kings will be tyrants from policy, when subjects are rebels from 
principle. 

Burke. 


Where law ends, tyranny begins. 


Pitt. 


The tree of liberty only grows when watered by the blood of tyrants. 

Barere. 

This hand, to tyrants ever sworn the foe, 

For freedom only deals the deadly blow; 

Then sheathes in calm repose the vengeful blade, 

For gentle peace in freedom’s hallowed shade. 

j. O. Adams. 

Virtue. 

Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 

“ Virtue alone is happiness below.” 


Pope. 


Well may your hearts believe the truths I tell; 
’Tis virtue makes the bliss, where’er we dwell. 


Collins. 

Virtue could see to do what virtue would 
By her own radiant light, though sun and moon 
Were in the flat sea sunk. 

Milton. 

Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. 

Shakspere. 

I cannot praise a fugitive and cloistered virtue, unexercised and 
unbreathed, that never sallies out and sees her adversary, but slinks 
out of the race, where that immortal garland is to be run for not with¬ 
out dust and heat. 

Milton. 

Virtue is like precious odors, most fragrant when they are incensed 
or crushed. 

Bacon. 

War. 

War, war, is still the cry—war even to the knife! 

Byron. 

There never was a good war or a bad peace. 

Franklin. 

But war’s a game which, were their subjects wise, 

Kings would not play at. 

Co-wper. 

Oh, for a lodge in some vast wilderness, 

Some boundless contiguity of shade, 

Where rumor of oppression and deceit, 

Of unsuccessful or successful war, 

Might never reach me more. 

Ccrwper. 

To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of pre¬ 
serving peace. 


One to destroy is murder by the law; 

And gibbets keep the lifted hand in awe; 

To murder thousands takes a specious name, 

War’s glorious art, and gives immortal fame. 

Toung. 

He is come to ope 

The purple testament of bleeding war. 

Shakspere. 

Oh, wither’d is the garland of war, 

The soldier’s pole is fallen. 

Shakspere. 

The hum of either army stilly sounds, 

That the fix’d sentinels almost receive 
The secret whispers of each other’s watch. 

Fire answers fire ; and through their paly flames 
Each battle sees the other’s umbered face. 

Steed threatens steed, in high and boastful neighs 
Piercing the night’s dull ear; and from the tents, 

The armorers accomplishing the knights, 

With busy hammers closing rivets up, 

Give dreadful note of preparation. 

Shakspere. 

Welcome. 

’Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog’s honest bark 
Bay deep-mouthed welcome as we draw near-home. 

Byron. 

Whoe’er has travel’d life’s dull round, 

Where’er his stages may have been, 

May sigh to think he still has found 
The warmest welcome at an inn. 

Shenstone. 

For I, who hold sage Homer’s rule the best, 
Welcome the coming, speed the going guest. 


Welcome ever smiles, 

And farewell goes out sighing. 

Wisdom. 


Pope. 


Shakspere. 


Wisdom is the principal thing: therefore get wisdom ; and with all 
thy getting get understanding. 

Old Testament. 

The man of wisdom is the man of years. 


In idle wishes fools supinely stay; 

Be there a will, and wisdom finds a way. 


Toung. 


Crabbe. 


Knowledge is proud that he has learn’d so much; 

Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 

Co-wper. 

To know 

That which before us lies in daily life, 

Is the prime wisdom. 

Milton. 

Be wisely worldly, be not worldly wise. 

Opuarles. 

Thus we play the fools with the time, and the spirits of the wise 
sit on the clouds and mock us. 

Shakspere. 

Type of the wise who soar, but never roam ; 

True to the kindred points of Heaven and Home. 

Wordsworth. 

Woman. 

The reason firm, the temperate will, 

Endurance, foresight, strength and skill; 

A perfect Woman, nobly planned, 

To warn, to comfort and command. 


Washington. 


Wordsworth. 
































Her air, her manners, all who saw admired; 
Courteous though coy, and gentle though retired; 
The joy of youth and health her eyes display’d, 
And ease of heart her every look convey’d. 


Earth’s noblest thing, a woman perfected. 


Crabbe. 


Lowell. 


A creature not too bright or good 
For human nature’s daily food; 

For transient sorrows, simple wiles, 

Praise, blame, love, kisses, tears and smiles. 

Wordsworth. 

O woman ! in our hours of ease, 

Uncertain, coy, and hard to please, 

And variable as the shade 

By the light, quivering aspen made; 

When pain and anguish wring the brow, 

A ministering angel thou ! 

Scott. 

Where is the man who has the power and skill 
To stem the torrent of a woman’s will; 

For if she will, she will, you may depend on’t; 

And if she won’t, she won’t; and there’s an end on’t. 

Old Epigram. 

Women, like princes, find few real friends. 

Lyttelton. 

Her voice was ever soft, 

Gentle and low—an excellent thing in woman. 

Shakspere. 

Sir, a woman preaching is like a dog’s walking on his hind legs. It 
is not done well; but you are surprised to find it done at all. 

Johnson. 

The world was sad—the garden was a wild, 

And Man, the hermit, sighed—till woman smil’d. 

Campbell. 

The woman that deliberates is lost. 

Addison. 

He is a fool who thinks by force or skill 
To turn the current of a woman’s will. 

Tube. 

Her children arise up and call her blessed. 

Old Testament. 

So well to know 

Her own, that what she wills to do or say 
Seems wisest, virtuousest, discreetest, best. 

Milton. 


My latest found, 

Heaven’s last, best gift, my ever new delight. 

Milton. 

Not she with trait’rous kiss her Savior stung, 

Not she denied him with unholy tongue; 

She, while apostles shrank, could danger brave, 

Last at his cross and earliest at his grave. 


Barrett. 


Youth: 


Crabbed age and youth • 

Cannot live together. 

Shakspere. 

Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth. 

Old Testament. 

The canker galls the infants of the spring, 

Too oft before their buttons be disclosed; 

And in the morn and liquid dew of youth 
Contagious blastments are most imminent. 

Shakspere. 

He wears the rose 
Of youth upon him. 

Shakspere. 

’Tis now the summer of your youth: time has not cropt the roses 
from your cheek, though sorrow long has washed them. 

Edward Moore. 

Fair laughs the morn, and soft the zephyr blows, 

While proudly riding o’er the azure realm 
In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes; 

Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the helm; 
Regardless of the sweeping whirlwind’s sway, 

That, hush’d in grim repose, expects his ev’ning prey. 

Gray. 

A worm is in the bud of youth, 

And at the root of age. 


And life is thorny, and youth is vain; 
And to be wroth with one we love 
Doth work like madness in the brain. 


Cowper. 


Coleridge. 


In the lexicon of youth, which fate reserves 
For a bright manhood, there is no such word , 

As—fail. 

Bulwer Lytton. 

Ah! happy years! once more, who would not be a boy? 

Byron. 







o 



















HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. 


657 






■0-+-0- 



Heroes and Heroines of Prose and 





A Compendium of the Celebrated Characters in the Literature of the World. 

The name of the character Is given in black letter; the name of the author and of the work from which the character is taken, in italic. 


Abdiel. Paradise Lost, Milton. The 
faithful angel who opposed Satan in his re¬ 
volt. 

Abigail. The Bible. A waiting-maid. 

Ablewhite, Godfrey. Moonstone, Wilkie 
Collins. A disreputable spy. 

Abou Hassan. Arabian Nights. An 
Arab who was made to believe himself Caliph. 

Absalom. 1. The Bible. The son of Da¬ 
vid, King of Israel. 2. Absalom and Achito- 
phel, Dryden. A pseudonym for the Duke of 
Monmouth, an illegitimate son of King 
Charles II. 

Absolute, Captain. The Rivals, Sheri¬ 
dan. The hero of the comedy, the gallant 
and fortunate lover. 

Absolute, Sir Anthony. The Rivals, 
Sheridan. Father of Captain Absolute, a 
very irascible and absolute old gentleman. 

Acliitophel. Absalom and Achitopliel, 
Dryden. The pseudonym for the Earl of 
Shaftesbury. 

Acres, Bob. The Rivals, Sheridan. A 
cowardly boaster, the butt of the comedy. 

Acrasia. The Faery Queen, Spenser. An 
old witch, the personification of Intemper¬ 
ance. 

Adam, Bell. Reliques, Percy. A cele¬ 
brated archer. 

Adams, Parson. Joseph Andrews, Field¬ 
ing. An eccentric, good-natured clergyman. 

Adriana. Comedy of Errors, Shakspere. 
The wife of Antipholus. 

Aguecheek, Sir Andrew. Twelfth 
Night, Shakspere. A coward and a fool. 

Aladdin. Arabian Nights. The owner of 
a magic lamp and ring, which gave the pos¬ 
sessor every wish he made. 

Allworthy, Squire. Tom Jones, Field¬ 
ing. A good-natured old country gentleman. 

Alp. The Siege of Corinth, Byron. A 
brave and devoted man. 

Amadis de Gaul. Amadis de Gaul. The 
hero of a Portuguese chivalric romance, 
the authorship of which is unknown. It was 
translated into every language in Europe. 

Amelia. Amelia, Fielding. A lovely 
woman, supposed to be drawn from Field¬ 
ing’s own wife. 

Amine. Arabian Nights. A wicked sor¬ 
ceress who changed her three sisters into 
hounds. 

Amlet, Richard. The Confederacy, Van- 
burgh. A gambler. 

Amri. Absalom and Achitopliel, Dryden. 
Pseudonym for H. Finch. 

Andrews, Joseph. Joseph Andrews , 
Fielding. A hero ridiculously upright and 
pure. 

Anerley, Mary. Mary Anerley, Black- 
more. A lovely and beautiful girl. 

Apemantus. Timon of Athens, Shaks¬ 
pere. A cynic. 


Arden, Enoch. Enoch Arden, Tennyson. 
A sailor, supposed drowned, who returns 
home to find his wife married again. 

Argante. The Faery Queen, Spenser. A 
giantess. 

Ariel. The Tempest, Shakspere. A spirit 
of the air, perhaps the daintiest creation of 
the myriad-minded poet. 

Artful Dodger. Oliver Twist , Dickens. 
A young thief who understands his business. 

Arthur, King. Idyls of the King, Tenny¬ 
son. A legendary British King, who estab¬ 
lished an order of chivalry known as the 
Round Table, and about whom many popu¬ 
lar legends are afloat in Wales and Western 
France. 

Ashton, Eucy. The Bride of Lammermoor, 
Scott. A beautiful character, loved and lost 
by Ravenswood. 

Atalanta. Atalanla in Calydon, Swin¬ 
burne. One of Diana’s maidens. 

Autolyeus. Winter's Tale, Shakspere. 
An intellectual sneak-thief. 

Baba, Ali. Arabian Nights. The hero 
of the tale of the forty thieves, who breaks 
into the robbers’ cave by means of the magical 
pass-word “ Sesame.” 

Baba, Cassim. Arabian Nights. Brother 
of tlie above, who forgets the pass-word, and 
is captured by the robbers. 

Backbite, Sir Benjamin. School for 
Scandal, Sheridan. A scandal-monger. 

Bagstock, Joe. Dombey and Son, Dick¬ 
ens. A pompous fellow. 

Bailey, Young. Martin Chtuzlewit, Dick¬ 
ens. A precocious youth. 

Balderstone, Caleb. Bride of T.ammer- 
rnoor, Scott. The butler of Ravenswood. 

Balthazar. 1. Comedy of Errors, Shaks¬ 
pere. A merchant. 2. Much Ado about Noth¬ 
ing, Shakspere. A servant. 

Banquo. Macbeth, Shakspere. A chieftain 
murdered by Macbeth ; later in the same play, 
a ghost. 

Bardell, Mrs. Pickwick Papers, Dick¬ 
ens. Mr. Pickwick’s landlady, who sues him 
for breach of promise of marriage. 

Bardolpb. Henry IV., Shakspere. A 
follower of Sir John Falstaff. 

Barkis. David Copperfield, Dickens. A 
marrying man who eventually marries. 

Bath, Major. Amelia, Fielding. A pom¬ 
pous officer. 

Bayes. The Rehearsal, Duke of Bucking¬ 
ham. A pseudonym for Dryden. 

Baynes, Charlotte. Adventures oj 
Philip, Thackeray. The hero’s sweetheart. 

Bede, Adam. Adam Bede, George Eliot. 

. An ideal workingman. 

Belch, Sir Toby. Twelfth Night, Shaks¬ 
pere. Olivia’s hard-drinking uncle. 

Belford. Clarissa Harlowe, Richardson. 
The friend of Lovelace. 


Belinda. Rape of the Lock, Pope. The 
heroine, whose hair is cut. 

Bell, Laura. Pendennis, Thackeray. One 
of the sweetest heroines in English literature. 

Bell, Peter. Peter Bell, Wordsworth. 
An extremely prosaic man. 

Bellaston, Lady. Tom Jones, Fielding. 
One of Tom Jones’ sweethearts. 

Bollenden, Lady. Old Mortality, Scott. 
A Tory gentlewoman. 

Belphoebe. The Faery Queen, Spenser. 
A pseudonym for Queen Elizabeth. 

Belvidera. Venice Preserved, Otway. 
The heroine of the poem. 

Benedict. Love's Labor Lost, Shakspere. 
A confirmed bachelor who was converted to 
matrimony by the lovely Beatrice. From this 
gentleman comes the name Benedict applied 
to married men who were not going to marry. 

Bennet, Mrs. Amelia, Fielding. An im¬ 
proper character. 

Benvolio. Romeo and Juliet, Shakspere. 
One of Romeo’s friends. 

Bertram. All's Well That Ends Well, 
Shakspere. The hero of the play, who mar¬ 
ries Helen. 

Bianca. Othello, Shakspere. Cassio’s 
sweetheart. 

Birch, Harvey. The Spy, Cooper. The 
chief character of the novel. 

Bilfll. Tom Jones, Fielding. Allworthy’s 
nephew, a tale-bearer. 

Blember, Miss Cornelia. Dombey and 
Son, Dickens. A blue-stocking governess. 

Boabdil, Captain. Every Man in His 
Humor, Johnson. A boasting coward. 

Boeuf, Front de. Ivanhoe, Scott. One 
of King John’s followers. A ferocious scoun¬ 
drel. 

Boffin, Noddy. Our Mutual Friend, 
Dickens. The good-natured occupant of 
Boffin’s Bower. 

Bois Guilbert, Brian de. Ivanhoe, 
Scott. The master of the Knights Templars. 

Boniface. The Beaux' Stratagem , Far- 
quhar. A 'andlord. Hence applied to land¬ 
lords generally. 

Booby, Eady. Joseph Andrews, Fielding. 
One of the minor characters. 

Booth. Amelia, Fielding. The hero of 
the story. 

Bottom, Nick. A Midsummer Night's 
Dream, Shakspere. A ridiculous weaver 
with whom Titania, the queen of the fairies, 
is forced to fall in love by a charm. 

Bounderby, Josiab. Hard Times, Dick- 
ens. A prosaic, matter-of-fact manufacturer. 

Bowles, Tom. Kenelm Chillingly, Bui- 
wer. A blacksmith. 

Bowline, Tom. Roderick Random, Smol¬ 
lett. A sailor whose name has been applied 
to mariners ever since. 












































\ 


658 




HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. 


Box and Cox. Box and Cox, Morton, 
The heroes of the farce. 

Bradwardine, Baron. Waverly, Scott. 
The father of Rose Bradwardine. 

Bramble, Matthew. Humphrey Clinker, 
Smollett. A walking epitome of dyspepsia. 

Brangtons. Evelina, Miss Burney. Very 
vulgar people. 

Brass, Sally and Sampson. Old Curi¬ 
osity Shop, Dickens. A shystering lawyer and 
his sister. 

Brick, Jefferson. Martin Chuxxlewit, 
Dickens. A ridiculous American editor. 

Bridgenortli, Major Ralph. Peveril 
of the Peak, Scott. A prominent officer in the 
Puritan Army. 

Bridget, Mrs. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. 
Tristram’s nurse. 

Brown, Tom. Tom Brown's School Days 
and Tom Brovon at Oxford, Thos. Hughes. 
The hero of one of the best boys’ books ever 
written in English. 

Bucket, Inspector. Bleak House, Dick¬ 
ens. A detective. 

Bumble. Oliver Twist, Dickens. A bea¬ 
dle. 

Caius, Doctor. Merry Wives of Windsor, 
Shakspere. Anne Page’s Welsh lover. 

Caliban. The Tempest, Shakspere. 
Prospero’s monstrous servant. 

Candor, Mrs. The Rivals, Sheridan. 
A scandal-monger. 

Carker. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A 
scoundrelly clerk. 

C'assio. Othello, Shakspere. Othello’s 
lieutenant. 

Caudle, Mrs. Curtain Lectures, Douglas 
Jerrold. An artistic scold. 

Caustic, Col. The Lounger, Mackenzie. 
A satirical gentleman. 

Celia. As Tou Like It, Shakspere. 
Rosalind’s cousin. 

Chadband. Bleak House, Dickens. A 
hypocrite. 

Chamont. The Orphans, Otway. The 
hero of the play. 

Chillingly, Kenelm. Kenelm Chillingly, 
Bulwer. The hero of the novel. 

Cbristabel. Christabel, Coleridge. The 
heroine of the poem. 

Christiana. Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan. 
The wife of the hero Christian. 

Chuzzlewit, Jonas and Martin. Mar¬ 
tin Chuzzlevjit, Dickens. The first a miser and 
murderer, the second the hero of Dickens’ 
story. 

Clare, Ada. Bleak House, Dickens. The 
wife of Carstone, and one of the most impor¬ 
tant characters in the story. 

Clifford, Paul. Paid Clifford, Bulwer. 
A beatified highwayman hero. 

Clinker, Humphrey. Humphrey Clin¬ 
ker, Smollett. A philosophical young man 
who meets very singular adventures. 

Ccelebs. Coelebs in Search op a Wife, 
Hannah More. A gentleman who has very 
precise ideas on the subjects of matrimony 
and woman. 

Coldstream, Sir Charles. Used Up, 
Matthews. A fatigued and weary man of the 
world. 

Consuelo. Consuelo, George Sand. The 
heroine of the novel, a rather inflammable 
young lady. 

Copper Captain, The. Rule a Wife, 
and Have a Wife, Beaumont and Fletcher. 
A nickname applied to Peres, the boastful 
coward of the play. 

Copperfield, David. David Copperfield, 
Dickens. The hero of the novel, supposed to 
be a picture of Dickens’ own life and char¬ 
acter. 


Cordelia. King Lear, Shakspere. The 
faithful daughter of the King in the play. 

Corinne. Corinne, Mine, de Stael. The 
heroine of de Stael’s greatest work. 

Costigan, Captain. Pendennis, Thack¬ 
eray. The father of Pendennis’ first sweet¬ 
heart, a hard-drinking but amusing old man. 

Coverly, Sir Roger de. Spectator, Ad¬ 
dison. A model country gentleman of the 
olden time. 

Crane, Iehabod. Sleepy Hollow, Irving. 
The schoolmaster in the sketch. 

Crawley, Rawdon. Vanity Fair, Thack¬ 
eray. The hero of “the novel without a hero.” 
The husband of Becky Sharp. 

Cressida. Troilus and Cressida, Shaks 
pece. The heroine of the play, in love with 
Troilus. 

Crummies, Vincent. Nicholas Nickle- 
by, Dickens. A theatrical head of a theatrical 
family. 

Crusoe, Robinson. Robinson Crusoe, 
DeFoe. The hero of the most remarkable 
ncvel ever written. It has been translated 
into every civilized language on the globe. 
The stc ry relates Crusoe’s adventures on a 
desert isle upon which he was castby the sea, 
and is one of intense interest. 

Cuttle, Captain. Dombey and Son, 
Dickens. A nautical character who indulges 
in a number of queer mannerisms. 

Cymbeline. Cvmbeline, Shakspere. A 
heroic King of Britain. 

Dalgarno, Lord. The Fortunes of Nigel, 
Scott. A Scottish nobleman of bad char¬ 
acter. 

Dalgetty, Dugald. Waverly, Scott. A 
famous and well drawn soldier of fortune, 
whose name has become proverbial. 

Deans, Davie, Effie and Jeanie. 
Heart cf Midlothian, Scott. Famous 
characters in the story, j eanie is the heroine. 

Dedloek, Lady, and Sir Leicester. 
Bleak House, Dickens. Husband and wife, 
proud and unfortunate, but noble people. 

Delamaine, Geoffrey. Man and Wife, 
Collins. A man of muscle. 

Delphine. Delphine, Mine, de Stael. The 
heroine of the novel. 

Deronda, Daniel. Daniel Deronda, 
George Eliot. The hero of the novel, one of 
the nest character sketches which George 
Eliot has made. 

Desdemona. Othello, Shakspere. The 
unfortunate heroine of the play, wife of tne 
Moor Othello. 

Diddler, Jeremy. Raising the Wind, 
Kintiy. The prototype of all modem dead¬ 
beats. 

Dimsdale, Rev. Arthur. The Scarlet 
Letter, Hawthorne. The seducer of Hester 
Prynne. 

Dods, Meg. St. Roman's Well, Scott. A 
landlady. 

Dodson and Fogg. Pickwick Papers, 
Dickens. Mrs. Bardell's attorneys in her 
suit against Mr. Pickwick. 

Dogberry. Much Ado about Nothing, 
Shakspere. An absurd character wlio 
travesties justice. 

Dombey, Florence, Mr. and Paul. 

Dombey and Son, Dickens. Characters in the 
novel. 

Dominie, Sampson. Guy Mannering, 
Scott. An eccentric clergyman. 

Don Quixote. Don Quixote, Cervantes. 
The hero of the novel. This has been de¬ 
scribed by eminent critics as the best work of 
fiction which the world has yet produced. It 
was written in Spanish by Miguel de Cer¬ 
vantes, as a protest against the ridiculous 
extravagances of what are known as Chivalric 
Romances. Don Quixote is the type upon 
which thousands of later novels have been 
| founded. Crazed by the reading of knightly 


tales, he arms himself and goes out in search 
of adventures, on his steed Rozinante, and 
accompanied by his squire Sancho Panzo. 
These adventures are told so wittily, that the 
world has been laughing at them for cen¬ 
turies, and the book has never lost its fresh, 
boyish interest. The best English translation 
is Smollett’s. Gustave Dore, the famous 
French artist, some years since completed a 
set of illustrations for Don Quixote, which 
have added greatly to its interest. 

Dora. David Copperfield, Dickens. Cop- 
perfield’s child-wife. 

Dorimant. The Man of Mode, Etherege. 
A dandy. 

Dorothea. Middlemarcli, George Eliot. 
The heroine of the tale. 

Dorrit, Edward and “ Little.” Little 
Dorrit, Dickens. The Father of the Marshal- 
sea prison and his interesting daughter. 

Drawcansir. The Rehearsal, The Duke 
of Buckingham. A bully. 

Dulcinea del Toboso. Don Quixote, 
Cervantes, A country girl whom Don Quix¬ 
ote selects as his lady love. 

Dundreary, Lord. Our American Cousin, 
Taylor. A typical and absurd English lord. 
The character was really created by the actor 
Sothern. 

Edgar. King Lear, Shakspere. The 
son of Gloucester. 

Emilia. Othello, Shakspere. Wife of 
Iago, the villain of the play. 

Esmond, Beatrix and Henry. Henry 
Esmond, Thackeray. Heroine and hero of 
the novel, which is of the time of the English 
Revolution. 

Eugenia. The Return of the Native , 
Hardy. A beautiful and unfortunate girl. 

Evangeline. Evangeline, Longfellow. 
Heroine of the poem ; her wanderings are told 
in verse that will never die. 

Evans, Sir Hugh. The Merry Wives of 
Windsor, Shakspere. A Welsh clergyman. 

Evelina. Evelina, Miss Burney. Heroine 
of the novel. 

Eyre, Jane, fane Eyre, Bronte. Hero¬ 
ine of the novel. 

Fag. The Rivals, Sheridan. A servant. 

Fagin. Oliver Twist, Dickens. The pre¬ 
ceptor in the thieves’ academy, where Oliver 
Twist is held a prisoner. 

Faithful, Jacob. Jacob Faithful, Mar¬ 
ry alt. The hero of the novel. 

Falkland. The Rivals, Sheridan. A 
jealous lover of J ulia’s, and friend to Captain 
Absolute. 

Falstaff, Sir John. Henry IV. and The 

Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakspere. This 
is Shakspere’s most comic character; 
Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with Sir 
John in Henry IV. that, at her request, 
Shakspere composed The Merry Wives of 
Windsor, in order to give the fat knight a 
wider field for fun. 

Fanny. Under the Greenwood Tree, 
Hardy. A pretty school-mistress. 

Fat Boy, The. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. 
One of the minor characters in the novel, 
given to sleep and pie. 

Faust. Faust, Goethe. The hero of the 
great German tragedy, who sells his soul to 
the Devil, and gets in return youth, wealth 
and an attendant devil, Mephistopheles. 
Goethe was to Germany what Shakspere 
was to England. 

Felton, Septimius. Septimius Felton, 
Hawthorne. The mystical hero of the novel. 

Ferdinand. The Tempest, Shakspere. 
Son of the King, falls in love with Prospero’s 
daughter Miranda. 

Ferrers, Endyinion. Endymion, Ben¬ 
jamin Disraeli. Hero of the novel. 

































HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. 


7 

659 


1 


Figaro. The Marriage of Figaro, Beau¬ 
marchais. An exceedingly comical and sharp- 
witted barber. 

Firmin, Philip. The Adventures of 
Philip, Thackeray. The hero of the novel. 

Florizel. A Winter's Tale, Sliakspere. 
The prince of Bohemia. 

Fluellen. ITenry V., Sliakspere. A 
pedantic but brave Welsh officer. 

Foker, Harry. Pendennis, Thackeray. 
One of the minor characters. 

Foppington, Lord. The Relapse, Van 
Brugh. An idiotic dandy. 

I'osco, Count. Woman in White, Collins. 
A complicated scoundrel. 

Frankenstein. Frankenstein,Mrs.Southey. 
The dreadful result of the labors of a German 
student, who makes a man in the dissecting 
room out of corpses and brings him to life by 

alvanism. The hideous hero of the novel 

as a series of most blood-curdling adven¬ 
tures. 

Friar Tuck. Reliques,Percy. The jolly 
companion of Robin Hood, the outlaw of 
Sherwood Forest. 

Friday. Robinson Crusoe, DeFoe. Cru¬ 
soe’s savage servant. 

Gadgrind, Jeremiah. Hard Times, 
Dickens. A tyrannical “ practical ” man. 

Gamp, Sairy. Martin Chuzzlevjit, 
Dickens. A comical and hard-drinking 
monthly nurse. 

Gargantua. Gargantua, Rabelais. Hero 
of the tale. 

Gaunt, Griffith. Griffith Gaunt, Reade. 
Hero of the novel. 

Gay, Walter. Dombey and Son, Dickens. 
Marries Florence Dombey. 

Gibbie, Goose. Old Mortality, Scott. A 
half-witted boy. 

Gil Bias. Gil Bias, Le Sage. The hero 
of a very famous novel. His adventures are 
of the most surprising character, and are told 
in a most interesting manner. 

Gilpin, John. John Gilpin's Ride, Cow- 
per. The absurd hero of the poem. 

Ginevra. Ginevra, Rogers. The heroine 
of the poem, accidentally locked in a trunk 
on her wedding day, and not found for years 
and years. 

Gobbo, Launcelot. The Merchant of 
Venice, Sliakspere. A merry servant. 

Goneril. King Lear, Sliakspere. The 
eldest daughter of the King, a traitor and an 
ingrate. 

Gonzalo. The Tempest, Sliakspere. An 
old councillor. 

Gosling, Giles. Kenilworth, Scott. A 
landlord. 

Grandison, Sir Charles. Sir Charles 
Grandison, Richardson. Hero of the novel. 

Gray, Vivian. Vivian Gray, Disraeli. 
Hero of the novel. 

Grundy, Mrs. Speed the Plough, Morton. 
An old lady who represents worldly propriety 
and tale-bearing. 

Gulliver, Lemuel. Gulliver's Travels, 
Swift. Hero of the romance. 

Hamlet. Hamlet, Sliakspere. The 
melancholy Dane, hero of the play. 

Harley. The Man of Feeling, Mackenzie. 
Hero of the novel. 

Harlowe, Clarissa. Clarissa Harlowe, 
Richardson. Heroine of the novel. 

Harris, Mrs. Martin Chuzzlevjit, Dickens. 
A fictitious person invented by Sairy Gamp, 
for the purpose of enforcing her statements 
by quoting the opinions of Mrs. Harris upon 
the subject under discussion. 

Headstone, Bradley. Our Mutual 
Friend ; Dickens. A schoolmaster in love 
with Lizzie Hexam. 


Heep,Friali. David Copperfield, Dickens. 
A hypocrite and sneak. 

Helena. All's Well that Ends Well, 
Sliakspere. Heroine of the play. 

Hero. Much Ado about Nothing, Shaks- 
pere. Daughter of Leonato. 

Hexam, Lizzie. Our Mutual Friend, 
Dickens. Heroine of the novel. 

Holofernes. As Ton Like It, Sliakspere. 
A schoolmaster and pedant. 

Holt, Felix. Felix Holt, George Eliot. 
Hero of the novel. 

Honeyman, Charles. The Newcomes, 
Thackeray. A fashionable preacher. 

Honor, Mrs. Tom Jones,Fielding. Sophia 
Western’s waiting-woman. 

Hopeful. Pilgrim's Progress, Bunyan. 
A pilgrim. 

Horatio. Hamlet, Sliakspere. The 
friend of Hamlet. 

Howe, Miss. Clarissa Harlowe, Richard¬ 
son. Clarissa’s friend. 

Hudibras. Hudibras, Butler. Hero of 
the poem. 

Hunter, Mr. and Mrs. Leo. Pickwick 
Papers, Dickens. Minor characters in the 
novel. 

Iago. Othello, Sliakspere. The villain 
of the tragedy. 

Imogen. Cymbeline, Sliakspere. Hero¬ 
ine of the play. 

Isabella. Measure for Measure, Shahs- 
pere. Heroine of the play. 

Ivanhoe. Ivanlioe, Scott. Hero of the 
novel. 

Jack, Col. Col. Jack, DeFoe. The 
criminal hero of the tale. 

Jaffier. Venice Preserved, Otway. Hero 
of the poem. 

Jaques. As Toil Like It, Sliakspere. 
The melancholy philosopher. 

Jarndyce, John. Bleak House, Dickens. 
A benevolent old gentleman. 

Javert. Les Miserables, Hugo. A de¬ 
tective. 

Jessica. Merchant of Venice, Sliakspere. 
Shylock’s daughter. 

Jingle, Alfred. Pickwick Papers, 
Dickens. An amusing adventurer. 

Kilmansegg, Miss. The Golden Legend, 
Hood. The golden-legged heroine of the 
poem. 

Kitely. Every Man in his Humor, John¬ 
son. A jealous husband. 

Lady Bountiful. The Beau's Stratagem, 
Farquliar. A generous lady. 

Laertes. Hamlet, Sliakspere. The son 
of Polonius, killed by his own sword. 

Lalla Rookh. Lalla Rookh, Moore. 
Heroine of the poem, to whom Feramorz re¬ 
lates the stories told in the romance. 

Languish, Lydia. The Rivals, Sheridan. 
Heroine of the play. 

Lear, King. King Lear, Sliakspere. 
Hero of the play. 

Leatherstocking, Natty. Pathfinder, 
Deerslayer, and other novels. Cooper. A 
huntsman and Indian fighter. 

Legree. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stowe. Slave 
master. 

Leigh, Aurora. Aurora Leigh, Brown¬ 
ing. Heroine of the romance. 

Leila. Giaour, Byron. Heroine of the 
poem. 

Liglitwood, Mortimer. Our Mutual 
Friend, Dickens. Minor character in novel. 

Lismaliago, Capt. Humphrey Clinker, 
Smollett. A retired officer. 

Little, Henry. Put Tourself in His 
Place, Reade. Hero of the novel. 


Little Nell. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. 
Heroine of novel. 

Locksley. Ivanhoe, Scott. One of Robin 
Hood’s pseudonyms. 

Long Tom Coffin. Pilot, Cooper. A 
boatman. 

Lothair. Lothair, Disraeli. Hero of 
novel, supposed pseudonym for the Marquis 
of Bute. 

Lothario. The Fair Penitent, Rovje. 
A rake. 

Lovelace. Clarissa Harlowe, Richardson. 
A rake. 

Lumpkin, Tony. She Stoops to Conquer, 
Goldsmith. A country squire. 

Macbeth. Macbeth, Sliakspere. Hero 
of the play. 

Macduff. Macbeth, Sliakspere. Rival 
of Macbeth. 

Maclvor, Flora. Rob Roy, Scott. Hero¬ 
ine of novel. 

Mackenzie, Mrs. Newcomes, Thackeray. 
A termagant widow. 

Malagrotlier, Sir Mingo. The Fortunes 
of Nigel, Scott. An ill-natured courtier. 

Malaprop, Mrs. The Rivals, Sheridan. 
A character famed for verbal blunders. 

Malvolio. Twelfth Night, Sliakspere. 
Olivia’s conceited steward. 

Manfred. Manfred, Byron. Hero of the 
tragedy. 

Mantalini. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. 
The absurd husband of the milliner in the 
story. 

Marchioness, The. Old Curiosity Shop, 
Dickens. Air. Dick Swiveller’s remarkable 
little nurse. 

Alargaret. Faust, Goethe. The heroine 
of the tragedy. 

Marlow, Young. She Stoops to Conquer, 
Goldsmith. Hero of the play. 

Medora. The Corsair, Byron. Heroine 
of the poem. 

Merdle, Air. Little Dorrit, Dickens. A 
speculator. 

Aleister, Wilhelm. Wilhelm Meister, 
Goethe. Hero of the novel. 

Alephistoplieles. Faust, Goethe. The 
Devil. 

Alercutio. Romeo and Juliet, Shaks- 
pere. A wonderfully witty friend of 
Romeo’s. 

Alicawber, Wilkins. David Copperfield, 
Dickens. A remarkable character, always 
waiting for something to turn up. 

Aliller, Daisy. Daisy Miller, Henry 
James. An alleged representative American 
girl. 

Alinna. The Pirate, Scott. One of, the 
heroines of the novel. 

Miranda. The Tempest, Sliakspere. 
Daughter of Prospero, beloved of Ferdinand; 
heroine of the play. 

Alonimia. The Orphan, Otway. Heroine 
of the poem. 

Alouldy. Henry IV., Shakspere. One 
of Falstaff’s recruits. 

Afucklewrath, Habbakuk. Old Mor¬ 
tality, Scott. A fanatical preacher. 

Neuchatel, Adr’ana. Endymion, Dis¬ 
raeli. A wealthy young lady. 

Newcome, Clive, Colonel, Ethel. The 
Newcomes, Thackeray. Characters in the 
best novel Thackeray’has written. 

Nickleby, Airs. Nicholas Nickleby, 
Dickens. The exasperating mother of the 
hero, Nicholas. 

Norna. The Pirate, Scott. An insane 
soothsayer. 

Nydia. Last Days of Pompeii, Bulwer. 
A blind flower girl. 




































66 o 


HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. 


Obadiah. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A 
servant. 

Oberon. Midsummer Night's Dream, 
Shakspere. The King of Fairyland. 

Ochiltree, Edie. The Antiquary , Scott. 
A beggar of prominence. 

Oldbuck, Jonathan. The Antiquary, 
Scott. Hero of the novel. 

Old Mortality. Old Mortality, Scott. A 
gravestone cleaner. 

Olifaunt, Nigel. The Fortunes of Nigel, 
Scott. Hero of the novel. 

Ophelia. Hamlet, Shakspere. Heroine 
of the tragedy. 

Orville, Lord. Evelina, Miss Burney. 
Evelina’s lover. 

Othello. Othello, Shakspere. Hero of 
the play, a Moor, husband of Desdemona. 

O’Trigger, Sir Lucius. The Rivals, 
Sheridan. Afire-eating Irishman. 

Overreach, Sir Giles. A New Way to 
Pay Old Debts, Massinger. A usurer. 

Page, Anna and Mrs. The Merry Wives 
of Windsor, Shakspere. Characters in the 
play. 

Pamela. Pamela, Richardson. An in¬ 
tensely good young lady. 

Pangloss. The Heir-at-Law, Colman. A 
pedantic teacher. 

Pant a gruel. Pantagruel, Rabelais. Hero 
of the sketch. 

Partridge. Tom Jones, Fielding. The 
hero’s trusty follower. 

Pecksniff, Charity, Mercy, Mr. Martin 
Chuzzlewit, Dickens. Characters in the story. 

Pendennis, Arthur, Helen, Major. 
Pendennis, Thackeray. Well drawn and for¬ 
cible characters in the novel. 

Perdita. Winter's Tale, Shakspere. 
Florizet’s sweetheart. 

Petruchio. The Taming of the Shrew, 
Shakspere. The hero, and husband of 
Katherine. 

Pickle, Peregrine. Peregrine Pickle, 
Smollett. The wandering and unmoral hero 
of the novel. 

Pickwick, Samuel. Pickwick Papers, 
Dickens. Hero of the novel. 

Pierre. Venice Preserved, Otway. A 

conspirator. 

Pistol, Ancient. Merry Wives of Wind¬ 
sor and Henry IV., Shakspere. Falstaff’s 
most characteristic follower. 

Pleydell, Paulus. Guy Mannering, Scott. 
A lawyer. ° 

Poins, Ned. Henry IV., Shakspere. A 
friend of Prince Hal. 

Portia. The Merchant of Venice. Heroine 
of the play. 

Poundlint, Peter. Old Mortality, Scott. 
A preacher. 

Primrose, Hr. Vicar of Wakefield, Gold¬ 
smith. The Vicar of Wakefield. 

Primrose, Moses. His son. 

Prolius. Two Gentlemen of Verona, 
Shakspere. One of the two Gentlemen. 

Proudfute. Fair Maid of Perth, Scott. 
A bonnet-maker. 

Prynne, Hester. Scarlet Letter, Haw¬ 
thorne. Heroine of novel. 

Pumbleehook, Uncle. Great Expecta¬ 
tions, Dickens. A bully and fraud. 

Pynchon, Phoebe. House of the Seven 
Gables, Hawthorne. Heroine of the novel. 

Quasimodo. Our Lady of Notre Dame, 
Hugo. A monster. 

Quickly, Mrs. Henry IV., Shakspere. 
The famed hostess of the Boar’s Head Tavern, 
in Eastcheap. 

Quilp. Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A 
vicious dwarf. 


Quince, Peter. Midsummer Night's 
Dream, Shakspere. Character in the inter¬ 
lude. 

Random, Roderick. Roderick Random, 
Smollett. Hero of the novel. 

Rashleigh. Rob Roy, Scott. The villain 
of the novel. 

Rasselas. Rasselas,Dr. “Johnson. Prince 
of Abyssinia, hero of the tale. 

Rattler, Jack. Roderick Random, Smol¬ 
lett. A nautical character. 

Ravenswood. The Bride of Lammermoor, 
Scott. Hero of the novel, lover of Lucy Ash¬ 
ton. 

Rebecca. Ivanhoe, Scott. A lovely 

J ewess. 

Redgauntlet. Redgauntlet, Scott. Hero 
of the novel. 

Rob Roy. Rob Roy, Scott. A Scottish 
chief, hero of the novel. 

Roderigo. Othello, Shakspere. Iago’s 
dupe. 

Romeo. Romeo and Juliet, Shakspere. 
The hero of the play, lover of J uliet. 
Sabrina. Comus, Milton. River nymph. 
Sacripant. Orlando Furioso, Ariosto. 
King of Circassia, in love with Angelica. 

Saddletree, Rartoline. Heart of Mid¬ 
lothian, Scott. A learned peddler. 

Saiicho Panza. Don Quixote, Cervantes. 
Worthy squire of a worthy master; the right 
man in the right place. 

Sandford, Harry. Sandford and Merton, 
Day. Hero of the story. 

Sangrado, Doctor. Gil Bias, Le Sage. 
A confirmed phlebotomist. 

Scheherezade, Queen. Arabian Nights. 
The Sultaness who tells the tales. 

Scrub. The Beau’s Stratagem, Farquhar. 
A facetious valet. 

Sedley, Amelia. Vanity Fair, Thackeray. 
Am amiable woman, but of no great decis.on. 

Sedley, Joseph. Vanity Fair, Thackeray. 
A fat, bashful East Indian! 

Selim. Bride of Abydos, Byron. The 
hero. 

Sliafton, Sir Piercie. The Monastery, 
Scott. A pedantic courtier. 

Shandy, Tristram. Tristram Shandy, 
Sterne. Hero of the story. 

Sharp, Rebecca. Vanity Fair, Thack¬ 
eray. The designing heroine. 

Sliylock. Merchant of Venice, Shaks¬ 
pere. A vindictive Jew. 

Silvia. Two Gentleman of Verona, Shaks¬ 
pere. In love with Valentine. 

Skimpole, Harold. Bleak House, 
Dickens. Always out of money. 

Slipslop,Mrs. Joseph Andrews, Fieldina. 
A waiting woman of doubtful character. * 

Slop, Doctor. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. 
An irascible physician. 

Sly, Christopher. Taming of the Shrew, 
Shakspere. A drunken tinker. 

Slyme, Chevy-. Martin Chuzzlewit, 
Dickens. A “ gent short of funds.” 

Sinyke. Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. An 
ill-used, poor, half-witted pupil of Squeers. 

Sneerwell, Lady. School for Scandal, 
Sheridan. A gossip and back-biter. 

Snodgrass, Augustus. Pickwick Papers, 
Dickens. A poetical character. 

Snow, Lucy. Villette, Charlotte Bronte. 
The heroine. 

Sparkler, Edmond. Little Dorrit, 
Dickens. Man of fashion. 

Squeers, Wackford. Nicholas Nickleby, 
Dickens. The brutal master of Dothebov’s 
Hall. 3 

Squeers, Master Wackford. In same. 
A spoiled child, the image of his father. 


St. Leon. St. Leon, William Goodwin. 
Hero of the tale, has the secret of perpetual 
youth and the transmutation of metals. 

Steerforth, James. David Copperfield, 
Dickens. Talented and profligate. 

Steggs, Miss Carolina Willielmina 
Amelia. Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. A 
pretender to gentility. 

Stiggins, Elder. Pickwick Papers, 
Dickens. Affects pineapple rum and Mrs. 
Weller. 

Strap, Hugh. Roderick Random, Smollett. 
Roderick’s follower. 

Surface, Sir Charles and Joseph. 

School for Scandal, Sheridan. The first a 
good-natured rake, the second a hypocrite. 

Swiveller, Dick. Old Curiosity Shop. 
Dickens. A gay rattlepate and a good fellow. 

Tamora. Titus Andronicus, Shakspere. 
A Gothic Queen. 

Tapley, Mark. Martin Chuzzlewit, 
Dickens. Happiest when most miserable; 
jolly when he ought to cry. 

Tappertit, Simon. Barnaby Rudge, 
Dickens. A ferocious little apprentice. 

Tartuffe. Tar tuffe, Moliere. A hypocriti¬ 
cal character. 

Teazle, Lady. Schoolfor Scandal, Sher¬ 
idan. The heroine. 

Teazle, Sir Peter. School for Scandal, 
Sheridan. The old husband of Lady Teazle. 

Thersites. Iliad, Homer, and Troilus 
and Cressida, Shakspere. A foul-mouthed 
Greek. 

Thwackum. Tom Jones, Fielding. A 
philosophical pedagogue. 

Tilleinina. The Critic, Sheridan. A 
maiden very much crossed in love. 

Timon. Timon of Athens, Shakspere. 
A misanthrope, hero of the play. 

Tinto, Dick. Bride of Lammermoor, and 
St. Romans Well, Scott. An artist. 

Titania. Midsummer Night's Dream, 
Shakspere. The queen of fairies. 

Titmouse, Tittlebat. Ten Thousand a 
Tear, Dr. Warren. Astonished Parliament 
by an imitation of Chanticleer. 

Tito. Romola, George Eliot. The hand 
some, but weak hero. 

Todgers, Mrs. Martin Chuzzlewit, 
Dickens. The keeper of a commercial board¬ 
ing-house. 

Toots. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A 
simple, eccentric fellow. 

Topsey. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. 
An ignorant young slave girl. 

Touchstone. As Ton Like It, Shakspere. 
A clown. 

Touchwood, Peregrine. St. Romans 
Well, Scott. An irascible East Indian. 

Tox, Miss. Dombey and Son, Dickens. A 
spinster, slightly curious. 

Traddles, Tom. David Copperfield, 
Dickens. A barrister and friend of Copper- 
field. 

Trapbois. The Fortunes of Nigel, Scott. 
A usurer. 

Trim, Corporal. Tristam Shandy, 
Sterne. The follower of Uncle Toby. 

Trinculo. Tempest, Shakspere. A jester. 

Triol, Marquis. The Pirate, Scott. A 
wealthy Zealander. 

Trotwood, Betsy. David Copperfield, 
Dickens. The kindest of women, but with an 
aversion to trespassing donkeys. 

Trulliber, Parson. Joseph Andrews, 
Fielding. An ignorant clergyman. 

Trunnion, Commodore Hawser. Pere¬ 
grine Pickle, Smollett. An odd nautical 
character. 

Tulkingliorn, Mr. Bleak House,Dickens. 
A wily solicitor. 
































HEROES AND HEROINES OF PROSE AND POETRY. 


66 l 


Tulliver, Maggie. Mill on the Floss, 
George Eliot. The heroine. 

Tulliver, Tom. Mill on the Floss, George 
Eliot. Her selfish, conceited brother. 

Tupman, Tracy. Pickwick Papers, 
Dickens. An obese admirer of lovely women. 

Turveydrop. Bleak House, Dickens. 
Dancing master and professor of deportment. 

Tuslier, Thomas. Henry Esmond, 
Thackeray. A sycophantic clergyman. 

Twemlow, Mr. Our Mutual Friend, 
Dickens. A diner-out and friend of the Ven- 
eerings. 

Twist, Oliver. Oliz’er Twist, Dickens. 
Hero of the novel. 

Twysden, Talbott. Philip, Thackeray. 
A public officer. 

Tybalt. Romeo and yn/iet, Shakspere. 
Nephew of Lady Capulet, slain by Romeo. 

Ulrica. Ivanlioe, Scott. An old witch. 

Una. The Faery Queen, Spenser. The 
personification of Truth. 

Uneas. The Last of the Mohicans, Cooper. 
A Mohican chief. 

Uncle Toby. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A 
noble veteran, the real hero of the story. 

Uncle Tom. Uncle Tom's Cabin, Stozoe. 
A pious and unfortunate slave, the hero of 
the novel. This book added more converts to 
the abolition party than any other factor. It 
is the most remarkable and effective American 
work printed. 

Varden, Dolly. Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. 
The heroine of the story. 

Vathek. Vathek, Beckford. The hero of 
Reckfora’s remarkable novel. 

Vernon, Di. Rob Roy, Scott. The 
heroine of the novel. 

Vholes. Bleak House, Dickens. A crafty 
lawyer. 

Viola. Tzvelfth Night, Shakspere. A 
sweet little lady in love with Orsino. 


Virgilia. Coriolanus, Shakspere. Wife 
of Coriolanus. 

Virginia. Paul and Virginia, St. Pierre. 
Heroine of the novel. 

Vivian. Idyls of the King, Tennyson. The 
mistress of Merlin, the Enchanter.’ 

Wadman, Widow. Tristram Shandy, 
Sterne. The lady who seeks to decoy Uncle 
Toby into matrimony. 

Wamba. lvanhoe, Scott. A clown. 

War die, Mr. Pickwick Papers, Dickens. 
A jolly country gentleman, friend of Mr. 
Pickwick. 

Wegg, Silas. Our Mutual Friend, 
Dickens. The villain of the novel. 

“Weller, Tony and Samivel. Pick-wick 
Papers, Dickens. Father and son; the latter, 
Mr. Pickwick’s serving man, is undoubtedly 
the most original and mosthumorous creation 
of Dickens’ exuberant fancy. 

Wertlier. Sorrows of Wertlier, Goethe. 
Hero of the tale. 

Western, Squire and Sophia. Tom 

fanes, Fielding. Father and daughter, the 
latter the heroine of the novel. 

Whiskerandos, Don Ferolo. The Critic, 
Sheridan. The lover of Tilhurina. 

Wickfield, Agnes. David Copperfield, 
Dickens. Heroine of the novel. 

Wild, Jonathan, yonathan Wild, Field¬ 
ing. A famous highwayman, and afterwards 
a noted thieftaker of London. 

Wildair, Sir Harry. The Constant Cou¬ 
ple, and Sir Harry Wildair, Farquhar. The 
hero of both plays. 

Wilfer, Bella, Lavinia, Reginald and 
Mrs. Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. One of 
the most entertaining family groups in Eng¬ 
lish fiction. The first is the charming heroine 
of the novel. Lavinia is her abominable sis¬ 
ter; Reginald, her angelic papa; while the 
somber background is made by the gloomy 
mamma, whose other name in the family is 
The Tragic Muse. 


Wilfrid. Rokely, Scott. Hero of the 
poem. 

Williams, Caleb. Caleb Williams, God¬ 
win. The hero of a very remarkable novel. 

Wimble, Will. Spectator, Addison. 
Pseudonym for Thomas Morecraft. 

Winkle, Rip Van. Sketch Book, Irving. 
The immortal sleeper of the Catskills. 

Wislifort, Lady. The Way of the World, 
Congreve. Heroine of the play. 

Worldly Wiseman, Mr. Pilgrim's 
Progress, Bunyan. One of Christian’s diffi¬ 
culties. 

Wray, Enoch. The Village, Crabbe. A 
noble old man. 

Wren, Jenny. Our Mutual Friend, 
Dickens. The doils’ dressmaker. 

Wrongliead, Sir Francis. The Provoked 
Husband, Vanburgh. Hero of the play. 

Yoriek. Tristram Shandy, Sterne. A jester 
descended from the Yoriek whose history is 
told by Hamlet. 

Yseult. Tristram and Tseult, Matthew 
Arnold. A Cornish heroine of the olden time. 

Zadoe. Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. 
Pseudonym for Sancroft, Archbishop of Can¬ 
terbury. 

Zanoni. Zanoni, Bulzver. The mystical 
hero of the novel. 

Zeluoo. Zeluco, Dr. y. Moore. The 
prodigal hero of the novel. 

Zobeide. Arabian Nights. The wife of 
the great Haroun al Raschid. 

Zodig. Zodig, Voltaire. The Babylonian 
hero of the novel. 

Zophiel. Paradise Lost, Milton. A swift¬ 
winged cherub. 

Zuleika. The Bride of Abydos, Byron. 
Heroine of the poem. 















































9 






G\ 



\ 

662 

A DICTIONARY OF NOMS DE PLUME. 



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NOMSDE PLUME. 


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'HE following list of assumed names in English and 
American literature will be found to be the most com¬ 
prehensive ever published : 


ASSUMED NAME. 


REAL NAME. 


REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 


A Country Parson... .Archbish. Whately... .Divinity and Logic. 

A Gaol Chaplain.Rev. Erskine Neale.. .Bentley' s Miscellany. 

. -wr tt t> O . IT tr T> J ( Recreations of a 

A. K. Ii. B.Rev. A. K. H. Boyd 


Country Parson. 
Charlotte Tucker.City of No Cross. 


F. W. Fairholt.Costume in England. 


Richard Cobden.Political tracts. 


A. L. O. E. (a lady 
of England) 

A Lady.Mrs. Rundell.Domestic Cookery 

A Lady.Mrs. Anna Jamieson..Art Criticism. 

A Literary Anti 

quary. 

A Lover of , 

T . , Thomas Green.Diary. 

Literature ’ 

A Lincolnshire i . 

Grazi r j T. Hartwell Horne. ..Bibliography. 

A Manchester 

Manufacturer 1 

A Northern Man... .Chas. J. Ingersoll.Political History. 

A Student at Law..F. K. Hunt.The Fourth Estate. 

A Travelling > . 

_ . , J. Penimore Cooper...Travels. 

Bachelor \ 1 

A Trinity Man.Thomas Wright.Alma Mater, 1827. 

A. N. Farmer.Rev. Isaac Wilkins.. .Political tracts. 

A Young American .A. Slidel Mackenzie. .Year in Spain. 
Abimelech Coody...Julian C. Verplanck.. .Political tracts. 

Acheta Domestica . .Miss L. M. Budgen...Episodes of Insect Life. 

Acton Bell.Anne Bronte.Agnes Gray. 

Rev. James Cook 

Richmond 

Adolph Myer.M. A. Goldschmidt... .Novelist. 

Agate.Whitelaw Reid.Journalist. 

Agricola.William Elliott.Carolina Sports. 

Alfred Croquis.Daniel Maclise.Fraserian Portraits. 

Alfred Crowquill.A. H. Forrester.Eccentric Tales. 

Allan Grant.William Wilson. Dundee Review. 

Alice Bradley (Neal) 

Haven ! 

Ally Sloper.Charles H. Ross.Adventures in Judy. 

Almaviva.Clement Scott. .Figaro's dramatic critic. 

Alpin.William Wilson. Dundee Review. 

Alter.Rev. J. B. Owen.Chess Studies. 

Alton Clyde.Sarah Anne Jeffries.. .Maggie Lynn. 

Amateur Casual.James Greenwood ....Night in the Workhouse. 

Amelia.Mrs. Welbv.Poems. 

Amicus.Thomas Fairbairn....Social Progress. 

Amy Lothrop.Anna B. Warner.Dollars and Cents. 

An Amateur.Charles K. Sharpe....Portraits. 

An American.Gen. Lewis Cass.Sketches in France. 

An Angler.Sir Humphry Davy.. .Salmonia. 

An English 1 n 0xenford . Th( Times% 

Playgoer ) 


Admonish Crime.. 


Poems. 


Alice G. Lee. 


Godey’s Lady's Book. 



ASSUMED NAME. 


An Epicure. 

An Irishwoman... 
An Octogenarian... 
An Old Bushman... 


An Old Man. 


An Old Sailor. 

Anthony Pasquin..., 

Arachnophilus. 

Archseus.. 

Ariel. 

Arte mus Ward. 

Arthur Griffenhoff.. 
Arthur Sketchley.... 
Asa Trenchard. 


Ascott R. Hope ... 

Aug. Dunshunner... 

Augur. 

Aunt Fanny. 

Aunt Judy. 

Azamat Batuk. ... 

Bab. 

Bailey. 

Barclays, One of the. 

Barnacle. 

Barrabas . 

Whitefeather i 

Barry Cornwall. 

Barry Gray. 

Belle Brittan. 

Belle Smith. 


Benauly. 

Benedict Cruiser. 


Berwick. 

Besieged Resident... 
Bibliophile Jacob.... 

Bideford Postman_ 

Bill Arp. 

Blythe White, Jun... 

Bob Short. 

Bon Gaultier. 

Boston Bard. 

Boston Rebel.. 

Boz. 

Bret Harte. 

Brother Peregrine... 

Burleigh. 

Buller of Brasenose.. 
Cadwalader 


IfJflliMlMl i l illg 


REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 

,F. Saunders.Salad for the Solitary. 

,Miss Anna Perrier.The Irishman. 

• James Roche.Essays. 

,W. Wheelwright.Naturalist. 

Sir Francis Bond i Bubbles from the 

Head j Brunner. 

.M. H. Baker.Sea Tales. 

John Williams... . Morning Herald. 

Adam White.Essays. 

Rev. John Sterling.... The Onyx Ring. 

Stephen R. Fiske. New York Leader. 

.Charles F. Browne...." His Book.” 

• George Colman, Jr....Dramatist. 

Rev. George Ross.Mrs. Brown. 

Henry Watterson.Magazine sketches. 

Robert Hope ) , ., _ 

„ Book About Boys. 
Montcrieff ) J 

,Wm. E. Aytoun.Tales, Black-wood. 

, H. M. Feist.The Racing Prophet. 

Mrs. T. D. Gage.Juvenile Tales. 

.Mrs. Alfred Gatty. Aunt Judy's Magazine. 

.N. L. Thieblin.Spain and Spaniards. 

,W. S. Gilbert.Bab Ballads. 

,Fred. Douglass.Journalist. 

.Mrs. H. G. Otis.Barclays of Boston. 

A. C. Barnes. Litterateur. 

Douglas Jerrold.Articles in Punch. 

B. W. Proctor.The Sea and other Songs. 

Robert Barry Coffin . .My Married Life. 

Hiram Fuller. New York Mirror. 

.Louise Kirby Piatt... .Hotne Journal. 

Benjamin V. Austin . 

and Lyman Abbott, > Conecut Corners. 

Ben. Au. Ly., jointly ' 

George Aug. Sala.How I Tamed Mrs. C. 

. „ , ( The John Brown 

James Redpath.j 

( Invasion. 

H. Labouchere.In Paris. 

Paul Lacroix.Novels. 

Edward Capern.Poems. 

.Charles H. Smith. 

Solon Robinson. New York Tribune. 

,A. B. Longstreet.Political articles. 

,Wm. E. Aytoun.Ballads. 

Robert S. Coffin.Poems. 

John Lowell.Political articles. 

Charles Dickens.Sketches by Boz. 

Francis B. Hart.The Heathen Chinee. 

Octavian Blewitt. Fraser's Magazine. 

Matthew Hale Smith ..Boston Journal. 

John Hughes. Blackwood's Magazine. 


Rowlands 


| J. C. Hotten. Life of II. M. Stanley. 































































































































































V 


A DICTIONARY OF NOMS DE PLUME. 


663 


ASSUMED NAME. 


Csesariensis. 


REAL NAME. 
Rev. James W. 


REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 


[ Literary World. 


Chas. Summerfield.. .Albert W. Arrington.. 


| Alexander S 

Caller Herrin.Annie Smith.Tales, Fasnily Herald. 

Cannibal Jack.Charles Beach.The Way to Win. 

Cantell A. Bigly.George W. Peck.Journalist. 

Captain Rawdon ) _ _ _ _ , _ 

f George F. Pardon.The Billiard Book. 

Crawley ) 

Capt. Rock in | M. J. Whitty.Tales of Irish Life. 

London ) J 3 

Captain Shandon... .C. Smith Cheltnam... .Belgravia. 

Caradoc.Ilenry W. Moore. St. Louis Spectator. 

Carl Benson.Charles A. Bristed.Upper Ten Thousands. 

„ , ( Charles Carleton 1 . 

Carleton. _ f Journalist. 

( Coffin ) 

Caveat Emptor.Sir George Stephen... .Search of a Home. 

Cavendish.W. Johnson Neale.Sea Novels. 

Cavendish.Henry Jones.On Whist. 

Cecil.Cornelius Tongue.The Stud Farm. 

Cham.A. de Noe.Caricatures. 

Charles Martel.Thomas Delf.Miscellanies. 

Southern Literary 

Messenger. 

, , ( Charlotte Elizabeth 1 _ , 

Charlotte Elizabeth ! [Tales. 

/ Tonna ) 

Chartist Parson.Rev. Chas. Kingsley. .Poems. 

Chevalier.M. C. Hart. Sunday Mercury. 

Cheviot Tichburn... .W. II. Ainsworth.Novelist. 

Chinese Philosopher.Oliver Goldsmith.Citizen of the World. 

Chris. Crowficld.Mrs. II. B. Stowe.Magazine articles. 

Christine Severne... .Mrs. Anna Boulton... .Could Aught Atone? 

Christian Reed.Francis C. Fisher.Novelist. 

Christopher North. ..John Wilson.Noctes Ambrosiana;. 

Claribel.Mrs. Barnard.Come Back to Erin. 

C. O. Nevers.Chas. C. Converse.Sweet Singer. 

Colley Cibber.James Rees.Dramatic Criticism. 

( Viscomtesse I sketches. 

( de St. Mars ) 

, Alice Bradley (Neal) , f 

( Haven j 

C usin Kite.Catherine D. Bell.Hope Campbell. 

Currer Bel!.Charlotte Bronte.Jane Eyre. 

Cuthbert Bede.Rev. E. Bradley.Verdant Green. 

„ , , „ ( Letters on Church 

D. C L.Beresford Hope.1 ,, 

> Matters. 

D-G..George Daniel.Dramatic critic. 

Danbury Newsman. .J. M. Bailey.Life in Danbury. 

Darby North.Daniel Owen Madden.The Mildmays. 

Davenant Cecil.Derwent Coleridge.. ..Knight's Quarterly. 

Delta.David M. Moir.Poems. 

Dennis Jasper 

Murphy 

Derwent Conway... .Henry D. Inglis.Travels. 

Dick Tinto.Frank B. Goodrich....Court of Napoleon. 

Diedrich I Washington Irving....History of New York. 

Knickerbocker ) 

Doctor Merry.J. Wyndham.Merry Companions. 

Dod Grile.M. Bierce.Friend’s Delight. 

Don Leucadio J Rev. Joseph Blanco > LeUers ^ 

Doblado j White ( 

Dow, Junior.Elbridge G. Page.Patent Sermons. 

Dr. Oldham at , Rey Caleb § Henry .. } American Advocate 

Graystones ) ( of Peace . 

Dr. Vicesimus / Theo. E. Hook.Whitington and His Cat. 

Blenkinsop ) 

Dr. Peter Morris.J. G. Lockhart.Peter’s Letters. 

Dr. Syntax.Wm. Combe.Tour of Dr. S. 

Dr. Updike ) „ , _ . j The Life and 

Underhill ) koy ' 1 y L .| Adventures of U. U. 


Countess Dash. 


Cousin Alice. 


Rev. C. Maturin.Novels and plays. 


Thos. De Quincey.Confessions. 


Fern Leaves. 


ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 

Druid.H. M. Flint. New York World. 

Dunn Brown.Rev. Samuel Fisk. Springfield Republican. 

E. B. Waverly.J. Wilson Croker.Letters on Currency. 

E. C. Revons.«Charles C. Converse...Spring and Holiday. 

E. H. T.Earl of Derby.Travels. 

Eden Warwick.George S. Jabet.Notes on Noses. 

Edgeworth Benson..John Scott.Visit to Paris. 

Edith May.Anna Drinker.Poetry. 

Edmund Falconer...Edmund O’Rourke... .Dramatist. 

Edmund Kirke.James R. Gilmore.Travels. 

Edward Baldwin... .William Godwin.Juvenile works. 

Edward Hazlefoot... W. Sidney Walker.. ..Knight's Quarterly. 

Edward Herbert.J. Hamilton Reynolds.Poetry. 

Edward Stevenson ) 

. 1 Isaac Butt.College Romance. 

O’Brien ) * 

Edward Sidney.Beverly Tucker.The Partisan Leader. 

Elia.Charles Lamb.Essays of Elia. 

Eli Perkins.M. D. Landon.Journalist. 

Elizabeth Wetherell.Susan Warner.Wide, Wide World. 

Ellis Bell.Emily J. Bronte.Wuthering Heights. 

English Opium- 

Eater 

Ephemera.Henry Fitzgibbon.Book of the Salmon. 

Ephraim Holding....George Mogridge.Sunday School Tales. 

Espriella Alvarez_Robert Southey.Letters from England. 

Estella.Elizabeth Bogart. Nesu York Mirror. 

Ethan Spike.Matthew F. Whittier. 

Etoncnsis.Wm. E. Gladstone.... Contemporary Review. 

Ettrick Shepherd_James Hogg.Tales and Poems. 

Everpoint.Joseph M. Field.The Drama in Pokerville. 

Ezek Richards.John Savage. The Press. 

Falconbridge.Jonathan F. Kelly....Humor. 

( Mrs. (Sarah Willis) 

Fanny Fern.} James Parton 

Fanny Fielding.Mary J. S. Upsher. 

1 Emily (Chubbuck) 1 Trippings in 
Fanny Forrester j Judson j Authorized- 

Farmer’s Boy.Robert Bloomfield.Poetry. 

Fat Contributor.A. Miner Griswold....Humor. 

„ . t— . , ( Reliques of Father 

bather Prout.Francis Mahoney.j Prout 

Felix Balfour.Watts Phillips. London Journal. 

Fcrragus.Louis Ulbach.Journalist. 

Felta.Kate W. Hamilton. 

Flaneur.Edmund H. Yates.Novels. 

Florence Leigh.Ann F. Wilbur. Ladies' Magazine. 

Florence Percy.Mrs. Eliza Akers.Poetry. 

F. G. Trafford.Mrs. J. H. Riddell.George Geith. 

Francis Oldys.George Chalmers.Life of Thos. Paine. 

Frank Farleigh.Frank E. Smedley.Louis Arundel. 

Frank Forrester.Henry W. Herbert ... .Field Sports of the U. S. 

Gail Hamilton.Mary Abigail Dodge..Gala Days. 

Gath.Geo. Alf. Townsend_Journalist. 

Gemsee.G. E. M. Crawford.Cricket Notes. 

New York Courier 

ard Inquirer. 

Geoffrey Crayon.Washington Irving... .Sketch Book. 

George Eliot.Marian C. Evans.Novels. 

George Forest.Rev. J. G. Wood.Naturalist. 

George Sand.Madame Dudevant....Novels. 

Girard Montgomery..John Moultrie. Knight's Quarterly. 

Glance Gaylord.W. I. Bradley.Fiction. 

Gleaner.Nathaniel I. Bowditch.. 5 <w?<?« Transcript. 

Mrs. Sarah Jane ) 

(Clark) Lippincott ) 

Grace Wharton.A. T. Thompson.Queens of Society. 

Graduate of Oxford..John Ruskin.Modern Painters. 

Graybeard.John F. Graff.Lay Sermons. 

Gregory Griffin.George Canning. The Microcosm. 


Genesee Traveller.. .Matthew L. Davis. 


Grace Greenwood.. 


History of My Pets. 


\ 


•T 




(o 























































































































































































664 


A DICTIONARY OF NOMS I)K PLUME. 


ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 

Hamilton Murray... .Henry Molden. Knight’s Quarterly. 

Hans Breitman.Charles G. Leland.Ballads. 

Hans Yorkel.A. Oakey Hall.Ballads. 

Harkawav.Charles Marshall.Sporting Notes. 

Harriett Myrtle.Mrs. L. Miller.Juvenile tales. 

Harry Franco.Charles T. Briggs.Adventures of Harry F. 

Lieut. Harry Aug. 

Wise 

Harry Hieover. Charles Brindley.Practical Horsemanship. 

TI T /-.I , T l Adventures of Harry 

Harry Lorrequer.Charles Lever. 1 _ J 

( Lorrequer. 

H. B.. .........John Doyle.Caricaturist. 

Heatherbell.Eleanor Smith.Tales in Good. Words. 

„ . _ 1 1 l Anna Cora (Movvatt) \ _ , 

Helen Berkley.j v - ! Evelyn. 


Harry Gringo 


Captain Brand. 


Hcsba Streton.Sarah Smith. 


Hotspur.. 


H. Trusta. 


Tell-Tale. 


Ritchie 

Helen Mar.Mrs. D. M. F. Walker. 

Henry Holbeach.W. B. Rands.Shoemakers’ Village. 

Henry J. Thurston.,.F. T. Palgrave.Passionate Pilgrim. 

Hester Morley’s 

Primrose. 

Hierophilis.Archbishop McHale...Political Letters. 

Historicus.Sir L. V. Harcourt .... London Times. 

Home Lee.Harriet Parr.Novelist. 

Hookanit Bee, Esq..S. R. Wigram.Flotsam and Jetsam. 

Honestus.Benj. Austin. Independent Chron.cle. 

Hope Ansted.Miss Burdett. Family Herald. 

Horace Fitz Jersey. .Theo. W. A. Buckley.. Collegiate Experience. 

Horace Welby.John Timbs.Signs before Death. 

Horam.Rev. James Ridley....Tales of the Genii. 

Horus.John C. Fisher.Journalist. 

Hosea Biglow.James R. Lowell.Biglow Papers. 

,H. M. Feist.S Tel 'Z ra * hand 

( Sporting Life. 

Howadji. .Geo. Wm. Curtis.Nile Notes. 

Howard Glyndon.... Laura C. Reddon.Idyls of Battle. 

Huntsman.Grantley Berkeley. Field. 

Mrs. Elizabeth Stuart 
Phelps 

Ianthe.Emma C. Embury.Guide and other Poems. 

Ignatius Loyola 1 _ , _ ( Sketches of Public 

. [ Samuel L. Knapp. 1 

Robinson) ( Characters. 

Ik. Marvel.. .Donald G. Mitchell... .Reveries of a Bachelor. 

Impulsia 1 Lady Harriet G. i Lispings from Low 

Gushington j (Hamilton) Dufferin ( Latitudes. 

Ion.E. Kingman.. .Baltimore Sun. 

Isaac Tomkins.Lord Brougham.On the Aristocracy. 

Isabel.W. Gilmore Simms... .Novelist. 

Jack Downing.See Major Jack Downing. 

Jack Humphries.Jonathan F. Kelly... .Humor. 

Jack Ketch.T. K. Hervey.Poetry. 

Jacob Larwood.L. R. Sadler.London Parks. 

Jacob Omnium.M. J. Higgins. The Times. 

January Searle.G. Searle Phillips.Gvpsies of Dane’s Dyke. 

Janus.Dr. Dollingcr.Religious controversy. 

Janus WeatherboundT. G. Wainwright. London Magazine. 

Jasper Buddie.Albert Smith. Medical Times. 

Jeanie Dods.Miss Mackay. Figaro. 

Jedediah 

Cleishbotham 

Jeemes Pipes of 

Pipesville 

Jenny June.Mrs. Jennie C. Croly...Children’s tales. 

Jeremiah Bingletub..John Styles.Velvet Cushion. 

J. K. L.Bishop Doyle.Religious controversy. 

Joaquin Miller.Cincinnatus H. Miller.Poems. 

Job Sass.George A. Foxcroft. 

Joe Miller, Jr.Thompson Westcott.. .Sunday Despatch. 

John Darby.J. E. Garretson.Essays. 

John Gifford.Edward Foss.Legal Peers. 


Sir Walter Scott.. Tales of My Landlord. 

Stephen C. Massett...Humor. 


ASSUMED NAME. 


REAL NAME. 


REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 


Lord (G. N. Green- 


History. 


John Hampden.... ! ... , 

J v \ ville) Nugent j 

John Jorrocks.Edward Surtees.Sponge’s Sporting Tour. 

( Rev. Leonard i _ . 

John Oldbug.; , . f The Puritan. 

0 ( Withington ) 

John Paul.Charles H. Webb.Liffith Lank. 

John Phoenix .Capt. Geo. H. Derby. .Phcenixiana. 

John Quod.John T. Irving. Knickerbocker Magazine. 

John Sur-re-butter John Anstey.The Pleader’s Guide. 

John Waters.Henry Cary...... Knickerbocker Magazine. 

Jon Bee.John Badcock.Slang Dictionary. 

John Chalkhill.Izaak Walton ..The Complete Angler. 

Jonathan Freke 1 _ 

Slingsby 1 J°“ n Waller.Shngsby Papers. 

Jonathan Oldstyle... .Washington Irving... .Morning Chronicle. 

Joseph Ilutter.Henry N. Coleridge.. .Knight’s Quarterly. 

Josh Billings.Henry W. Shaw.Allminax. 

Joshua Coffin.H. W. Longfellow ....History of Newbury. 

Journeyman Printer..C. Manby Smith.Autobiography of J. P. 

J. Sand.Miles Sandau.Novelist. 

, .. „ (Joseph Lemuel ) . 

Julian Cramer. 1 r Chester (Journalist. 

Justitia. .Bennett Lowe.Photog. Note-Book. 

Karl Reden.Charles C. Converse.. .Church Singer. 

Kirwan. J Rev. Nicholas Murray.Religious Controversy. 


Knickerbocker.John S. Du Solle. Sunday Despatch. 

K. N. Pepper .J. W. Morris.Poems. 

Kuklos.John Harris.Tales in magazines. 

Laco.Stephen Higginson... .Political controversy. 

Lactilla.Mrs. Anne Yearsley...Poems. 

Launcelot ) 

Wagstaffe, Jr. 1 Charles Ma ckay.Gouty Philosopher. 

Laura Caxton.Lizzie B. Comins. 

Lawrence Slingsby..Geo. H. Lewes.Burlesques. 

Leighton.Rev. Jesse Appleton.. \ E* scatac l ua F.van- 

( gelical Magazine. 

Lemuel Gulliver.Jonathan Swift.Gulliver’s Travels. 

Leonard Rae.John Douglas.Hal o’ the Wynd. 

Lewis Carroll.C. L. Douglas.Alice in Wonderland. 

L’lnconnue.L. Virginia French... .Poems. 

Littlejohn.Fred. G. Tomlins. London Weekly Times. 

London Antiquarian.J. C. Hotten.Slang Dictionary. 

Louise Muhlbach....Clara (Muller) Mundt..Historical Novels. 

Louis de Montalte.. .Blaise Pascal.Letters to a Provincial. 

Luke Limner.John Leighton.Artist. 

Lynn Bard.Alonzo Lewis.Poems. 

.W. McConnell.Comic Draughtsman. 

McArone.George Arnold.McArone Papers. 

Mace Sloper.Charles G. Leland.Ballads. 

Major Jack Downing Seba Smith.Humor 

Malakoff..Dr. Johnson. Keiv York Times. 

Manhattan.Joseph A. Scoville.... London Herald. 

Maria del Occidente j ^ I-lr ‘ a (Gowen) 1 p Qems 

t Brooks) 

Marietta.Harriet M. Bradley.. .Minnie’s Birthday. 

Marion Harland... \ Vir S inia f Novds 

/ (Hawes) Terhune ) 

„ . ... , l Mrs. Harriet M. 1 

Marion Ward _ . Novels. 

' Stephens ) 

Markham Howard.. .Mary Cecil Hay.Old Middleton’s Money. 

Mark Littleton.John P. Kennedy.Swallow Barn. 

Mark Rochester.W. C. M. Kent.The Derby Ministry. 

Mark Twain.Samuel L. Clemens... .Innocents Abroad. 

Married Critic.Jules G. Janin.Criticisms. 

Martin Doyle.Rev. William Hickey..Irish Agriculture. 

Mary Clavers.Mrs. C. M. Kirkland...A New Home. 

.. „ l Mrs. Mary Sargent 1 . 

Mary ° rme .! Gove (Neal) Nichols { LeCtUreS t0 Ladies ’ 




































































































































































































•** k 


-V 



ASSUMED NAME. 


REAL NAME. 


REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 


Mary Powell.Miss M. A. Manning'. .Fiction. 

Massachusettensis. ..Daniel Leonard.Political controversy. 

Master Timothy.G. W. M. Reynolds... 1 MaSter Tlmothy ’ s 


Bookcase. 

Mq.tthew Browne... .William B. Rands.Poems. 

Matthew Stradling...M. M. F. Mahoney.. ..Gilbert Massinger. 

Maurice Sand.Maurice Dudevant....Travels. 

Max Adeler.Chas. Ileber Clark ....Comic. 

Mercutio.Will Winter. New York Tribune. 

Michael Angelo 

T't narsb S ^Thackeray .Pans Sketches. 

Miles O’Reilly.See Private Miles O’Reilly. 

Anna 1.. Johnson 
(Mrs. Joaquin Miller) 

1 Robert McNish. Blackwooa’s Magazine. 


Minnie Myrtle., 


Poems. 


Pythagorean 

Mofussilite.Thomas Lang.Too Clever by Half. 

Morgan O'Doherty. .William Maginn. Blackwood's Magazine. 

Morgan Rattler.Percival Banks. Fraser's Magazine. 

Mr. Pips.Percival Leigh. Punch. 

, , i Mrs. Elizabeth 

Mrs. Markham.? _ 


School histories. 


Mrs. Manners. 


At Home and Abroad. 


Penrose 
Cornelia H. (Bradley) 

Richards 

Mrs. Partington.Benj. P. Shillaber. Boston Post. 

Ned Buntline.E. Z. C. Judson.Ling of the Sea. 

Nelsie Brook.Mrs. Ellen Ross.Little Mother Mattie. 

Nicias Foxcar.Francis Jacox.Journalist. 

Nilla.Miss Abby Allin.Home Ballads. 

Nimrod.Charles J. Appeily... .Chase, Turf and Road. 

Noyanglus.John Adams.Political controversy. 

O. F. Q. i . _ I Natural history in 

, f A. Douty.! J 

Philander Smith ) ( Figaro. 

Occasional.John W. Forney. The Press, Philadelphia. 

Old Humphrey.George Mogridge.Every-day Lessons. 

Old Merry.Edwin Hodder. Old Merry's Annual. 

Old Sailor.Henry M. Barker.Tough Yarns. 

Old Shekarry.Major Leveson.Forest and Field. 

Old South.Benjamin Austin. Independent Chronicle. 

Oliver Oldscbool.Joseph Dennie. The Portfolio. 

Oliver Optic.William F. Adams... .Juvenile tales. 

Olivia.Emily Edson Grigg.. .Journalist. 

Ollapod.Willis G. Clark.. Knickerbocker Magazine. 

( Handbook of 

Olphar Hamst, Esq..Ralph Thomas.j Fictitious Names . 

One from the Plough.G. Mitchell. The Times. 

Onuphrio Muralto...See William Marshall, Gent. 

Onyx Titian.Sarah Woodward.Apple Blossom. 

Orpheus C. Kerr.Robert H. Newell.Humor. 

Ouida.Louise de la Rame-Under Two Flags. 

Lord (Robert E. i 

v , Lucille. 

Bulwer) Lytton ) 

P. Fisher.W. E. Chatto.Angler’s Souvenir. 

Parson Frank.Francis Jacox.Journalist. 

Patty Lee.Alice Cary.Poems. 

J. A. S. Collin ) , _• . 

1 J > Infernal Dictionary. 


Owen Meredith. 


Paul Beranger.| (Danton) dc Plancy 

Paul Creyton.John F. Trowbridge..Fiction. 

Paul Pindar.J. Yonge Akerman... .Legends of Old London. 

Paul Priggins........Rev. J. Hewlett.Novelist. 

Paulus Silentiarius.. .George P. Philes.The Philobiblion. 

Peasant Bard.Josiah D. Canning-Poems. 

Pennsylvania ) John Dickinson.Political controversy. 

Farmer j 

Pequot.Charles W. March. Boston Courier. 

Peregrine Persic.James Morier.Hajji Baba. 

p er l e y.Benj. Perley Poore.... Boston Journal. 

Peter Palette.Thomas Onwbyn.Artist. 


j Charles G. Ilalpine... .New York Herald. 


ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 

Peter Parley.Samuel G. Goodrich. .Cabinet Library. 

Peter Pennot.Rev. W. F. Round. 

Peter Peppercorn... .Thomas L. Peacock.. .Poems. 

Peter Pindar.Dr. John Wolcot.Satirist. 

Peter Plymley.Rev. Sydney Smith....Letters. 

Peter Porcupine.William Cobbett.P. P.’s Gazette. 

Peter Priggins.Rev. H. Hewlett.College Scout. 

Peter Quince.Isaac Story.The Parnassian Shop. 

Peter Schlemihl.George Wood.P. S. in America. 

Peter Scriber.Charles Aug. Davis .. .Commercial Advertiser. 

Peter Wilkins.Robert Pattock.Fiction. 

Petroleum V. Nasby.David R. Locke. Toledo Blade. 

Philanthropos.William Lad.Friend of Peace. 

Philip Quilibct.George E. Pond. 

Philip Wharton.John C. Thomson.Wits and Beaux. 

Philopatris Varvi- , gamuel p arr .Characters of Fox. 

censis ) 

Phiz.H. K. Browne.Illustrator of Dickens. 

Poor Richard.Benjamin Franklin.... P. R.’s Almanac. 

Porte Crayon.David H. Strother. Harper's Magazine. 

Priam.C. J. Collins.Dick Diminy. 

Private Miles 

O’Reilly 

Prizeman Nowdigate. W. II. Mallock.Every Man His Own Poet 

Publicola.John Quincy Adams.. .Political controversy. 

Publicola.W. J. Fox. Westminster Review. 

Publicola.David E. Williams. London Weekly Despatch. 

Puck.John Proctor.Caricature cartoons. 

Q.Chas. G. Rosenberg.. .You’ve Heard of ’Em. 

Q.Edmund II. Yates. Evening Star. 

Q. Q.Miss Jane Taylor. Youth's Magazine. 

Q. K. Philander . , 

! M. M. Thompson.Plu-ri-bus-tah. 

Doesticks ) 

Quallon.S. H. Bradbury.Poems. 

Quiz.Rev. Ed. Caswell.Sketches. 

Radical.Leslie Grove Jones.... London Times. 

Rawdon Crawley... .See Capt. Rawdon Crawley. 

Red Spinner.W. Senior.Waterside Sketches. 

Reuben Percy.See Sholto and R. Percy. 

Richard Brisk.J. Duncan.Railway Book. 

Richard Hay ward.. .Fred. S. Cozzens. Knickerbocker Magazine. 

Robinson Crusoe ....Daniel Defoe.Adventures of R. C. 

Rob Roy.John Macgregor.Canoe Voyages. 

Roving Englishman.Grenville Murray.Sketches. 

Ruhama.Miss Skidmore. St. Louis Globe-Democrat. 

Runnymede.Benjamin Disraeli.Letters of Runnymede. 

Rustic Bard.Robert Dinsmoor.Poems. 

Rutledge.Mrs. Miriam (Coles) Harris. 

S. G. O.S. G. Osborne. The Times. 

Samuel A. Bard.Ephraim G. Squier... .Waikna. 

Sam Slick...Thos. C. Haliburton.. .The Clockmaker. 

Sarah Tyler.Miss Keddie. j PaperS for Thoughtful 

( Girls. 

Saville Rome.Clement Scott. London Telegraph. 

Scrutator.J. Horlock.Country Gentleman. 

See De Kay.Charles D. Kirk. 

Seeley Regester.Mrs. O. J. Victor. 

Sexton of the Old- ) Lucius M ^ar^-nt ) Dealings with the 

school i " CmS * ‘ ‘- ar » Ln j Dead- 

Shamrock.R. D. Williams.Poems. 

Shelsley Beauchamp.T. W. Bradley.Grantley Grange. 

Shirley Dare.Mrs. (Susan Dunning} Waters. 

Sholto and < Thomas Byerley and 

Reuben Percy ( Joseph C. Robertson 

Sholto.R. S. Mackenzie. Philadelphia Press. 

Sigma.Lucius M. Sarg. nt_ Boston Transcript. 

Silverpen.Eliza Meteyard.Lilian’s Golden Hours. 

Sir Cosmo Gordon.. .Sir S. E. Brvdges.Letters on Byron. 

Sir Galahad.lienry W. Moore. Kansas City Times. 


Percy Anecdotes. 


V 




































































































































































































ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 

Solitaire.John S. Robb.Humor. 

Sophie May.Miss R. S. Clark.Swamp Dr.’s Adventures. 

Sparrowgrass.F. S. Cozzens.Sparrowgrass Papers. 

Speranza.Lady Wilde.Poems. 

Spy in Washington..Matthew L. Davis....W. K Courier. 

Squibob.George H. Derby.Squibob Papers. 

Stampede.Jonathan F. Kelly.Humor. 

Stella. ..Mrs. K. A. B. Lewis.. .Records of the Heart. 

Stonehenge.J. Henry Walsh.The Dog. 

Straws.Joseph M. Field. New Orleans Picayune. 

Straws, Jr..Miss Kate Field. Springfield Republican. 

Sut Lovengood.George W. Harris.Humor. 

Sydney Yendys.Sydney Dobell.Poetry. 

Tabor.Mrs. Robinson.Novelist. 

Tag.Ragand Bobtail.Isaac D’lsraeli.Flim-Flams. 

Talvi...Mrs. Ed. Robinson....Tales. 

Tamoc Caspipini.Jacob Duche.Letters of T. C. 

Teufelsdroeckh.Thomas Carlyle.Sartor Resartus. 

Teutha.William Jerdan.Literary Gazette. 

The Black Dwarf... .Thomas J. Wooler_.Politics. 

The Celt.Thomas Davis.Poems. 

The Druid.Henry H. Dixon.Silk and Scarlet. 

The Governor.Henry Morford. New York Atlas. 

The O’Hara Familv. John and M. Banim.. .Novels. 

The Traveller.Isaac Stary. Columbian Sentinel. 

Theodore de la ) .. . .... 

Nathaniel \\ ard.Simple Cobbler. 


Guarde 

Theodore Taylor.J. C. Hotten.Life of Thackeray. 

Thinks I to Myself...Rev. Dr. Ed. Nares... .Novels. 

Thomas Little.Thomas Moore.Little’s Poems. 

Thomas Ingoldsby...Rev. R. H. Barham....Ingoldsby Legends. 
Thomas Rowley. ...Thomas Chatterton....Poems. 

Timon Fieldmouse...William B. Rands.Essays. 

Timothy Tickler.Robert Syme.In Noctes Ambrosian*. 


ASSUMED NAME. REAL NAME. REPRESENTATIVE WORK. 

Timothy Titcomb....J. G. Holland.Letters to the Young. 

Tom Brown.Thomas Hughes.Tom Brown at Rugby. 

Tom Folio.Joseph E. Babson. 

Tom Hawkins.Theo. W. A. Buckley.. Gentleman’s Magazine. 

Trinculo.John A. Cockerill.Journalist. 

Tristram Merton.Thomas B. Macaulay.. Knight's Quarterly. 

Two Brothers.A. and C. Tennyson.. .Poems. 

Ubique.Parker Gilmore.Afloat and Ashore. 

Una.Mary A. Ford.Poems. 

Uncle Hardy.William Senior.Notable Shipwrecks. 

Uncle John.Elisha Noyce.Marvels of Nature. 

Uncle Philip.Rev. Dr. F. L. Hawks.American Histories. 

Uncle Toby.Rev. Tobias H. Miller. 

V.Mrs. Archer Clive.Poems. 

, , ....... .. .. ) Harp of a 

Vandyke Brown.William Penn Brennan f . 

) Thousand Strings. 

Veteran Observer.... Ed. D. Mansfield.Chronicle and Atlas. 

Village SchoolmasterC. M. Dickinson.Tales. 

Vigilant.John Corlett. Tke Times. 

Vivian.George II. Lewes. The Leader. 

Vivian Joveux.W. M. Praed . Knight'sQuarterly. 

AValter Barrett, clerk.Joseph A. Scovilie.Old Merchants of N. Y. 

W r alking Gentleman.Thos. C. Grattan.Highways and Byways. 

Walter Maynard.W. Beale.Enterprising Impresario. 

W T arrington.William S. Robinson.. Springfield Republicati. 

Waters.William H. Russell.. .Diary of a Detective. 

Werdna Retnyw.'....Andrew Vynter.Odds and Ends. 

V r hat’s His Name....E. C. Massey.Green-eyed Monster. 

Wm. Marshall, Gent..Horace Walpole.Castle of Otranto. 

William and Robert i . , TT , , „ , , 

.... . ! John Hookham Frere.King Arthur. 

V histlecraft ) a 

Wilibald, Alexis.William Hsering.Walladmor. 

Wizard.John Corlett. The Times. 

Zadkiel the Seer.R. J. Morrison.Prophetic Almanac. 


































































































































jV<5- 


r\ 


A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. 


667 



Words and Phrases, Persons, Places, Pictures, Buildings, Streets and Monuments frequently alluded to in 

Literature and in Conversation. 

IHO has not met, either in reading or conversation, with allusions to matters with which he was previously unacquainted? 


Facts and fan .ies of history and romance are continually encountered, to which only a liberal education or a wide course 
of study will give the key. We have gathered below a glossary of the most frequent of these allusions, and we flatter 
$ ourselves that the succeeding pages will throw a flood of light upon many interesting topics which to the majority of 
people have heretofore been dark and inexplicable. 


Abderite. Democritus, the original laugh¬ 
ing philosopher, was born in Abdera, a Thra¬ 
cian city. From him a scoffer or person 
given to continual laughing is called an 
Abderite. 

Abraham’s Bosom. The rest of the 
blessed dead. 

Abyla ar.d Calpe, the Pillars of Hercules, 
the exit from the Mediterranean. 

Academics. Plato’s disciples were so 
called from the Academy. 

Academy. (Academe.) Plato founded 
bis school in a gvmnasium of this name near 
Athens. 36S B. C. 

Academy, The French. A French sci¬ 
entific body limited to forty members. 

Acadia. Formerly the name of Nova 
Scotia. 

Adam’s Apple. A part of the throat 
where, it is said, a piece of the forbidden fruit 
lodged. 

Admirable Crichton, The. James 
Crichton, an accomplished Scotchman of the 
sixteenth century. 

Admiral. The highest rank in the Navy. 

ACneid. An epic poem by Virgil. 

Ages. The five ages of the world accord¬ 
ing to Hesiod, are the Golden, the Silver, the 
Brazen, the Heroic and the Iron. 

Alabama. A Confederate privateer built 
in England. Sunk by the Kearsarge June 
I v th, 1S64. 

Aladdin’s Window, To Finish. Trying 
to complete another’s work. Aladdin's palace 
was perfect except one window left for the 
Sultan to finish, but his treasure failed him. 

Albany Regency. Name applied sixty 
years ago to some Democrats at Albany, N. Y. 

Albino. A person with white skin and 
hair and red eyes. The Portuguese so called 
the white negroes. 

Albion. England, so called from the 
chalky white cliffs. 

Aldine Press. Founded by Aldus Manu- 
tius at Venice in 1496. Editions of the class¬ 
ics issued from this press were called the 
Aldine editions. This term is now applied to 
some elegant editions of English works. 

Alexandrian Library. Was founded by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus. It contained 700,000 
volumes, and was burnt 47 B. C. 


Alexandrine Age. 323-640, when Alex¬ 
andria was the seat of the highest culture. 

Alhambra. A magnificent palace and a 
fortress built by the Moors at Granada, in 
Spain. 

All-Hallows. All Saints’ day, Nor. 1st. 

Allah. Arabic name of God. 

A1 macks. Assembly room in London 
where the most exclusively aristocratic balls 
were given. 

Almighty Dollar. A phrase first used 
by Irving in his Creole Village, and which has 
become quite common. The title of a play. 

Alsatia. A quarter in London where 
criminals take refuge. 

Alto-Relievo. Figures in marble or cast¬ 
ings projecting one-half or more from the 
tablet. 

Ambrosia. Food of the Gods. 

Anachronism. An error in computing 
time. 

Anacreontics. Poems composed in the 
manner of Anacreon, a great poet noted for 
his exact imitation of nature. 

Ancien Regime. The French Govern¬ 
ment previous to the revolution of 1798. 

Angling, The Father of. Izaak Walton. 

Annus Mirabilis. (Wonderful year.) 
A. D. 1666. Noted for the great fire in Lon¬ 
don, the Plague, and an English victory over 
the Dutch. 

Antoninus, The Wall of. Was built by 

the Romans in A. D. 140 across Scotland be¬ 
tween the Clyde and the Frith of Forth; an 
embankment of earth. 

Apollo Belvedere. One of the most beau¬ 
tiful and perfect representations of the human 
form is the statue of Apollo in the Belvedere 
Gallery of the Vatican Palace at Rome. 

Appian Way. The road from Rome to 
Capua. The oldest Roman road. 

Apples of Sodom. Beautiful fruit, but 
full of ashes. Applied figuratively to the dis¬ 
appointment of sin. 

Apple, Golden. Prize for beauty disput¬ 
ed before Paris, between Juno, Pallas and 
Venus ; awarded by him to Venus. 

Arabesque. Decoration in Moorish style. 

Arcadian. A shepherd; a Greek grazing 
country named Arcadia has furnished this 
word to the poets. 


Argo. The ship in which Jason and his 
fifty-four companions sailed when going to 
Colches for the Golden Fleece. 

Argonauts. The adventurers on the Argo. 

Argus-eyed. Crafty, watchful. Argus 
had a hundred eyes ; the jealous Juno put him 
on detective duty over Io. 

Armada, The Spanish. A fleet of 130 
ships gathered by Philip of Spain for the in¬ 
vasion of England in 1500. Queen Elizabeth 
was busy preparing for resistance when the 
news came that a storm had completely 
wrecked the Armada. 

Artesian Well. Roring in the earth un¬ 
til water is reached that will flow spontane¬ 
ously. Their first us'e was in Artois, Franee. 

Aryans. The stem of the Indo-European 
peoples. 

Astor Library. Founded by John Jacob 
Astor in New York City. 

Athens, The Modern. Boston. 

Augustan Age. As the most flourishing 
period of the Roman literature was during 
the time of Augustus, that name is given 
to any age wherein literature is pre-eminent. 

Auld Reekie. Scotland. 

Avalon. Ring Arthur’s burial-place, 
Glastonbury. 

Ayreshire Poet, The. Burns. His birth¬ 
place was near Ayr in Scotland. 

Barnburners. A name given some years 
ago to radical Democrats, a leading man 
amongst whom was John Van Buren. 

Babylonish Captivity. The seventy years’ 
captivity of the Jews at Babylon,60S-538 B.C. 

Baconian Philosophy. The inductive 
philosophy of Lord Bacon. , 

Balmoral Castle. A Scotch castle own - 
cd by Queen Victoria, where she spends most 
of her time in the summer. 

Bank of England. Founded 1694. 

Bard of Avon. Shakspere, so called 
from his home being Stratford-on-Avon. 

Barmecide’s Feast. A mockery, a de¬ 
lusion and a sham. Barmecide asked a starv¬ 
ing beggar to dinner, and seated him at a 
table of empty dishes. 

Basilisk. A mythical serpent with power 1 

to kill by merely looking at its victim. 




<3 


C> 


V 

































668 


A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. 


Basso Relievo. Figures in marble and I 
castings that projectbut a little from the plane. 

Bastile. French prison and fortress. 
People were incarcerated here by lettre de \ 
cachet , without notice or trial. Destroyed j 
by a mob, 170S. 

Battle of tlie Books. Satire by Dean Swift 
comparing ancient and modern literature. 

Battle of the Kegs. A practical joke on 
tlie British General Loring. Detailed in a 
ballad of the Revolutionary war. 

Battery, The. A park in New York City 
adjoining the river. 

Beaeon St. The aristocratic residence 
street of Boston. 

Beauty and the Beast. A fairy tale. 
Beautv lives with the Beast to save her fath¬ 
er’s life. By her love she disenchants the 
Beast, who proves to be a great Prince. 

Bedlam. A mad-house. 

Bee, The Attic. Plato; so called from 
his honeyed style. 

Bee, The Busy. An example of com¬ 
munal industry. 

Beelzebub. A Philistine deity. 

Begging the Question. Assuming as 
true what you are to prove. 

Belle France, La. Beautiful France. 

Belgravia. Fashionable quarter of Lon¬ 
don. 

Bell the Cat. In a convention of mice 
it was proposed to hang a bell on the cat’s 
neck, to give warning of her coming. No 
one would serve on the committee. 

Bell, The Passing. Rung formerly when 
persons were dying. 

Beloved Disciple, The. St. John. 

Bess, Good Queen. Queen Elizabeth. 

Bibliotlieque National. (National Li¬ 
brary.) At Paris; contains over 1,000,000 books, 
150,600 MSS. 

Billingsgate. Coarse language. Such 
as is used at the fish market of Billingsgate in 
London ; a fishwife’s tongue being said to be 
remarkably expressive. 

Black Death. A plague which desolated 
Europe, Asia and Africa in the fourteenth 
century. 

Black Friday. Gold panic Sept 26th, 
1S69. Immense fortunes lost and won same 
day. Investigation could never discover the 
true inwardness of it. 

Black Hole of Calcutta. Dark prison 
cell wherein Surajah Dowlah shut up 146 \ 
British soldiers; only 23 lived till morning. 

Black Prince, The. Edward, Prince of 
Wales, son of Edward III. 

Black Republicans. The Republican 
party of U. S. so called when opposing the 
extension of slavery. 

Blarney Stone. Itssupposed virtuewhen 
kissed is to impart a smooth and oily tongue. 
Profusion of compliments is called Blarney, j 
This stone is in Blarney Castle, near Cork, 
Ireland. 

Bluebeard. A wife-killing tyrant, in a 
nursery story. 

Blue Laws. Some severe New England j 
statutes were so called. 

Blue Stocking. A literary society at 
Venice in 1400, whose members wore blue 
stockings, is the origin of this name for a 
female pedant. 

Bohemian. As opposed to Philistine, an 
artist or literary' man living loosely by his wits. 

Bois de Boulogne. A Parisian prome¬ 
nade. 

Border, The. Frontier of England and 
Scotland. 

Border Minstrel, The. Sir WalterScott. 

Border States. Maryland, Delaware,Vir¬ 
ginia, Kentucky, Missouri. 


Bourgeoisie. A class of the people of 
France mostly composed of traders and 
manufacturers. 

Boulevard. A wide street in Paris, in the 
place of the ancient ramparts. 

Bourse. Parisian stock exchange. 

Bow Bells. A set of bells in the Church 
of St. Mary-le-Bow, London. One “born 
within sound of Bow Bells” is a Cockney. 

Bowery, The. ANewYork thoroughfare. 

Boycott. To refuse to have anything to 
do with a person. To let him severely alone. 
A trying ordeal passed through by' Captain 
Boycott in Ireland in 1SS1. No one would 
sell to him, buy from him, work for him or 
speak to him. 

Brandy Nose. Queen Anne of England. 

Breeches Bible, The. An edition in 
which “aprons” in Gen. iii. 7 is rendered 
“ breeches.” 

Bride of the Sea. Venice. 

Bridge of Sighs. In Venice. Connects 
Doge’s Palace and State Prison. Over this 
bridge the condemned passed when on their 
way to be executed. 

British Museum. Library and museum 
in London. 

Broadway. The principal business street 
of New York. 

Brook Farm. A Socialistic community 
to carry out the idea of Fourierism; was 
founded at West Roxbury, Mass., 1S41. 

Brother Jonathan. America; an Amer¬ 
ican. Some doubt as to its origin, but it is 
said to come from Gov. Jonathan Trumbull, 
of Connncticut, in speaking of whom Wash¬ 
ington would say, “ We must consult Brother 
Jonathan.” 

Buncombe. Clap-trap speeches, to cajole 
constituents, more than for immediate effect. 
Buncombe is in North Carolina. A North 
Carolina member said a fiery speech was not 
delivered to the House, but to Buncombe. 

Bunker Hill Monument. An obelisk 
of granite marking the site of the battle of 
Bunker Hill, fought between the British and 
Americans, June 17, 1775. 

Cachet, Lettres de. (Sealed letters.) 
Blank warrants with the seal of the French 
King already affixed for imprisoning or re¬ 
leasing any person in the Bastile. 

Caledonia. Scotland. 

Calumet. An Indian pipe. In old times 
a treaty of peace with the red men would be 
ratified by smoking the calumet. 

Campagna. The plains around the city 
of Rome. 

Carbonari. A secret political society or¬ 
ganized in Italy, 1S20. 

Carmagnole. Song and dance in the 
French Revolution. 

Cartesian Philosophy. From Descartes, 
“ I think, therefore I exist.” 

Castle Garden. At New York City, the 
landing-place of emigrants. 

Catacombs. Subterranean sepulchres. 
About three miles from Rome in the Appian 
Way a vast number of long underground pas¬ 
sages about three feet wide and ten feet high. 
On each side in niches were deposited the 
bodies of the martyrs and early Christians. 
These niches were closed with tiles or slabs 
of marble having proper inscriptions on 
them. During the persecutions the Christians 
concealed themselves in these caves. 

Cavalier Servente. The escort of a 
married woman. 

Cecilia, St. A martyr; patroness of 
music. 

Celestial Empire. China, whose first 
Emperors were all divinities. 


Central Park. The great park of New 
York City ; contains S63 acres. 

Champs de Mars. A field in Paris for 
military manoeuvres. 

Champs Elysees. A promenade in Paris. 

Charter Oak. A tree in Hartford, Conn., 
in which the Colonial Charter was secreted 
in 16S8. It was blown down in 1S56. 

Chauvinism. Patriotism of the blatant 
kind, from Chauvin, one of Scribe’s charac¬ 
ters. 

Clieapside. A thoroughfare in London. 

Chiltern Hundreds, To Accept the. A 

member of the English Parliament cannot 
resign, and cannot hold office during mem¬ 
bership. If he wishes to leave, he can vacate 
his seat by accepting the office of Steward of 
the Chiltern Hundreds. 

Chiltern Hundreds. A tract in Buck¬ 
inghamshire and Oxfordshire, England, to 
which is attached the nominal office of 
steward under the crown. 

Christ Church. The name of the largest 
college in the University of Oxford. 

Cid, The. The Spanish hero, Don Rod- 
erigo Laynez, Count of Bivar. 

Cincinnati, The. Society of American 
Revolutionary officers. 

Citizen King, The. Louis Philippe of 
France. 

Coekaine, Land of. An imaginary 
country of ease and pleasure; usually applied 
to London. 

Colossus of Rhodes. A brass statue, 
one of the wonders of the world, which stood 
astride the entrance to the port of Rhodes. 

Columbia. Poetical name of the United 
States. 

Column of Vendome. A stone pillar in 
Paris erected by Napoleon, commemorating 
the successes of the French armies. It was 
thrown down by the Communists in 1S71. 

Confederate States. The eleven States 
which seceded in 1S61, Alabama, Arkansas, 
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, 
North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, 
Texas and Virginia. 

Congressional Library. At Washing¬ 
ton; it is the largest in the United States. 

Consols. English public securities. 

Copperheads. Northern sympathizers 
with the South in the Civil war. 

Corncraekers, The. Kentuckians. 

Corn Law Rhymer, The. Ebenezer 
Elliott. 

Corso. The chief thoroughfare of Rome. 

Crapaud, Johnny. A Frenchman. 

Credit Mobilier. An authorized stock 
company. The American Credit Mobilier 
formed for raising money for the Pacific 
Railroad raised a foul odor in 1S73. 

Crocodile Tears. Counterfeit sorrow. 
A fable says the crocodile weeps as it eats its 
victim. 

Cumberland. A United States vessel 
sunk by the Confederate ram Merrimac in 
Hampton Roads, March 8, 1862. 

Curfew Bell. At 8 o’clock, the ringing of 
the curfew bell in old times in England, all 
lights were extinguished, the fires raked’ up 
and covered, and the people of the Kingdom 
retired to bed. This rule, made by William 
the Conqueror, lasted for a long time, and 
even yet there is some sign of its observance 
in the nine o’clock bell rung in many parts of 
New England. 

Damocles’ Sword. Damocles, having 
commented upon the happiness which the 
tyrant Dionysius must enjoy, was invited by 
him to a feast where, whilst discussing the 
good things, he looked up and discovered a 
sword hanging by a single hair immediately 
over his head. 











































A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. 


669 


Darby and Joan. The loving couple. 

Darwinian Theory. An explanation of 
the origin of species in animals, that they 
come from one or a few original forms, the 
present differences resulting from develop¬ 
ment and natural selection. 

De Profundis. The 130th Psalm; part of 
the burial service. 

Debatable Ground. Land on the west¬ 
ern border of Scotland, disputed between 
Kngland and Scotland. 

Defender of tlie Faith. Henry VIII. 
received this title from Pope Leo. X., and 
his successors have borne it ever since. 

Directory, The French. By the Con¬ 
stitution of 1705, the executive power was 
vested in live Directors; it lasted only four 
years. 

Dixie, The Land of. The Southern States. 

Dizzy. The nickname of Benjamin Dis¬ 
raeli, Lari of Beaconsfield. 

Doctors’ Commons. The place where 
the Ecclesiastical Court sat in London. 

Doctrinaire. A cant term in French 
politics, given to the proposer of an imprac¬ 
ticable compromise measure. 

Doe, John. The fictitious plaintiff in 
ejectment suits, the defendant being Richard 
lioe. 

Doomsday Book. Compiled by order of 
■William the Conqueror. It contained a sur¬ 
vey and an estimate of value of all the lands 
in England. 

Donnybrook Fair. A once celebrated 
annual fair near Dublin. 

Douay Bible, The. The English Bible 
authorized by the Roman Catholic Church; 
first published at Douay, France. 

Downing Street. The official residence of 
the English Prime Minister since the time of 
Sir Robert Walpole is in Downing Street, 
London. 

Drury Lane Theater. In London; was 
opened in 16S8. 

Dying Gladiator. An ancient statue in 
the Capitol at Rome. 


Eastern States, The. Maine, New 
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode 
Island and Connecticut. 

Ecce Homo. A painting by Correggio 
representing the Savior crowned with 
thorns. 

Ecole Polytechnique. A Parisian school, 
the graduates of which are given places in 
the public service. 

El Dorado. A fabulous region in South 
America, surpassing all other countries in 
the production of gems and precious metals. 
A name for any wealthy country. 

Elephant, Seeing the. Seeing the 
world. 

Elgin Marbles. A collection of Greek 
sculptures made by Lord Elgin. Now in the 
British Museum. 

Eseurial, The. A royal residence built 
by Philip II.; it is the largest structure in 
Spain, and one of the most splendid buildings 
in Europe. It is 22 miles from Madrid and 
contains a palace, a church, a monastery, 
free schools and a mausoleum. 

Eternal City, The. Rome. 

Eureka. (I have found it.) Exclamation 
of Archimedes when he discovered the method 
of proving that the sum of the squares of the 
sides of a right-angled triangle equaled the 
square of the hypothenuse. 

Evangelists, Symbols of the. Matthew 
has a scroll before him and holds a pen; 
Mark sits writing, with a winged lion by his 
side; Luke has a pen and a scroll, near him 
is an ox ; J ohn is a young man behind whom 
is an eagle. 


Exclusion, Bill of. A bill which passed 
the English House of Commons in 1679, pro¬ 
posing to exclude the Duke of York from the 
throne because he was a Roman Catholic. 

Expounder of the Constitution, The. 

Daniel Webster. 


Fabian Policy. Delaying; dilatory. 
From Quintus Fabius Maximus, the Roman 
General who successfully opposed Hannibal, 
the Carthaginian, by avoiding a battle and 
continually harassing him. 

Fabius, The American. George Wash - 
ington. 

Fairmount Park. In Philadelphia, 
where the Centennial Exhibition of 1S76 was 
held; contains nearly 3,000 acres. 

Faineants, Les Itois. (Do-nothing 
Kings.) The last twelve Kings of the Merov 
ingian Dynasty were so called. For about 
100 years previous to 720, when Pepin de¬ 
throned Childeric III., they were mere pup¬ 
pets, and the supreme authority was exercised 
by the mayors of the palace. 

Falernian. A celebrated ancient Italian 
wine grown at Falernum. 

Faneuil Hall. In Boston,built 1742 ; called 
the “cradleof Liberty,” for there the Revolu¬ 
tionary patriots were wont to assemble. 

Farmer George. George III. of Eng¬ 
land ; so called from his love of agriculture. 

Fata Morgana. A mirage in the Straits 
of Messina. 

Father of his Country. George Wash¬ 
ington. 

Fathers of tlie Latin Church. St. 

Ambrose of Milan, St. Augustine, St. Ber¬ 
nard, St. Hilary, St. Jerome, Lactantius. 

Faubourg St. Antoine. The part of 
Paris where the workingmen live. 

Faubourg St. Germain. Aristocratic 
part of Paris. 

Fenians. A society of Irishmen formed 
in the United States in 1S65 to free Ireland. 

Field of the Cloth of Gold. Plain in 
France where Francis I. and Henry VIII. 
met on a mutual visit. It is historical on 
account of the gorgeous display, both parties 
being most extravagant in their outfit. 

Fifth Avenue. A celebrated residence 
street in New York. 

Fighting Joe. The American General 
Joseph Hooker. 

First Gentleman in Europe. George 
IV. of England. 

Five Points. A once notorious locality 
in New York. 

Flagellants. Religious fanatics of the 
thirteenth century who went about naked and 
scourging themselves. 

Fleet, The. A London prison taken 
down in 1845. 

Flowery Kingdom, The. China. 

Flying Dutchman. A spectre ship 
cruising about the Cape of Good Hope. Fore¬ 
bodes trouble to whoever sees it. 

Forte. Strong point. 

Fort Sumter. In the harbor of Charles¬ 
ton, S. C. Here were heard the first sounds 
of the cannons’ thunder in the late Civil war. 

Fourierism. Charles Fourier, a French 
visionary, proposed a system of communism 
in which the world should be divided into 
“phalansteries” of four hundred families 
who were to live and work in common. 

Freshman. A student in his first year at 
college. 

Funk, Peter. A mock auction ; a person 
employed to act as an apparent purchaser 
and bid up articles for sale. 


Gadshill. Near Rochester, in Kent, 
England. Place where Falstaff met so many 
men in buckram. Charles Dickens’ residence 
was at Gadshill. 

Genre Painting. Represents ordinary 
domestic and rural scenes. 

George, St., and the Dragon. St. 
George, the patron saint of England, is said 
to have slain in Libya a hideous dragon 
whose daily food was a virgin. 

Gerrymander. The geographical appor¬ 
tionment of districts to give preponderance 
to one political party. Started in Massa¬ 
chusetts, and named from its Governor, El- 
bridge Gerry. Example, a shoestring district 
in Missouri. 

Ghetto. The quarter in Rome to which 
the Jews were formerly restricted. 

Ghibelline. One of a faction in Italy in 
the thirteenth century, which favored the 
German Emperors, in opposition to the 
Guelphs, adherents of the Pope. 

Girondists; The Gironde. Moderate 
“ Constitutional ” Republican party in the 
French Revolution in 179S. 

Glencoe. A pass in Argyleshire, Scot¬ 
land. Here, February 13,1691, were massacred 
thirty-eight of the McDonalds by one hun¬ 
dred and twenty soldiers under Capt. Camp¬ 
bell. 

Gobelins. A tapestry and carpet manu¬ 
factory at Paris, founded by Gobelin, a dyer, 
about 370 years ago. 

Godiva, Lady. Wife of Leofric, Earl of 
Mercia, who offered to remit certain exactions 
to his tenants if she would ride naked through 
the streets of Coventry. She did so, all the 
people closing their doors and keeping within 
except one, “Peeping Tom,” who was struck 
blind for peeping at ner. 

Goleonda. The neighborhood of some 
rich diamond mines in India. 

Gold Fever. 1S49; peopled California. 

Golden Age. A period of innocence and 
prosperity. Nearly always refers to some 
past age. 

Golden Gate. The entrance to the harbor 
of San Francisco. 

Golden Horn. The estuary of the Bos¬ 
phorus, upon whose banks Constantinople is 
built. 

Gordian Knot. A difficulty; an obstacle. 
Gordius, King of Phrygia, consecrated to 
Jupiter awagon,the beam and yoke of which 
were tied together by such an intricate knot 
that no one could unravel it. An oracle hav¬ 
ing foretold that he who could untie this 
knot would be master of Asia, Alexander 
cut it asunder with his sword. 

Gordon Riots, The. In 1780 in London, 
the bill passed by the House of Commons for 
the relief of the Roman Catholics caused so 
much ill-feeling that Lord George Gordon, a 
fanatic, incited the mob to try and force its 
repeal. Dickens in his Barnahy Rudge gives 
a vivid description of these riots. 

Gotham. A name sometimes applied to 
New York City. 

Gotham, The Wise Men of. Noted for 
their folly. Gotham was an English village. 

Great Commoner, The. William Pitt. 

Great Duke, The. Wellington. 

Great Eastern. The largest vessel ever 
launched. She was built to carry 1,000 pas¬ 
sengers and 5,000 tons of cargo. Her chief 
work has been in the laying of ocean tele¬ 
graph cables. 

Great Pyramid, The. Is at Gheezeh, 
Egypt. It is 484 feet high. 

Greenbacks. United States Treasury 
notes. So named from their color. 

Green Isle, The. Ireland. Sometimes 
also called the Emerald Isle. 

Greenwood. A cemetery in Brooklyn, 
N. Y. 































670 


A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. 


Gregorian Year. 1582; it being proved 
that the years were eleven minutes shorter 
than what they were counted at, Gregory 
XIII. took ten days of October out of that 
year and advanced the dates so as to correct 
the calendar. The reform has been accepted 
throughout Christendom, except in Russia. 
Example: George Washington, born Febru¬ 
ary 11, O. S. 

Gretna Green. A Scotch village famous 
for runaway matches 

Grub Street. In London; used to be 
noted for its literary denizens. 

Guelplis. The adherents in the thirteenth 
century of the Papacy against the German 
Emperors. They were the constant oppo¬ 
nents of the Ghibellines, and between them 
Italy was kept in turmoil. 

Guildhall. The London town hall. 

Gunpowder Plot, The. A plot to blow 
up the English Parliament in its House, 
November 5, 1605. A cellar underneath was 
stored with gunpowder intended to be touch¬ 
ed off during the session by Guy Fawkes. 
The discovery was made in time to prevent 
mischief. To use a modern but inelegant 
phrase, the plot was considered by some 
people to be “ a put-up job.” 

Gyges’ Ring. A ring which made the 
wearer invisible. Gyges, having found a 
man’s corpse in a brazen horse that he dis¬ 
covered in a cave, took a ring from the finger 
of the dead that rendered him invisible. By 
using this ring he entered unseen the chamber 
of the King of Lydia and murdered him. He 
became King. 


Habeas Corpus Act, The. Was passed 
in the time of Charles II. and provides that 
the body of any person restrained of his lib¬ 
erty must on proper application be brought 
before a J udge and the reason of hisc online- 
ment stated. The Judge will then determine 
the amount of bail he shall furnish, or he will 
remand him to prison or allow him his free¬ 
dom, as the case may require. 

Halcyon Hays. A period of happiness; 
days of peace and tranquility. The halcyon, 
as the kingfisher was anciently called, was 
said to lay her eggs in nests on rocks near the 
sea during the calm weather about the winter 
solstice. 

Handicap. Apportionment of the weights 
that must be carried in a race by different 
horses, considering their age and strength, to 
equalize their chances. 

Hansard. Name of the firm which prints 
the debates of the Rritish Parliament. 

Hansc Towns. In the twelfth century 
some commercial cities in the north of Ger¬ 
many formed an association for the protec¬ 
tion of commerce. To these other similar 
cities in Holland, England, France, Spain 
and Italy acceded, and for centuries this con¬ 
federacy commanded the respect and defied 
the power of Kings. 

Hanseatic League. The name of the 
confederation of .Hanse towns. There were 
seventy-two cities in the league, and thev 
held triennial conventions called Hansa. It 
has long since fallen to pieces. Four of its 
members, Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen and 
Frankfort, are called free cities, but are really 
part of the German Empire. 

Hare, Mad as a March. The hare is 
wilder than usual in March. 

Harpies. Three ravenous and filthy mon¬ 
sters, each having a woman’s face and the 
body of a vulture. Their names were Aello, 
Ocypete and Celeno. Juno sent them to 
plunder the table of Phineus. 

Hari-Kari. (Happy dispatch.) Japanese 
official suicide. 

Harvest Moon. The full moon at or 
nearest the fall equinox; rises for a number of 
days about sunset. 

Heathen Chinee, The. A poem. 


Heidelberg Castle. Ruins near Heidel¬ 
berg, Germany. 

Hegira. The date of Mohammed’s flight 
from Mecca, July 16th, 622. The epoch from 
which the Mohammedans compute their 
time. 

High Church. Th e more conservative 
portion of the Episcopal Church. 

High Seas, The. The sea beyond three 
miles from the coast. 

History, The Father of. Herodotus, 
the Greek historian. 

Hobson’s Choice. Take what is offered 
or go without. Tobias Hobson, an English 
stable-keeper, made whatever customer came 
to hire a horse take the one nearest the door. 

Holborn. A street in London by which 
criminals used to be carried out to execution 
at Tyburn. 

Holy Alliance. Formed in 1S16 by Aus¬ 
tria, Prussia and Russia. 

Holy Family, The. The name of pic¬ 
tures representing in group the infant Jesus, 
St. Joseph, the Blessed Virgin, John the 
Baptist, Anna, and St. Elizabeth. The most 
celebrated are by Michael Angelo at Florence, 
by Raphael in London, and by Leonardo da 
Vinci in the Louvre. 

Holy Land, The. Palestine. 

Holy League, The. The alliance of Pope 
Julius II., France, Germany, Spain and 
some of the Italian Republics in 150S, against 
Venice. 

Honi soit qui tnal y pense. (Shame to 
him who evil thinks.) Motto of the highest 
order of knighthood in Great Britain, that of 
the Garter, instituted by Edward III. At a ball, 
a garter of the Countess of Salisbury, having 
fallen off, was picked up by the King, who 
expressed himself in the above phrase and 
fastened it around his own knee. This inci¬ 
dent led to the formation of the order. 

Honors of War. Allowing a surrendered 
enemy to keep his arms. 

Hotel de Ville. The city hall in French 
and Belgian cities. 

Houris. Beautiful virgins of Paradise; 
promised by the Koran for the delight of the 
true believers. 

Hundred Days, The. From March 20, 
1815, when Napoleon escaped from Elba, to 
June 22, 1815, when he abdicated. 


Iconoclast. (Image-breaker.) A radical 
reformer. 

Iliad. A Greek epic poem by Homer, re¬ 
lating the story of the siege of Troy by the 
Greeks. 

Independence, Declaration of. Issued 
July 4, 1776. 

Independence Hall. In Philadelphia, 
Pa., where Congress met and adopted the 
Declaration of Independence. 

Index Expurgatorius. A list of books 
forbidden to be read by the Roman Catholic 
Church. 

Inns of Court. The four London law 
societies which have the sole right of admit¬ 
ting candidates to the Bar. They are Gray’s 
Inn, Lincoln’s Inn, the Inner Temple and 
the Middle Temple. 

Inquisition. A tribunal established in 
some countries to try heretics. 

Irish Agitator, The. Daniel O’Connell. 

Iron City, The. Pittsburg, Pa. 

Iron Duke, The. The Duke of Welling¬ 
ton. 

Iron Mask, The Man in the. A mys¬ 
terious French state prisoner. 


•Jack Ketch. The hangman. The name 
of an English hangman. , 


Jack Robinson. Before you can say 
Jack Robinson; at once. Jack Robinson 
was noted for the shortness of his visits; the 
servant had scarcely time to repeat his name, 
before he would leave. 

Jack, The Giant Killer. A nursery 
hero. 

Jack, The American, or Union. The 

blue ground of the American flag with the 
stars but without the stripes. 

Jacobins. A revolutionary club, 17S9, in 
Paris, held its meetings in what had been the 
Jacobin Monastery. They were violent and 
extreme in the measures they proposed. Their 
name spread to all similar organizations and 
to individuals acting with them throughout 
France. 

Jacobites. Adherents of James II. of 
England, and of the Stuarts, his descendants. 

Jardin des Plantes. Botanical and 
zoological garden in Paris. 

Jardin Mabille. Of world-wide notoriety. 
A Parisian resort where the can-can flourish¬ 
ed. Suppressed in 1SS2. 

Jericho, Gone to. Disappeared; ruined. 

Jerusalem Delivered. An Italian epic 
poem by Torquato Tasso. 

Jingo, Jingoism. Expression applied in 
England to those who wanted the English 
Government to assume an aggressive foreign 
policy, 1874-1880. 

John Hull. England. Nickname for an 
Englishman. 

John Chinaman. The Chinese in 
America. 

Johnny Cakes. Made of Indian meal 

baked in the ashes. 

Jubilee, Year of. Among the Jews the 
jubilee came every fiftieth year, which was 
the year after one week of weeks of years had 
passed (seven times seven). All slaves who 
were of Hebrew blood were freed, all debts 
were canceled and all lands returned to orig¬ 
inal owners during the jubilee. In the Roman 
Catholic Church it is observed every twenty- 
fifth year. 

Juggernaut. A Hindoo god who has a 
famous temple in India. There is an immense 
car in the service of this god, which, when 
moved about the country, causes the greatest 
excitement. The car resembles a large build¬ 
ing and its weight is very heavy. It is dragged 
along by the multitude and their fanati¬ 
cism is so great that crowds of devotees cast 
themselves under the wheels and are crushed 
to death, a fate which they believe ensures 
paradise. 

Julian Era, The. A method of reckoning 
time from 46 B.C., when Ca’sar reformed the 
calendar. 

Junius, Letters of. Some remarkable 
political letters written during the reign of 
George III. Their authorship is unknown. 


Kansas, Bleeding. So called by Horace 
Greeley during the Free Soil controversy. 

Kensington Gardens. A London Park 
near which Queen Victoria was born. 

Kilkenny Cats, The. Disputing people; 
from the old verse: 

There once were two cats in Kilkenny, 

Who each thought there was one cat too 
manv, 

So they howled and they fit, and they scratch¬ 
ed and they bit, 

Until instead of two cats there wasn’t any. 

King can do no wrong. The. Meaning 
that the Ministers and not the King are re¬ 
sponsible for mistakes of government. 

King of Ivetot. The Seigneur oflvetot 
was made king of his estate by the King of 
France as a recompense for the killing of his 
father. It was a kingdom of eight square 
miles. 
































A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. 


671 


. • 

S> 


/ 


King Cole. A legendary king of Britain, 
who affected tobacco and spirits. 

King Cotton. A name given to the great 
Southern industry before the war. 

King’s Evil. The scrofula. So called 
from the belief that a king’s touch would cure 
the disease. 

King Log. A good-for-nothing ruler. 
The name comes from one of Esop’s fables, 
wherein Jupiter puts a log to rule over the 
frogs. 

King-MaRer, The. Richard Nevill, the 
Earl of Warwick, who set up and deposed 
kings at his will during the Wars of the 
Roses, in the fifteenth century. 

King Stork. A tvrant. The sequel to the 
Esop fable mentioned above. The frogs grew 
tired of King Log, whereupon King Stork 
was brought in at their request, who devoured 
the whole community. 

Kit Kat Club, The. A London club 
founded in 16SS. It had many eminent mem¬ 
bers. 

Knickerbocker. A member of any old 
Dutch family in New York. Derived from 
Irving’s immortal history. 

Knight of Malta. A chivalric and mon¬ 
astic order founded during the Crusades, also 
called the Knights Hospitallers of St. John. 

Know-Nothings. A political party in the 
United States, whose cardinal principle was 
opposition to foreign office-holders. 

Koh-i-Noor. A Golconda diamond, the 
largest in the world, now one of the crown 
diamonds of England. Value, $625,000. 
Koran, The. The Mohammedan Bible. 
Kremlin, The. The royal Russian resi¬ 
dence in Moscow. 

Labyrinth, The. A celebrated structure 
built by Minos, King of Crete, which con¬ 
sisted of a maze out of which no one who 
entered could find the way back. 

X.aeonic. Curt. So called from the brief 
speech in fashion in old Laconia, afterwards 
called Sparta. 

Lacrymal Christi. An Italian wine. 
Lake School, The. A society of English 
poets consisting of Goleridge, Wordsworth 
and Southey. 

Land of Bondage, The. Egypt. 

Land o’ Cake,s, The. Scotland. 

Land of Nod, The. Sleep ; Dreamland. 
Land of Promise, The. Canaan, the 
goal of the Jewish wanderings in the wilder¬ 
ness. 

Lang Syne. Long ago. 

Langne d’Oe. Provence, a part of France 
so called from the dialect in use. 

Langue d’CEil. All of France except 
Provence. 

Laocoon, The. A celebrated statue in the 
Vatican representing Laocoon strangled by 
serpents. 

Laodicean. A person luke-warm in re¬ 
ligion. 

Lares and Penates. The household gods. 
Last Judgment, The. The theme of a 
number of frescoes of the Renaissance period 
in Italy. 

Last Supper, The. Similar to the above. 
Leonardo da Vinci’s best canvas is on this 
subject. 

Lateran Palace, The. One of the Papal 
residences at Rome. 

Laughing Philosopher, The. Democ¬ 
ritus of Abdera, who believed that life was 
only to be laughed at. 

Leaning Tower, The. A celebrated 
structure at Pisa, Italy, which leans thirteen 
feet out of the perpendicular; iySfeet high. 

Learned Blacksmith, The. Elihu 
Burritt. 

----- - 


Leonine Verses. Verses which rhyme at 
the middle and the end. 

Libby Prison. A Confederate gaol for 
prisoners of war at Richmond, Va. 

Lilliput. The pigmy land in Gulliver’s 
travels. 

Lingua Franca. A dialect of French, 
Italian and Arabic spoken on the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea. 

Lion and Unicorn. The supporters of 
the British royal arms. 

Lion of the North, The. Gustavus of 
Sweden, the great leader of the Protestant 
forces during the Thirty Years’ War. 

Lion’s Share. The bigger portion in a 
division. So called from one of Esop’s 
fables. 

Little Corporal, The. Napoleon Bona¬ 
parte. 

Little Giant, The. Stephen A. Douglass. 

Lloyds. The originators of marine insur¬ 
ance. 

Lombard Street. The financial street of 
London. 

Lone Star State, The. Texas. 

Long Parliament. The Parliament 
which sat for thirteen years at the beginning 
of the civil war in England. It sat from 1640 
to 1653, 

Lorelei. A malignant but beautiful water- 
sprite of the Rhine. 

Lotus-Eaters, The. Homer in the Odys¬ 
sey describes the effect of eating the lotus as 
making the eater forget his home. 

Louvre, The. The art palace of Paris. 

Low Church, The. A part of the Epis¬ 
copal Church which is opposed to cere¬ 
monials. 

Lusiad, The. The Portuguese epic poem, 
written by Camoens, describing Vasco da 
Gama’s adventures. 

Lynch Law. Mob law. The name comes 
from a Virginia farmer who instituted the 
first vigilance committee in America. 

Mah, Queen. The queen of the fairies. 
So called from an Irish fairy princess named 
1 Medh, who flourished in the night of time. 

Macadamize. Pavingwith broken stones. 
So called from the inventor, Sir John Mac- 
Ad am. 

Macaronic Verse. A verse made by 
mixing different languages. 

Macchiavellism. Political trickery. 

Madam Tussaud’s Exhibition. A fam¬ 
ous London wax-works show. 

Mad Poet, The. Nathaniel Lee, an in¬ 
sane English dramatist. 

Madman of Macedonia, The. Alexan¬ 
der the Great. 

Madman of the North, The. Charles 
III. of Sweden. 

Madonna. The Blessed Virgin. 

Maecenas. A noted patron of poets dur¬ 
ing the reign of Augustus of Rome. 

Magna Charta. The charter making the 
cornerstone of English liberty, extorted from 
King John Lack-Land. 

Mahomet’s Coffin. The body of Ma¬ 
homet is said to hang in mid-air over 
Medina. 

Maid of Orleans. Joan of Arc. 

Maid of Saragossa. Augustina Zara¬ 
goza, the heroine of the siege of Saragossa in 
180S-9. 

Maiden Queen, The. Elizabeth of Eng¬ 
land. 

Maine Law. A prohibitory law first 
adopted in Maine. 

Malthusian Doctrine, The. The theory 
that the population of the world is growing 
faster than the food supply. 


Mammoth Cave. A cave near the Green 
River, Kentucky, the largest cave in the 
world. 

Man in the Moon. According to the 
legend the man who first broke the Sabbath. 

Man of Destiny. Napoleon Bonaparte. 

Man of Iron, The. Bismarck. 

Man of Straw. An irresponsible person. 

Mare’s Nest. A matter which seems of 
importance but turns out to be nothing. 

Marriage a la Mode. The title of six 
satirical pictures by Hogarth. 

Marseillaise. The French national air, 
composed by Rouget de Lisle. 

Martinet. A strict disciplinarian. So 
called from a French officer of the seventeenth 
century. 

Mason and Dixon’s Line. The north 

boundary of the Slave States, dividing Vir¬ 
ginia and Maryland from Pennsylvania. 

Mausoleum. The tomb of Mausolus, 
built by Queen Artemisia, one of the seven 
wonders of the world. 

Mayfair. The west end of London. 

Mayflower, The. The ship upon which 
the Pilgrim Fathers came to America in 1620. 

Medicine, The Father of. Hippocrates 
of Cos. 

Merlin. An enchanter in the legends of 
King Arthur. 

Mermaid. A sea nymph having a fish’s 
tail. 

Merry Andrew. A buffoon, from Andrew 
Borde.the whimsical physician of I ienry VIII. 

Merry Monarch, The. Charles II. of 
England. 

Mesmerism. Takes its name from Mes- 
mer, a German physician. 

Mezzo Relievo. Carved or cast figures 
projecting from the tablet a little more than 
basso relievo, and something less than alto 
relievo, are called mezzo relievo. 

Middle Ages, The. The period between 
the destruction of the Roman Empire and 
the revival of learning in Italy—476 to 1500. 

Middle States, The. New York, Penn¬ 
sylvania, New Jersey and Delaware. 

Minnesingers. (Love singers.) The 
German lyric poets of the twelfth and thir¬ 
teenth centuries. 

Miserere. The fifty-first psalm. 

Mississippi Bubble, The. A hollow 

financial scheme. 

Missouri Compromise, The. A measure 
that prohibited slavery north of 36° 30 1 north 
latitude. 

Mistress of the Seas. England. 

Molly Maguires. A secret society in the 
United States. Many crimes were attributed 
to it, especially in Pennsylvania. 

Monarch, Le Grand. Louis XIV. of 
France. 

Monroe Doctrine. The United States is 
not to meddle in European affairs, nor to al¬ 
low European Governments to meddle in the 
affairs of the American Continent. 

Mont de Piete. A pawnbroker’s shop. 

Montmartre. A Parisian cemetery. 

Monumental City, The. Baltimore, Md. 

Morey Letter, The. A forged letter at¬ 
tributing to Gen. Garfield anti-Chinese senti¬ 
ments, 1SS0. 

Morganatic Marriage. A marriage be¬ 
tween a man of high rank and a woman of a 
lower one. She does not take her husband’s 
title. 

Mother of Presidents. Virginia; hav¬ 
ing produced seven Presidents of the United 
States. 

Mother Carey’s Chickens. Stormy 
petrels. 


<5 




























672 


A DICTIONARY OF FAMILIAR ALLUSIONS. 


Mother Goose. She lived near Boston, 
and was a nursery rhymer. She sung rhymes 
to her grandson Thomas Fleet, who printed 
them in 1819. 

Mount Vernon. The home of Washing¬ 
ton, in Virginia. 

Muscular Christianity. An expression 
of Charles Kingsley. “A sound mind in a 
sound body.” 

Music of the Spheres. Order, harmony. 
Plato taught that each planet had a siren 
whose song harmonized with the motion of 
our sphere and with that of the others. 

Namby-Pamby. Childish. A term used 
for poor literary productions. 

Nantes, Edict of. A decree issued at 
Nantes, France, in 1508,by Henry IV., grant¬ 
ing toleration to the Protestant religion. Re¬ 
voked by Louis XIV., October 22, 1685. 

Nation of Shop-keepers. The name 
given to the English by Napoleon. 

Natural Bridge, The. A natural arch 
over Cedar Creek near James River in Vir¬ 
ginia. It is 200 feet high. 

Newgate. A London prison. 

New World. The Americas. 

Nibelungen Lied. A German epic poem 
of the thirteenth century. 

Nine Worthies, The. Joshua, David, 
Judas Maccabams, Hector, Alexander. Julius 
Caisar, Arthur, Charlemagne and Godfrey of 
Bouillon. 

Noctes Ambrosianae. The title of a 
work by Prof. Wilson (Christopher North). 

Noel. Christmas day. 

Non-Conformists. Dissenters from the 
Church of England. 

Northern Giant, The. Russia. 

Notre Dame. The Cathedral of Paris. 

Odyssey. A narrative poem of the adven¬ 
tures of Ulysses on his voyage from Troy to 
Ithaca-Homer. 

Ogres. Giants who feed on human flesh. 

OiPolloi. The multitude. 

Old Abe. Abraham Lincoln. 

Old Bailey. A London criminal court. 

Old Dominion, The. Virginia. 

Old Guard, The. A favorite regiment of 
Napoleon Bonaparte. In the Chicago Con¬ 
vention, 1SS0, the friends of Gen. Grant re¬ 
ceived this name. 

Old Hickory. Gen. Andrew Jackson. • 

Old Probs. (Old Probabilities.) The U. S. 
Signal Service. 

Old Public Functionary. President 
James Buchanan. 

Old South, The. A famous church in 
Boston, Mass. 

Orangeman. A Protestant Irishman. 
Member of an organization which cherishes 
the memory of William Prince of Orange. 

Orange Peel. Sir Robert Peel. 

Ordinance of 1787. An act fixing the 
government of the Northwest Territory of 
the United States. 

Orlando Furioso. An Italian poem by 
Ariosto. 

Ossian. The son of Fingal, a Scotch 
bard. Ossian’s poems, published in 1760, were 
the work of James Me Pherson, a gifted Cal¬ 
edonian. 

Ostend Manifeso. Was issued by the 
United States Ministers to England, France 
and Spain during Pierce’s administration, 
declaring that Cuba must belong to the 
United States. 

Ostracism. The Athenians expelled every 
public man against whom a sufficient number 
of votes were cast. The votes were written 
on oyster shells. 


Palimpsest. A parchment having the 
original writing erased and new writing sub- 
tituted. 

Pall Mall. A street in London. 

Palladium. Is something that affords 
defence, protection and safety. A statue of 
Pallas was the palladium of Troy. 

Pantheon. A circular building in Rome 
erected in the time of Augustus. It is now a 
church, the Rotonda. 

Paradise Lost. A poem by John Milton 
treating of the fall of man. 

Paradise Regained. Poem by Milton 
on the temptation and triumph of Jesus. 

Paris of America, The. Cincinnati. 

Parthenon. A temple of Minerva in 
Athens. 

Partington, Mrs. The American Mrs. 
Malaprop. The creation of B. P. Shillaber. 

Pasquinade. A lampoon or satirical 
writing. Political squibs used to be posted 
on an old statue that stood in Rome near the 
house of a sneering old cobbler named Pas- 
quin. 

Peeler. A policeman. Sir Robert Peel 
founded the Irish constabulary. 

Peninsular War. The war between En¬ 
gland and France in Spain and Portugal, 
1S0S-1S12. 

People’s William. William E. Gladstone. 

Pere-la-Chaise. A cemetery near Paris. 

Philippic. An invective. The orations 
of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon 
originated this word. 

Philistine. A word in use in the German 
universities for a person below caste. 

Philosopher’s Stone, The. A substance 
supposed to have the property of turning 
anything else into gold. 

Plon-Plon. Prince Napoleon J. C. Bona¬ 
parte. 

Plumed Knight, The. J. G. Blaine, 
American statesman. 

Plymouth Rock. The rock at Ply¬ 
mouth, Mass., where the Pilgrims landed 
in 1620. 

Poet’s Corner. A corner in Westminster 
Abbey where poets are buried. The poetical 
column in a newspaper. 

Pons Asinorum. (The bridge of asses.) 
Fifth proposition, first book Euclid’s Geom¬ 
etry. 

Poor Richard. Benjamin Franklin. 

Porkopolis. Cincinnati. 

Prater, The. A promenade in Vienna, 
Austria. 

Phoenix. A mythical bird, without a mate, 
renews itself every five hundred years by be¬ 
ing consumed in a fire of spices, whence it 
rises from the ashes and starts for a new 
flig'ht. 

Pied Piper of Hamelin, The. Not be¬ 
ing paid for having drawn, by the sound of 
his pipe, the rats and mice out of Hamelin 
into the river, he piped the children of the 
town into Koppelberg hill, where 130 of them 
died. 

Pigeon English. A mixture of English, 
Chinese and Portuguese. 

Protestant Duke, The. The Duke of 
Monmouth, natural son of Charles II. of En¬ 
gland. 

Pyramids. A number of remarkable old 
structures in Egypt. 

Quaker City, The. Philadelphia, Pa. 

Quaker Poet, The. John G. Whittier. 

Quartier Eatin. A district of Paris in¬ 
habited principally by students. 

Queen of the Antilles. The island of 
Cuba. 


Ranz des Vaclies. The air the Swiss 
mountaineers play on the Alpine horns when 
tending their cattle. 

Railway King, The. George Hudson, 
an Englishman. 

Rebellion, The Great. The war be¬ 
tween Charles I., of England, and Parlia¬ 
ment. 

Red Letter Day. A fortunate day. In 
old calendars a red letter was used to mark 
the saints’ days. 

Red Tape. Official routine. 

Reign of Terror. The time during the 
French Revolution between the overthrow of 
the Girondists, May 31, 1793, and the fall of 
Robespierre, July 27, 1794. 

Reynard the Fox. A romance of the 
fourteenth century. 

Rialto, The. A bridge over the Grand 
Canal, Venice. 

Rights, Declaration of. An instrument 
securing annual Parliaments, trial by jury, 
free elections, the right of petition,and deny¬ 
ing to the crown the privilege of keeping a 
standing army or of levying taxes, was drawn 
up after the revolution of 16S9, and accepted 
by William and Mary. 

Roost, To Rule the. To take the leading 
part. 

Robert the Devil. The first Duke of 
Normandy. 

Robin Goodfellow. Puck, a celebrated 
fairy. 

Roland for an Oliver, A. Tit for tat. 
Roland and Oliver, two peers of Charle¬ 
magne. So many romances were related of 
these knights that, whenever one told an im¬ 
probable story to match one that had been 
told before, it was called giving a Roland for 
an Oliver. 

Rossius, The British. David Garrick. 

Rough and Ready. Gen. Zachary 
Taylor. 

RoundRobin. A petition or remonstrance 
signed by the names in a circle, so as to con¬ 
ceal who signed it first. 

Round Table, The. King Arthur’s 
knights sat at a round table so that any dis¬ 
tinction of rank was avoided. 

Roundheads. The Puritans, who wore 
short hair. 

Royal Martyr, The. Charles I. of En¬ 
gland. 

Royal Society, The. A society for the 
advancement of natural science, founded at 
London, 1645. 

Rozinante. The horse of Don Quixote. 

Rubicon, To Pass the. To take an irre¬ 
trievable step. When Ciesar crossed the 
Rubicon he became an enemy of the Re¬ 
public. 

Rule Britannia. An English song. 

Rump Parliament, The. A remnant of 
the Long Parliament broken up by Cromwell. 

Rye House Plot. A conspiracy' in 16S3 
to assassinate Charles II. and the Duke of 
York. Rye House was the name of the con¬ 
spirators’ place of meeting. 

Sabbath Day’s Journey. About one 
mile. 

Sack, To Get the. To be discharged. 

The Sultan, when he wants to be rid of 
one of his haram, has her put into a sack 
and thrown into the Bosphorus. 

Sadducees. A sect of the ancient Jews 
who denied the resurrection of the dead and 
the expectation of a future state. 

Sagas. Scandinavian books containing 
the Northern legends. 

Saint Bartholomew, Massacre of. 
Massacre of the French Huguenots in the . 

reign of Charles IX., on St. Bartholomew’s i 

day, 1572. 




































Sailor King, Tlie. William IV. of 
England. 

Saint Cloud. A once famous French 
palace, destroyed in the Franco-Prussian 
war. 

Saint James, The Court of. The En- 

lish court, so called from the Palace of St. 
ames in London, formerly a royal residence. 

Saint Mark’s. Cathedral of Venice, 
Italy. 

Saint Paul’s. The cathedral of London; 
designed by Sir Christopher Wren. 

Saint Peter’s. At Rome; is the most 
splendid church building in the world. 

Saint Sophia. A mosque in Constantino¬ 
ple, Turkey. 

Saint Stephens. A Gothic cathedral in 
Vienna, Austria. 

Salt River. Oblivion. Gone up Salt 
River is generally taken to mean political 
defeat. 

Sambo. Nickname for colored man. 

Sanctum. One’s private office. 

Sandwich. A piece of meat between two 
pieces of bread. 

Sang Azul. Of aristocratic descent. 

Sanhedrim. The Jewish court of seventy 
elders. 

Sans Culottes. (Without trousers.) The 
French revolutionists. 

Sans Souci. Palace of Frederick the 
Great, at Potsdam, near Berlin. 

Santa Croce. A church in Florence, 
Italy, the burial-place of Michael Angelo, 
Galileo, Machiavelli and others. 

Saturnalia. A festival in honor of Saturn 
observed annually bv the Romans by giving 
way to the wildest disorders. Unrestrained 
license for all classes, even to the slaves, 
ruled the city for three days, December 17, iS 
and 19. 

Schoolmen. The mediaeval theologians. 

Scotland Yard. The headquarters of the 
London police. 

Scourge of God, The. Atilla, King of 
the Huns. 

Scratch, Old. The Devil. 

Scylla. (Avoiding Scylla he fell into 
Charybdis.) In trying to avoid one danger he 
fell into another. Scylla and Charybdis were 
the two dangers in the Straits of Messina, 
Italy. 

Sea-girt Isle, The. Great Britain. 

Secessia. The seceding Southern States. 

Secular Games. Games held by the 
Romans once in a century. 

Semiramis of the North. Catherine II., 
Empress of Russia. 

September Massacres. The massacre 
of the French Royalist prisoners in Paris, 
September 2, 3 and 4, 1792. About S,ooo were 
killed. 

Septungint. A Greek version of the Old 
Testament prepared by seventy doctors. 

Seven-hilled City, The. Rome. 

Seven Wonders of the World. The 

pyramids of Egypt; the Temple of Diana at 
Ephesus; the hanging gardens of Babylon; 
the Colossus at Rhodes; the Mausoleum at ! 
Halicarnassus; thestatueof Zeus by Phidias 
at Olympus , and the Pharos (or light-house) 
of Alexandria in Egypt. 

Seven Years’ War. The war of Freder¬ 
ick the Great against France, Austria and 
. Russia, 1756 to 1763. 

Shamrock. The emblem of Ireland. St. 
Patrick made use of it to prove the doctrine 
of the Trinity. 

Spanish Main. The southwestern part 
of the Gulf of Mexico. 


Sphinx. An emblem of silence and mys- | 
tery. A monument near Cairo, Egypt; half 
woman, half lion. 

Stahat Mater. A Latin hymn on the 
Crucifixion. 

Six Hundred, Charge of the. At the 

battle of Balaklava, October 25, 1S54, by a 
mistaken order, the British light cavalry, 670 
strong, made a most gallant charge on the 
Russians. 

Sleeping Beauty, The. A fairy tale. 

Smell of the Lamp. A phrase first ap¬ 
plied to the orations of Demosthenes, show¬ 
ing their careful and labored preparation. 
Demosthenes studied in a cave by lamplight. 

Song of Roland. An old French poem 
recounting the deaths of Oliver and Roland 
at Roncesvalles. 

Shibboleth. A countersign. The pass¬ 
word of a secret society. When the Ephraim- 
ites, after being routed by Jepthah, tried to 
pass the Jordan, they were detected by not 
being able to pronounce properly the word 
Shibboleth. 

Sick Man, The. The Ottoman Empire. 

Sinews of War, The. Money. 

Single-Speech Hamilton. An English 
statesman of the eighteenth century, W. G. 
Hamilton. He never made but one speech, 
but that one was most eloquent. 

Stalwart. A member of the Republican 
party of the United States clinging to the 
principles and practices of the party. His 
opposite, a “ Half-breed,” is a Republican 
unwilling to be controlled by the party 
leaders. 

Star Chamber. A court of criminal jur¬ 
isdiction in England having extensive 
powers. It existed from the time of Henry 
VIII. until that of Charles I. 

“Stonewall” Jackson. Gen. Thomas 
J. Jackson, Confederate General. 

Strasburg Cathedral. At Strasburg; 
Gothic; 46S feet high; has a wonderful clock. 

Swedish Nightingale. Jenny Lind (now 
Mine. Goldschmidt). 

Sorbonne, The. A university in Paris 
founded bv Robert de Sorbonne in the thir¬ 
teenth century. 

Sortes Biblicae. Fortune-telling by con¬ 
sulting the Bible. 

South Kensington Museum. A collec¬ 
tion of works of art and manufactures in 
London. 

South Sea Bubble, The. A company 
formed in 1710 in England to pay the national 
debt and to have in return a monopoly of 
the South Sea trade. This company lasted 
about ten years, and its failure was the ruin 
of thousands. 

Tabooed. Prohibited. A Polynesian 
word meaning consecrated; used for what 
is out of date or in bad taste. 

Tammany Hall. A section of the Dem¬ 
ocratic party in New York City, named 
from their place of meeting. 

Tammany Ring. Or the “ Tweed Ring,” 
or “ the Ring.” A set of New York City 
officials which absorbed large sums of the 
city money. Exposed in 1S71. 

Tammany, Saint. Patron saint of the 
Democratic party in New York. He was an 
Indian chief, whose name was really 
Timenund. 

Tapis, On the. On the carpet; proposed 
for discussion. From the tapis or cloth on a 
council table. 

Temple Bar. A stone house in London 
over which the heads of traitors used to be 
exposed. Torn down in 1S7S. 

Termagant. A shrew. Termagant was, 
according to the Crusaders, the wife of Ma¬ 
homet. 


Terra Firma. Drj' land. 

Tertium Quid. A third somebody not 
to be named. 

Theatre Francais. A theatre in Paris. 

Theleme, Abbey of. A creation of Rab¬ 
elais in his Gargantua. Its motto was, “Do 
as you please.” 

Thirty Years’ War, The. Between the 
Catholics and Protestants in Germany, 1618- 
164S. 

Thistle. The national emblem of Scotland. 
One night when the Danes were attempting 
to surprise an encampment of the Scotch, 
one of them trod upon a thistle; the pain 
caused him to raise an alarm, and the Scotch 
defeated them. Ever since the thistle is the 
insignia of Scotland. 

Thor. Is the god of war, son of Odin, the 
Scandinavian Myth. 

Tlireadneedle .Street, The Old Lady 

of. The Bank of England. 

Three Estates of the Realm. The no¬ 
bility, the clergy and the commonalty; 
represented in the two houses of Parliament. 

Thunderer, The. The London Times 
(newspaper). 

Tick, On. On credit. 

Tit for Tat. An equivalent; this for that. 

Tom Thumb. Charles A. Stratton. Also, 
a fairy tale. 

Tory. The name of an English political 
party ; opposite of Whig. 

Tour, The Grand. From England 
through France, Switzerland, Italy, Germany 
and home. 

Tower, The. The citadel of London. 

Transfiguration, The. One of Raphael’s 
most famous pictures, now in the Vatican. 

Trimmer. One who takes a moderate 
course in politics. 

Trinity Church. An Episcopal church 
on Broadway at the head of Wall Street, New 
York. The richest church in America. 

Triple Alliance, The. Alliance between 
Great Britain, Holland and Sweden against 
France, 166S. 

Troubadours. Provincial poets from the 
eleventh to the fourteenth century. 

Trouveres. Northern French poets 1100 
to 1400. 

Trumpet, To Sound One’s Own. To 

boast. The entrance of knights into a list 
was announced by the heralds with a flourish 
of trumpets. 

Tuft-hunter. A toady. At Oxford a 
nobleman was called a tuft because of the 
gold tuft on his college cap. 

Tuileries. A French royal palace burn¬ 
ed by the Commune in 1S71. 

Tulip Mania. A European craze of the 
seventeenth century centering in Holland. 
Everybody was buying tulip bulbs, which ran 
up to enormous prices. Many fortunes were 
sunk in their acquisition. 

Tune the Old Cow Died of. Words 
instead of alms. Old song: a man having 
nothing with which to feed his cow, sings to 
her of the grass which is to grow. The ex¬ 
pression is also used for a worn-out, tiresome 
tune. 

Tyburn. Once a London place of execu¬ 
tion, now a wealthy and fashionable quar¬ 
ter called Tyburnia. 

TTffizi. A building in Florence in which is 
a magnificent art collection. 

Ultramontanes. In France, the more 
extreme adherents of the Pope. 

Underground Railroad, The. Organi¬ 
zation of the different means used for the es¬ 
cape of runaway slaves, about the middle of 
the present century. 

Under the Rose. (Sub rosa.) Confi¬ 
dentially. 
















































Unlicked Cub. An ill-bred boy. Tbe 
bear cub was believed to be licked into shape 
by its dam. 

Unter den Linden. A street in -Berlin 
having four rows of lime trees. 

Unwashed, The Great. The mob. 

Upas Tree. An object that does harm 
and should be avoided. The upas tree is 
common in Java; its gum is poisonous, and 
fable states that the atmosphere about it is 
as deadly. 

Up the Spoilt. Or more elegantly, “gone 
where the woodbine twineth,” or “at my 
uncle’s,” means in pawn. 

Upper Ten Thousand. The aristocracy; 
fashionable society. 

Utilitarians. Those who believe that the 
fitness of anvthing to promote happiness is 
the right standard of morality. 

Utopia. An ideal commonwealth. The 
imaginary island, scene of Sir Thomas 
More’s romance of Utopia. 

Valhalla. The palace of immortality, 
where the heroes slain in battle dwell. (From 
the Saga legends.) 

Vampire. An extortioner. A fabulous 
bat said to suck the blood of persons during 
sleep. 

Vatican. The palace of the Popes, Rome. 
Vatican, Council of the. The (Ecume¬ 
nical Council, 1S69, promulgated Papal in¬ 
fallibility. 

Vedas, The. Revelations of Brahma in 
four sacred books. 

Veni, Vidi, Vici. (I came, I saw, I con¬ 
quered.) Phrase used by Julius Cresar, an¬ 
nouncing his victory at Zela. 

Venus de Medici. A Greek statue at 
Florence. 

Venus of Milo. A Greek statue found in 
the Island of Melos, 1S20; it is now in the 
Louvre. 

Verbum Sap. A word to the wise. 
Veronica. A relic at St. Peter’s, Rome. 
Versailles. A palace at Versailles, ten 
miles from Paris. 

Vespers, The Sicilian. The massacre of 
the French in Sicily, March 30, 12S2. The 
sounding of the vesper bell was the signal. 

Via Dolorosa. The sorrowful way of our 
Lord from the Mount of Olives to Golgotha. 

A’inegar Bible, The. Has"“vinegar” for 
“vineyard”, in the head line of Luke xxii. 
Oxford, 1767. 


Virgin Queen, The. Queen Elizabeth of 
England. 

Vitus Dance, St. A disease anciently 
supposed to be under control of St. Vitus. 

Wabash Avenue. A street in Chicago. 
Wall of China, The. A wall 1,200 miles 
long and 20 feet high, built as a protection 
against the Tartars. 

Wall Street. The great financial street 
of New York. 

Wallack’s. A theatre in New York. 
Walton, An Izaak. An angler. 
Wandering Jew, The. A legendary per¬ 
sonage condemned to wander over the world 
until the day of judgment. 

War of 1812. Between Great Britain and 
the United States, 1S12-1S1S. 

War of the Roses. The English civil 
wars in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen¬ 
turies, between the houses of York and Lan¬ 
caster. 

Ward, Artemus. C. F. Browne. 
Washington Street. A street in Boston, 
Mass. 

Wassail. (What hail!) Abowlof spiced 
ale used on New Year’s day is the Wassail 
bowl. 

Waters, The Father of. The Mississippi. 
Ways and Means. An important com¬ 
mittee of the House of Representatives; is 
charged with the duty of devising ways and 
means for the supply of the Government ex¬ 
penses. 

Wedding. The first anniversary of a 
wedding is th z paper wedding, the gifts being 
paper articles; the fifth, 1 wooden ; the tenth, 
tin ; the fifteenth, glass ; twentv-fifth, silver', 
fiftieth ,golden ; seventy-fifth, diamond. 

Well of St. Keyne. A well in Cornwall. 
The first of a married couple to taste its 
waters will “ wear the breeches.” 

Westminster Abbey. A church in Lon¬ 
don where many of the illustrious dead of 
England are buried. 

Wetherell, Elizabeth. Pseudonym of 
Miss Susan Warner, author of The Wide, 
Wide World. 

Whig. The name of a political party now 
extinct. 

Whistle. (To pay too dearly for the whis¬ 
tle). Dr. Franklin’s story. Cost greater than 
benefit. 

White Feather, To Show the. A dis¬ 
play of cowardice. 


White House. The Presidential mansion 
at Washington. 

Whiteboys. A secret society in Ireland, 
17S9. 

Wild Huntsman, The. A spectral 
huntsman in the Black F'orest. German le¬ 
gend. 

Windmills, To Fight with. To oppose 
imaginary objects. Don Quixote. 

Windsor Castle. A royal residence near 
London. 

Wise Men of the East, The. The three 
Magi guided by a star to Bethlehem. 

Witch of Endor, The. The soothsayer 
who foretold the death of Saul. 

Witch-Hazel. A forked twig used for 
finding witches ; in use still for finding water. 

Wooden Horse. A ruse at the siege of 
Troy. 

Woolsack, To Sit on the. To be Lord 
Chancellor of England. 

Wyoming Massacre. The Valley of 
Wyoming was ravaged by Indians in 177S. 

Xanthos. The prophetic horse of Achilles. 

Nantippe. The scolding wife of Socrates. 

Yahoo. A ruffian. The Yahoos in Gulli¬ 
ver’s Travels are brutes shaped like men. 

Yankee. A name given to all Americans. 
In America itself the name is only used f. r 
natives of New England. 

Yarmouth Bloater. A red herring. 

Yellow Jack. The yellow fever. 

Young America. The growing genera¬ 
tion. 

Young Chevalier. Charles Edward Stu¬ 
art, the second pretender to the throne of 
Great Britain. (1720-SS.) 

Young Germany. Heinrich Heine and 
his followers. 

Yosemite Valley. In California. Also 
a picture by Bierstadt. 

Yule. Christmas. 

YYile-log. A large log of wood burnt on 
the hearth at Christmas. 

Zend-Avesta, The. Persian Scriptures 
written in the Zend language. 

Zollverein. An association between Ger¬ 
man States for the maintenance of uniform 
tariff rates. 








































SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


OTHING can be more 
embarrassing than that 
deplorable poverty of 
speech which makes a 
man iterate and reiter¬ 
ate his one word, when 
but a slight knowledge 
of Synonyms would permit him 
to express his ideas in an ele¬ 
gant and faultless manner. 

Every one has felt the neces¬ 
sity, in writing or speaking, of 
having at command a ready 
vocabulary from which to select 
words that will clearly and forci¬ 
bly convey the intended meaning 
and at the same time save the 
inelegance of frequent repetitions. 

In fact, some writers have made the number 
of Synonyms in a language the test of its civil¬ 
ization and fitness for literature. Thus the 
ancient Greek fairly teems with words having a 
like signification, so that every delicate shade of 
meaning might be clearly and forcibly put; 
the same may be said of Latin and of Hebrew. 
On the other hand, while the English language 


contains about forty thousand words, Latham 
and other scholars have decided that the vocab¬ 
ulary of the English peasant does not contain 
more than five or six hundred words. Conse¬ 
quently it seems clear that a knowledge of 
words is the most direct possible test of culture 
and civilization. 

The rhetorical fault known as tautology is 
best overcome by an acquaintance with Syno¬ 
nyms. On the other hand a knowledge of An¬ 
tonyms stands next in importance to Synonyms, 
for one of the strongest figures of speech is 
“Antithesis,” or the putting of matters in start¬ 
ling contrast and opposition—a method known 
of old as one of the most effective weapons in 
the armory of the rhetorician. The Dictionary 
of Antonyms following will be found one of the 
most complete ever published. The student 
will, upon finding the antonym he wishes, turn 
to its peculiar synonyms, and thus find the very 
word for which he may be seeking. To illustrate 
the use and necessity of synonyms to the writer 
and speaker we append a sentence which clearly 
shows the value of a dictionary of this char¬ 
acter. 


Containing over Twenty Thousand Words of both Similar and Contrary Meaning. 


(S 

































































676 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Example. 

He was a man of acute perception, acute 
judgment, acute intellect and acute observation. 

The Same Sentence Improved. 

( acute ^ 

He was a man oR keen > perception, 

( quick j 

( shrewd I ( bright 'j 

< piercing Vjudgment, < sharp > intellect and 
(_ discerning j ( subtle j 

intelligent 'l 
penetrating V observation, 
clear-sighted J 


On the other hand there are cases when the 
reiteration of the same word gives strength and 
consistency to a sentence; when the same word 
used again and again comes at last to be like 
the blows of a hammer, riveting attention to the 
subject. 

Of this character is Webster’s celebrated sen¬ 
tence in his speech on “American Institutions.” 

Webster's Celebrated Sentence. 

“ Our Government can stand trial, it can stand 
assault, it can stand adversity, it can stand per¬ 
secution ; it can stand everything but the weak¬ 
ness of our own strength, it can stand everything 
but disorganization, disunion and nullification.” 


A 

Abandon, v. 1. Leave, quit, forsake, 
drop, relinquish, evacuate, give over, cast off. 
2. Surrender, cede, resign, waive, vacate. 
Auto., keep, hold, retain. 

Abandoned, adj. 1. Deserted, forsaken. 
2. Depraved, corrupt, profligate, shameless, 
incorrigible. Anto., 1. Kept, cared for. 2. 
Virtuous, holy. 

Abase, v. 1. Reduce, lower. 2. Degrade, 
humble, disgrace. Anto., 1. Increase, raise. 
2 . Honor, praise. 

Abash, v. Shame, confuse, humiliate. 
Anto., embolden, reassure. 

Abate, v. 1. Lessen, reduce, diminish. 

2. Moderate, allay. 3. Suppress, remove, 
terminate. Anto., 1. Augment. 2. Infuriate, 

3. Empower, permit. 

Abbreviate, v. Curtail, shorten. Anto., 
enlarge, lengthen. 

Abduct. 22. Kidnap. Anto., rescue. 
Abet. v. Aid, assist, help. 2. Favor, 
sanction. 3. Instigate, incite. Anto., 1. Re¬ 
sist. 2. Oppose. 3. Forbid. 

Abhor, v. Hate, loathe, detest. Anto., 
love, admire. 

Abide, v. Sojourn, live, dwell. Anto., 
depart, leave. 

Ability. 71 . 1. Power, force, might. 2. 

Competency. 3. Capacity, genius, turn. 
Anto ., Inability. 1. Feebleness. 2. Insuffi¬ 
ciency. 3. Incapability. 

Abject. adj. Base, vile, mean, low. 
Anto., lofty, good, noble. 

Able. adj. 1. Clever, accomplished, tal¬ 
ented. 2. Qualified. 3. Gifted,strong, mighty. 
Anto., 1. Stupid. 2. Unfit. 3. Weak, feeble. 

Abolish, v. 1. Repeal, revoke, annul, 
cancel. 2. Overthrow. Anto., 1. Enforce, 
hold. 2. Establish. 

Abominable, adj. 1. Hateful, odious. 
2. Loathsome, nauseous. 3. Vile, wretched. 
Anto., 1. Lovable. 2. Pleasant. 3. Happv, 
good. 

Abridge, v. Contract, compress. Anto., 
expand. See Abbreviate. 

Abrupt, adj. 1. Broken, rugged. 2. 
Steep. 3. Sudden, unexpected. 4. Short, 
curt. Anto., 1. Smooth. 2. Level. 3. Slow. 

4. Long, courteous. 

Absolute, adj. 1. Real, positive. 2. 
Arbitrary, despotic. 3. Independent. Anto., 
1. Shadowy. 2. Limited. 3. Dependent. 

Abstinence, n. Temperance, fast. Anto., 
feast, plenty, orgies. 

Abstruse, adj. Profound, recondite, hid¬ 
den. Anto., simple, clear. 

Absurd, adj. Silly, foolish, laughable. 
Anto., wise, solemn. 


Abundance. n. Plenty, profuseness, 
richness. Anto., famine, want, poverty. 

Abuse. z>. 1. Pervert, misuse. 2. Harm, 

injure. 3. Revile, reproach, malign. Anto., 

1. Use. 2. Protect. 3. Praise. 

Accept, v. Receive, take. Anto., refuse, 
reject. 

Acceptable. adj. Pleasing, welcome. 
Anto., displeasing. 

Accidental, adj. Casual. Anto., pre¬ 
concerted. 

Accommodate, v. 1. Oblige, serve, assist. 

2. hit, suit, adapt. 3. Reconcile, adjust. 
Anto., 1. Disoblige, impede. 2. Spoil. 3. 
Embitter. 

Accomplish. v. Complete, perform, 
execute. Anto., fail. 

Accomplished, adj. 1. Educated, ex¬ 
perienced, practiced, adroit, talented. 2. 
Polished, refined, polite. Anto., j. Ignorant, 
awkward. 2. Boorish, ill-bred. 

Account. 71 . Narrative, recital, history. 
Anto., rebuttal, negation. 

Accrue, v. Result, issue, ensue. Anto., 
stop, delay, bar. 

Accumulate. v. 1. Collect, gather. 2. 
Store, garner, hoard. 3. Increase, grow. 
Anto., 1. Dissipate, scatter. 2. Spend. 3. 
Lessen, diminish. 

Accurate, adj. Correct, exact, precise. 
Anto., wrong, loose, erroneous. 

Accuse, v. Charge, criminate, arraign. 
Anto., exonerate. 

Accustom, v. Habituate, familiarize, 
addict. Anto., unused, undrilled. 

Achieve, v. See Accomplish. 
Acknowledge, v. Admit, concede, avow. 
Anto., deny. 

Acquaint, v. Tell, inform, notify. Anto., 

deceive. 

Acquire, v. Get, gain, secure, win, ob¬ 
tain. Anto., lose. 

Acquit. . v.' Clear, absolve, exonerate. 
Anto., convict, indict. 

Act. v. 1. Work, move, execute. 2. Be¬ 
have, demean. 3. Operate. 4. Do, perform. 
5. Personate, play, enact. Anto., 1. Idle, 
loaf. 2. Misbehave. 3. To be inert. 4. Re¬ 
fuse. 5. Verify. 

Act. it. 1. Deed, performance. 2. Statute, 
law. 3. Part of a play. 

Active, adj. 1. Brisk, alert, nimble, 
smart. 2. Busy, diligent, enterprising. 3. 
Powerful, drastic. Anto., 1. Lazy. 2. Lack¬ 
ing energy. 3. Weak. 

Actually. adv. Really, truly, verily. 
Anto., falsely, deceptively. 


Acute, adj. 1. Keen, shrewd, sharp, 
discerning, knowing, quick, smart, bright, 
intelligent, ingenious, subtle, penetrating, 
piercing, clear-sighted, sharp-witted, long¬ 
headed. 2 Severe, violent, intense, exquis¬ 
ite, pungent. Anto., 1. Dull. 2. Stupid. 

Add. v. 1. Join, annex, append, tag. 2. 
Sum, cast up. Atito., 1. Disconnect, separate. 
2. Subtract, take away. 

Address. 71 . 1. Appeal, petition, en¬ 

treaty. 2. Speech, discourse, oration. 3. 
Skill, art, tact. 4. Superscription, direction. 
5. Manner. Atito., 3. Clumsiness, awkward¬ 
ness. 

Adhere, v. Cling, cleave, cohere. Anto., 
loosen. 

Adjacent, adj. Near, bordering, con¬ 
tiguous. Atito., far, asunder. 

Adjust, v. Arrange, trim, regulate, adapt, 
accommodate. Anto., disarrange, disorder, 
confuse. 

Admirable, adj. Excellent, fine, praise¬ 
worthy. Anto., blamable, execrable. 

Admire, v. Wonder, like, esteem, love. 
Anto., hate, despise, dislike. 

Admit, v. 1. Grant, concede, confess. 
2. Let in. Anto., 1. Deny. 2. Keep out, ex¬ 
clude. 

Admonish, v. Advise, warn, reprove. 
Anto., recommend. 

Adulation, n. Flattery. Anto., blame, 
scolding. 

Advancement, n. Preferment, progres¬ 
sion. Anto., displacement, retrogression, 
receding. 

Adventure. 71 . 1. Stake, risk, chance. 
2. Accident, danger, event. Anto., 1. Cer¬ 
tain tv. 2. Quiet, safety. 

Adversity. 71 . Trouble, misfortune, sor¬ 
row, distress. Anto., prosperity, wealth, joy. 

Advertise, v. Announce, publish, pro¬ 
claim. Anto., conceal. 

Advice. 71 . 1. Counsel, caution. 2. In¬ 

formation. 

Affable, adj. Civil, sociable, easy. Anto., 
surly, discourteous. 

Affection, n. Partiality, fondness. Anto., 
dislike. 

Afflict. v. Trouble, annoy, torment, 
harass. Anto., please. 

Affront, v. Insult, abuse, condemn. Atito., 
respect. 

Agent, n. Factor, substitute. Anto., 
principal. 

Aggregate, it. Total, whole, lump, sum, 
mass. Anto., part. 

Agile, adj. See Active. 

Agitation. 71 . 1. Excitement, commo¬ 

tion, tumult. 2. Debate, discussion. Anto., 
tranquility. 





































SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


677 


Agree, v. 1. Concur, acquiesce, unite. 2. I 
Engage, contract. Anto., 1. Differ, disagree. 

2. Refuse. 

Aid. v. Assist, help. Anto., resist. 
Alarm. «. Fright, dismay, apprehension. 
Anto., confidence, courage. 

Alert, adj. See Active. 

Aliment. 11. Food, sustinence, nourish¬ 
ment. 

Allay, v. Soften, lessen, quiet, ease. 
Anto., excite. 

Alleviate, v. See Allay. 

Alliance, n. League, confederacy, union. 
Anto., disunion, discord. 

Allowance, n. 1. Salary, wages, pay. 

2. Permission. Anto., 2. Prohibition. 

Allure, v. Tempt, decoy. Anto., repel. 
Amass, v. See Accumulate. 

Amatory, adj. Tender, amorous, erotic. 
Anto., hateful. 

Amazement, n. Wonder, astonishment. 
Anto., anticipation. 

Ambiguous; adj. Doubtful, dubious. 
Anto., clear. 

Amicable, adj. Kind, friendly, pleasant. 
Anto., hostile. 

Ample, adj. 1. Spacious. 2. Plentiful, 
abundant. Anto., 1. Confined, narrow. 2. 
Scarce. 

Amuse, v. Divert, entertain. Anto., 
weary, tire. 

Analogy, v. Similarity. Anto., diver¬ 
sity, difference. 

Ancestors, n. Forefathers. Anto., pos¬ 
terity. 

Ancient, adj. Old antique. Anto., modern. 
Anecdote, n. Tale, story. 

Anger, n. Resentment, wrath, ire, fury, 
rage, choler. Anto., peacefulness, amiability, 
calm. 

Anguisb. n. Pain, distress, agony. Anto., 
bliss. 

Animal, n. Creature, beast, brute. Anto., 
things inanimate. 

Animate, v. Inspire, enliven, cheer, in¬ 
cite, urge. Anto., depress. 

Animation. n. Life, spirit, vivacity. 
Anto., apathy. 

Animosity, n. Enmity, hostility, malig¬ 
nancy. Anto., liking, friendliness. 

Annex, -v. Attach, append, join. Anto., 
detach, separate. 

Announce, v. See Advertise. 

Annoy. v. Disturb, molest, trouble. 
Anto., convenience, please, accommodate. 

Annul, v. Rescind, abolish. Anto., af¬ 
firm. 

Answer, n. Reply, rejoinder. Anto., 
question. 

Anterior, adj. Prior, before, previous. 
Anto., posterior, subsequent. 

Anticipate, v. Foresee, forestall, pre¬ 
vent. Anto., surprise. 

Antipathy, n. Aversion, dislike, hatred. 
See Animosity. 

Antique, adj. Old, ancient, obsolete. 
Anto., modern, new, fresh. 

Anxiety. n. Care, solicitude, worry. 
Anto., certainty, repose. 

Any. adj. pron. 1. Anyone. 2. Some. 
Atito., none. 

Apartment, n. Lodging, room, chamber. 
Apathy, n. Coldness, torpor, unconcern. 
Anto., animation, which see. 

Ape. v. Imitate. 

Apologize, v. Excuse, exculpate. Anto., 
insult, justify. 

Appal, v. Scare, shock, frighten. Anto., 
embolden, encourage. See Alarm. 

Apparel. n. Dress, clothing, attire. 
Anto., nudity. 

Apparent, adj. Visible, plain, obvious, 
evident. Anto., concealed, ambiguous, which 
see. 

Apparition, n. An appearance, ghost, 
spirit, phantom. 

Appear, v. 1. Emerge, come into view. 
2. Seem, look. Anto., disappear. 

Appearance, n. 1. Coming, arrival. 2. 
Air, figure. 3. Semblence. Anto., 1, Depart¬ 
ure. 3. Unlikeness. 

Appease, v. Calm, pacify. Anto., in¬ 
flame. 


Appellation, n. Name, title. 

Applaud, v. Cheer, praise, extol. Anto., 
hiss, blame, belittle. 

Application, n. Industry, persistency. 
Anto., idleness, fickleness. 

Apply. v. Use, appropriate, devote. 
Anto., misapply. 

Appoint, v. 1. Fix, establish. 2. Name, 
constitute. Anto., 1. Change. 

Appraise, v. Vnine, estimate, rate. 
Appreciate, v. Estimate, value, appraise. 
Apprehend, v. 1. Catch, capture, arrest. 

2. Understand, comprehend. 3. Fear, dread, 
alarm. Anto., 1. Escape. 2. Misunderstand. 

3. Embolden. 

Apprise, v. See Admonish. 

Approach, v. Approximate, come near. 
Anto., depart. 

Approbation, n. Approval, sanction, 
consent. Anto., disapproval. 

Approximate, v. See Approach. 

Apt. adj. 1. Fit, meet, suitable, qualified. 
2. Ready, quick, prompt. Anto., 1. Unfit. 2. 
Slow. 

Arbitrary, adj. Irresponsible, tyrannous. 
Anto., normal, regular, constitutional. 

Arbitrator, n. Judge, umpire, referee. 
Archives, n. Records, chronicles. 
Ardent, adj. Zealous, fervid, hot, in¬ 
tense. Anto., calm, cool. 

Arduous, adj. Difficult, trying, labori¬ 
ous. Anto., easy, facile. 

Argue, v. 1. Evince, prove. 2. Reason, 
discuss, debate. Anto., disprove. 

Argument, n. Reason, proof, discussion, 
dispute. Anto., folly, mistake. 

Arise, v. Mount, ascend, get up. 2. Be¬ 
gin, originate. Anto., descend, go down. 

Aristocratic, adj. Haughty, proud, ar¬ 
rogant. Anto., democratic, plebeian. 

Arms. n. Weapons. 

Army. n. Force, troops. Anto., mob. 
Arraign, v. See Accuse. Anto., acquit. 
Arrange, v. 1. Distribute, rank, classify. 
2. Plan, devise, organize. Anto., disarrange. 

Arrogance, n. Pride, haughtiness, su¬ 
perciliousness. Anto., humility. 

Artful, adj. 1. Skilful. 2. Subtle, shrewd, 
crafty. Anto., simple, unaffected. 

Artifice, n. Cunning, trick, stratagem. 
Anto., honesty, simplicity. 

Artist. n. 1. Designer. 2. Painter, 
sketcher. 3. Sculptor, modeller. Anto., 
dauber. 

Assay, n. Test, examination, chemical 
analysis of metals. 

Association, n. Society, guild, combin¬ 
ation. Anto., separation. 

Attic, adj. Classic, elegant, pure. Anto., 
stupid, modern, unclassical. 

Attitude. ;/. Posture, phase, situation. 
Attorney, n. Lawyer, counsellor, agent. 
Anto., client. 

Attract, v. Allure, fascinate, captivate. 
Anto., repel. 

Attraction. n. Charm, fascination. 
Anto., repulsion. 

Audacity, n. Daring, hardihood, pre¬ 
sumption, insolence. Anto., timidity, meek¬ 
ness. 

Augment, v. Increase, enlarge, mag¬ 
nify. Anto., decrease, diminish. 

Author, n. Writer, composer, maker. 
Authority, n. Liberty, permit, order, 
warrant. Anto., prohibition. 

Avarice, n. Closeness, cupidity, covet¬ 
ousness. Anto., liberality, prodigality. 

Avow. v. Affirm, confess, declare. Anto., 
deny. 

Awake, adj. Watchful, vigilant. Anto., 
sleepy, drowsy. 

Awe. 11. Dread. 

Awkward. adj. Unskilful, unhandy, 
boorish, rough. Anto., accomplished, subtle, 
graceful. 

B 

Babble, v. Prate, chatter. Anto., to be 
laconic. 

Baffle, v. Circumvent, foil. Anto., suc¬ 
cor, aid, abet. 

Baggage, n. Luggage. 


V 


Balance, v. Equalize, counteract, poise. 
Anto., preponderate. 

Band. n. 1. Company, crew, gang. 2. 
Chain, fetter, shackle. 3. Fillet, bandage. 4. 
Orchestra, company of musicians. Anto., in¬ 
dividual, one. 

Banish, v. Exile, send away, exclude. 
Anto., recall. 

Banter, v. Rally, twit, taunt. 

Bare. adj. Unclothed, naked. Anto., 
clad. 

Bargain, n. Agreement, contract, sale. 
Barter, v. Exchange, sell, commute. 
Anto., retain. 

Base. adj. See Abject. 

Bear. v. 1. Uphold. 2. Undergo, suffer. 
3. Generate, bring forth. 

Beastly, adj. Brutal, sensual, bestial. 
Anto., humane, polite. 

Beat. v. 1. Knock, hit, strike. 2. Defeat, 
conquer, subdue. 

Beau. n. 1. Admirer, suitor. 2. Fop, 
dandy. Anto., belle. 

Beauty, n. Comeliness, grace, symmetry. 
Anto., ugliness. 

Becoming, adj. Appropriate, seemly, 
fit. Anto., unsuitable. 

Beg. v. Beseech, solicit, entreat. Anto., 
grant. 

Beguile, v. Amuse, divert, delude. 
Behavior, n. Conduct, bearing, deport¬ 
ment. Anto., misbehavior. 

Behold, interj. See, look. 

Believe, v. Credit, assume, deem. Anto., 
doubt. 

Beloved, adj. Dear, darling. Anto., 
hated. 

Below, prep. Under, beneath. Anto., 
over, above. 

Belief act ion. n. Gift, gratuity 
Bequeath, v. Leave, devise, will. Anto., 
inherit. 

Bereave, v. Deprive, take away, strip. 
Anto., enrich. 

Beseech, v. See Beg. 

Bestow, v. Confer, give, grant. Anto,, 
withhold. 

Better, v. Improve, amend, correct. 
Anto., confuse, deteriorate. 

Bill. it. 1. Reckoning^ statement, account. 
2. Draft. 3. Beak. 4. Pick-axe. 

Blame. 11. Censure, reproof, reproach. 
Anto., praise. 

Blemish, n. Stain, spot, speck, flaw. 
Anto., immaculate. 

Blind, adj. 1. Sightless. 2. Heedless. 
Anto., far-sighted. 

Bloody, adj. Sanguinary, gory. 

Boast, v. Brag, vaunt, glory. 

Boldness, n. 1. Courage, bravery, valor. 
2. Effrontery, impudence. Anto., 1. Coward¬ 
ice. 2. Bashfulness, modesty. 

Bombastic. adj. Inflated, pompous, 
grandiloquent. Anto., concise. 

Border, n. Verge, brim, edge, frontier. 
Anto., middle, interior. 

Bore. n. 1. Nuisance, a prosy talker. 2. 
Hole, calibre. 

Boundless, adj. Unlimited, immeasura¬ 
ble, infinite. Anto., limited. 

Bountiful, adj. Liberal, generous, boun¬ 
teous. Anto., niggardly, miserable. 
Bravery, n. See Boldness. 

Breeding, n. Nurture, training, manners. 
Anto., impoliteness. 

Brief, adj. Short, concise. Anto., pro¬ 
tracted. 

Bright, adj. Shining, radiant. Anto., 
dull. 

Brilliancy, tt. Luster, radiance. Anto., 
dullness'. 

Brittle, adj. Fragile, frail, crumbling. 
Anto., tough. 

Broil, n. Quarrel, brawl, fight, affray. 
Anto., quiet, peace. 

Brutal, adj. Cruel, unfeeling, savage, 
ferocious. Anto., humane. 

Bud. v. Sprout, shoot, germinate. 
Buffoon. 11. Harlequin, fool, idiot. Anto., 

sage. . , 

Build, v. Raise, erect. Anto., destroy, 
pull down. 














































Bulk. n. Size, magnitude, body, gross. 
Anto., tenuity. 

Burial. n. Interment, sepulture. A/ito., 
resurrection. 

Burst. v. Explode, break open. 
Business, n. Calling, employment, voca¬ 
tion. Anto., leisure. 

Bustle. 71. Stir, tumult, fuss. Anto., 
quiet. 

Butt, 71. i. Mark, object, target. 2. Cask. 
Buxom, adj. Healthy, brisk, cheerful, 
lively. Anto., spiritless. 

Buy. v. Purchase, cheapen, bargain for. 
A7ito., sell. 


Cabal. 71. 1. Clique, set, league. 2. Plot, 

intrigue, conspiracy. 

Cajole, v. Coax, flatter, wheedle. Anto., 
compel. 

Calamity. 71. Mishap, misfortune, disas¬ 
ter. A71I0., good fortune, luck. 

Calculate, v. Reckon, count, compute, 
rate, estimate. 

Call. v. 1. Cry, shout. 2. Invite, bid, 
summon. A7ito., :. Whisper. 2. Order away, 
send. 

Calling. 71. See /Justness. 

Callous, adj. Hard, unfeeling, dead. 

A/ito., sensitive, nervous. 

Calm. adj. 1. Composed, collected. 2. 
Quiet, tranquil, placid. Anto., 1. Stormy. 2. 
Agitated. 

Candid. adj. Open, honest, sincere. 

Anto., deceitful, treacherous. 

Capacity. 71. 1. Volume, amplitude. 2. 

Ability, competency, faculty, talent. 3. Char¬ 
acter, office. Anto.,2. Incapacity, incompeten¬ 
cy, stupidity, inability. 

Caprice. 71. Whim, freak, fancy, vagary. 
Anto., settled purpose, conviction. 

Captious, adj. Peevish, petulant, fretful, 
cross. Anto., good-humored, facile, easy. 

Captivate, v. Fascinate, charm, enchant. 
Anto., disgust, displease. 

Careful, adj. 1. Heedful, attentive. 2. 
Watchful, cautious, circumspect. Anto., 
heedless, careless, rash. 

Caress. 71. Kiss, embrace. Anto., buffet, 
spurn. 

Carousal. 

Anto., fast. 

Cash. 71. Money, coin, specie. 

Casualty. 71. Accident, mischance, con¬ 
tingency. 

Cause, v. Produce, create, occasion. 

Cause. 71. Reason, motive, inducement, 
incitement. Anto., effect. 

Cavity, n. Aperture, opening, hollow. 

Cautious, adj. Prudent, careful, watch¬ 
ful. See Careful. Anto., rash, headlong, 
heedless. 

Celebrate, v. 1. Commemorate, keep, 
observe, honor, solemnize. 2. Praise, extol, 
glorify. A/ito., 1. Forget, ignore. 2. Execrate. 

Censure, v. Blame, approve, chide, scold, 
berate. A/ilo., praise, honor, congratulate, 
approve. 

Certain, adj. j. Sure, assured, confident. 
2. Infallible, unfailing. 3. Plain, positive, 
absolute, indubitable. Anto., uncertain. 1. 
Dubious, doubtful. 2. Fallacious. 3. Dark, 
disputed, challenged. 

Chance, n. 1. Accident, fortune, fortuity, 
casualty. 2. Hazard, risk, peril, jeopardy. 
Anto., 1. Design. 2. Safety, certainty, security. 

Change, v. Alter, vary, turn. 

Character. 71. Repute, reputation, stand¬ 
ing- 

Charm. n. Grace, attraction. Anto., re¬ 
pulsion. 

Chastity. n. Purity, modesty, virtue, 
continence. A/ito., impurity, lewdness, in¬ 
continence. 

Chattels. n.,pl. Goods, effects, personal 
property. Anto., real estate. 

Chatter, v. See Babble. 

Cheat. v. Deceive, trick, defraud, 
swindle. 

Cheer, v. 1. Applaud. 2. Comfort, con¬ 
sole, gladden, encourage. A/tlo., 1. Hiss. 2. 
Distress. 


71. Feast, banquet, orgie. 


Cheerful, adj. Lively, merry, sprightly, 
gay. Anto., sad, weary, downcast, mournful. 

Cherish. 7'. 1. Nourish, nurse, nurture. 

2. Encourage. 3. Harbor, protect, love. 
Anto., 1. Starve, famish. 2. Dishearten. 3. 
Expose, detest. 

Chief. 71. Leader, commander. Anto., 
subordinate, subaltern. 

Chiefly. adz>. Principally, mainly, mostly, 
eminently. Anto., secondarily, subsequently. 

Childhood. 71. Minority, infancy. A/tlo., 
majority, manhood. 

Childish, adj. 1. Young, juvenile, in¬ 
fantile. 2. Weak, trifling, silly. Anto., 1. 
Manful, experienced. 2. Strong, earnest, 
wise, sapient. 

Choice. 71 Selection, election, option, 
preference. 

Choke. z>. j. Suffocate, strangle, throttle. 
2. Stop, block, obstruct. A/tlo., 1. Breathe, 
animate. 2. Assist, help. 

Choose, v. Prefer, pick, select, elect. 

Circulate, v Propagate, disseminate, 
diffuse, spread. Anto., confine, stop, bound, 
retard. 

Circumspect, adj. Judicious, discreet, 
prudent, cautious, wary. Anto., imprudent, 
rash, foolish. 

Circumstance. 71. Incident, accident. 

Cite. v. 1. Quote, adduce. 2. Summon. 
Anto., 2. Discharge, release. 

Civil, adj. 1. Civic, municipal. 2. Ur¬ 
bane, obliging, courteous, polite, refined. 
Anto., 1. Rural, countrified. 2. Rude, boor¬ 
ish, impolite. 

Civility, n. 1. Courtesy, politeness, 
suavity. 2. Benefit, favor, kindness. A/ito., 

1. Discourtesy, asperity. 2. Unkindness, in¬ 
civility. 

Civilization. 71. Culture, cultivation, re¬ 
finement. Anto., barbarism, savagery, ignor¬ 
ance. 

Clad. 7'.,/./. Dressed, clothed, attired. 
Anto., naked, bare. 

Clandestine, adj. Concealed, hidden, 
sly, private. Atito., open, prominent, con¬ 
spicuous, advertised. 

Clasp, v. Grasp, clutch, gripe. Anto., 
loosen, open, unclasp. 

Clean. adj. Unsoiled, spotless, pure, im- 
maculate. Anto., impure, dirty, filthy, soiled, 
nasty. 

Clear, adj. 1. Transparent, bright, limpid. 

2. Fair, cloudless, serene. 3. Plain, lucid, 
perspicuous. 4. Patent, obvious, visible, evi¬ 
dent. Atito., 1. Opaque, dark. 2. Gloomy. 

3. Ambiguous, dubious. 4. Occult, hidden, 
obscure. 

Clear, v. Acquit, exonerate. Anto., con¬ 
vict. 

Clever, adj. 1. Skillful, apt, smart, quick, 
able. 2. Kind. Anto., stupid, clumsy, awk¬ 
ward, ignorant. 

Climb. 7’. Ascend, clamber, scramble. 
Anto., descend, go down, fall. 

Cling. 7>. Adhere, stick. Anto., loosen. 

Close, v. 1. Shut. 2. End, finish. Anto., 
1. Open. 2. Begin, commence. 

Clothes, n. Raiment, dress, attire,garb, 
costume, habiliments. Anto., nudity. 

Cloy. v. Surfeit, sate, satiate, glut. Atito., 
famish. 

Clumsy, adj. See Awkward. 

Coarse, adj. 1. Gross, vulgar. 2. Rude, 
uncivil, gruff. Anto., 1. Nice, polite. 2. Re¬ 
fined. 

Coax. 71. Flatter, wheedle, cajole. Anto., 
command, compel, force. 

Cogent, adj. Forcible, powerful, potent, 
convincing. Anto., weak. 

Cold. adj. 1. Cool, frigid, wintry. 2. Un¬ 
feeling, stoical. Anto., 1. Warm, tropical, 
fervid, hot. 2. Sensitive. 

Cold. n. Catarrh, cough. 

Collect, v. 1. Gather. 2. Accumulate, 
amass. Anto., scatter, disperse. 

Collection, n. 1. Crowd, gathering. 2. 
Accumulation, store, aggregation. 3. Con¬ 
tribution. 

Color, n. 1. Shade, tinge, tint, hue. 2. 
Pigment, paint. 


Combination, n. 1. Union, conjunction, 
2. Alliance. 3. Mixture. Anto., disunion, 
disconnection. 

Come. v. 1. Approach. 2. Arrive. Anto., 

1. Go. 2. Depart. 

Comely, adj. Handsome, pretty, sym¬ 
metrical. Anto., ugly, homely, dispropor¬ 
tionate. 

Comfort. v. Solace, cheer, console. 
Anto., discomfort, disease. 

Comical, adj. Droll, funny, humorous, 
ludicrous. Anto., solemn, serious. 

Commanding, adj. Imperative, authori¬ 
tative. 

Commence, v. Begin, originate. Anto., 
end, finish. 

Commend, v. 1. Intrust, commit. 2. 
Praise, extol, laud, eulogize. Anto., 1. Take 
from, withdraw. 2. Blame, censure, disap¬ 
prove. 

Comment, n. 1. Remark, observation. 

2. Note, explanation. 

Commercial, adj. Trading, mercantile. 

Commission, v. 1. Empower, author¬ 
ize. 2. Depute, delegate. 

Commodious, adj. Fit, suitable, con¬ 
venient. Anto., unfit, inconvenient. 

Commodities, n., pi. Wares, goods, 
merchandise, produce. 

Common, adj. 1. General. 2. Usual, 
habitual, customary. 3. Trite, stale, 4. Or¬ 
dinary, low. Anto., 1. Occasional,exceptional. 
2. Unusual. 3. Fresh. 4. Peculiar, extraor¬ 
dinary. 

Communication, n. Conference, con¬ 
versation, letter. 

Community, n. 1. Society, public, peo¬ 
ple. 2. Association, brotherhood. 

Companion, n. 1. Mate, comrade. 2. 
Partaker, sharer. 

Company. «. 1. Assembly, group,gather¬ 
ing. 2. Party. 3. Visitors. 4. Fellowship, 
society. 5. Corporation, firm. Anto., indi¬ 
vidual, personality. 

Compassion, n. Pity, tenderness, clem¬ 
ency. Anto , severity, harshness, cruelty. 

Compatible, adj. Consistent, consonant. 
Anto., incompatible, inconsistent. 

Compel, v. Force, coerce, drive. Anto.. 
cajole, coax, lead. 

Compendium. n. Compend, abridg 
ment. Anto., discourse, enlargement, aug¬ 
mentation. 

Compensation, n. Reward, recompense, 
satisfaction. Anto., loss, punishment, correc¬ 
tion. 

Competent, adj. 1. Able, qualified. 2. 
Adequate, fit. Anto., 1. Incompetent, feeble. 
2. Inadequate. 

Competition, n. Rivalry, contest, emu¬ 
lation. Anto., monopoly, combination. 

Complain, v. Murmur, grumble, lament. 
Anto., rejoice, jubilate. 

Compliment, n. Praise, commendation, 
encomium. Anto., insult, blame, detraction. 

Comply, v. Confirm, yield, submit. Anto., 
disobey, rebel. 

Compound, adj. Composite, complex. 
Anto., simple, uniform, plain. 

Comjiound. v. Mix, combine, intermin • 
gle. Anto., simplify, analyze, separate. 

Comprehend, v. 1. Comprise, include, 
embrace. 2. Grasp, see, understand, perceive. 
Anto., 1. Exclude. 2. Mistake, misapprehend. 

Comprise, v. Include, contain, embody, 
comprehend. Anto., exclude. 

Compulsion, n. Constraint, coercion. 
Anto., freedom, liberty. 

Compunction, n. Remorse, regret, sor¬ 
row, penitence. Anto., joy, gratulation, glad¬ 
ness, buoyancy. 

Compute, v. Reckon, calculate, estimate, 
count. 

Conceal. z>. T. Hide, secrete, cover, screen. 

2. Disguise, dissemble. Anto., 1. Reveal, un¬ 
cover, display. 

Concede, v. 1. Yield, surrender. 2. 
Grant, admit. Anto., 1. Rebel, repel. 2. 
Deny. 

Conceit, n. Vanity, egotism. Anto., 
humility, meekness. 

Concert, n. 1. Concord, harmony. 2. 
Musical entertainment. Anto., 1. Discord. 


/ 


a 





































FT 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


679 


Concise, adj. Short, brief, curt, laconic, 
terse. Anto., verbose, discursive, lengthy. 

Conclude, v. 1. Decide, determine. 2. 
End, finish, terminate. Anto., 1. Differ, dis 
agree. 2. Begin, commence. 

Concur, v. Agree, coincide, join. Anto 
disagree. 

Concussion, n. Clash, shock. 

Condemn, v. Blame, censure, reprove 
disapprove. Anto., acquit, exonerate, excul 
pate, clear, justify. 

Conduct. 71. 1. Management. 2. Behavior 
deportment, demeanor. 

Confess, v. 1. Admit, grant, concede. 
Acknowledge, avow. A/ilo., deny, traverse. 

Confidence. n. 1. Faith, trust, belief. 
Assurance, courage. Anto., 1. Distrust, in 
credulity. 2. Timidity. 

Conflict. 71. Contest, struggle, fight 
battle. 

Confound, v. Amaze, perplex, bewilder 
stupefy, dumbfound. 

Confusion. 71. 1. Jumble, disarray, dis 

order. 2. Tumult, commotion. 3. Shame 
abashment. Anto., 1. Order, array. 2. Quiei 
3. Pride, hauteur, self-possession. 

Congenial, adj. Suited, adapted, agree 
able. A/ito., unsuited, uncongenial. 

Conjecture, n. Guess, supposition, sur 
mise. Anto., demonstration, proof. 

Conjugal. adj. Matrimonial, nuptiai 
bridal, connubial. Anto., celibate. 

Connoisseur. 71. Critic, judge. Anto. 
ignoramus. 

Connubial, adj. See Conjugal. 

Conquer, v. Overcome, vanquish, sub 
due, checkmate, master, subject, crush. A/ito. 
fail, yield, give up, surrender. 

Consanguinity. 71. Kindred, relation 
ship. 

Consideration. 77. 1. Cause, reason 

ground, motive. 2. Attention, deliberation 
Anto., 2. Inattention. 

Consistent, adj. Accordant, compatible 
Anto., inconsistent, discordant. 

Conspicuous, adj. 1. Prominent, emi 
nent. 2. Visible, apparent. Anto., 1. Un 
known, lowly. 2. Obscure, hidden. 

Constrain, v. 1. Compel, coerce, force 
2. Curb, restrain. A/ito., 1. Cajole, coax. 2 
Loosen, liberate. 

Construct, -v. 1. Fabricate, erect, build 
raise. 2. Make, form, frame, institute. Auto. 

1. Overturn. 2. Destroy. 

Consume, v. Devour, expend, waste 
destroy. Anto., build up, save, keep. 

Contagious, adj. 1. Catching, infectious 

2. Poisonous, deadly, pestilential. Anto. 
2. Healthy, wholesome. 

Contaminate. v. Defile, sully, pollute 
A/ilo., clean, whiten, clear. 

Contempt. 71. Scorn, disregard, disdain 
Anto., regard, liking, admiration. 

Contemptible, adj. Mean, base, despica 
ble, abject. Anto., lofty, noble, honorable. 

Contentment, n. ' Ease, satisfaction 
Anto., discontent, sorrow, melancholy. 

Contest. 71. See Conflict. 

Contingent, adj. Uncertain, conditional 
Anto., sure, certain, fixed. 

Continual. adj. Endless, unceasing 
perpetual, eternal. A/ito., intermittent 
broken. 

Contract, n. Bargain, compact, agree 
ment, stipulation. 

Contrary, adj. 1. Opposite, counter, ad 
verse. 2. Conflicting, repugnant. 3. Per 
verse, stubborn, obstinate. A/ito.,\. Similar 
2. Unanimous. 3. Agreeable. 

Control, v. Direct, regulate, manage 
govern. 

Convenient, adj. Suitable, appropriate 
useful. Anto., unsuitable, wrong. 

Conversation, u. Talk, dialogue, collo 
quv. Anto., silence. 

Convertible. adj. Interchangeable 
Anto., unchangeable, immovable. 

Conveyance. 77. 1. Transfer, alienation 

deed. 2. Carriage. 

Convict, v. Condemn, find guilty. Anto. 
acquit, exculpate, exonerate. 

Convince, v. Satisfy, persuade. Anto. 
dissuade. 


Convivial, adj. Jovial, jolly, festive 
A77to., gloomy, sad, thoughtful. 

Cool. adj. 1. Not warm. 2. Collectec 
calm, dispassionate. A/7to., 1. Warm. 
Excited, enthused. 

Copy. -v. 1. Transcribe. 2. Imitate. Anto 
originate. 

Cordial. adj. Sincere, warm, hearty 
heartfelt, ardent. A/ilo., heartless, cold, de 
ceitful. 

Correct, adj. Right, true, accurate, fault 
less. Anto., wrong, erroneous, faulty. 

Correspondent, adj. Answerable, suit 
able. A/7to., unsuitable, unfit. 

Cost. 77. Expense, charge, price. 

Counsel. 77. 1. Counsellor, attorney, ad 

vocate, barrister, lawyer. 2. Opinion, advice 
admonition, recommendation. 

Counterfeit, adj. 1. Forged, spurious 
2. Sham, feigned, simulated. Auto., 1. Gen 
uine, real. 2. Sincere, actual. 

Couple. 71. Pair, brace. 

Courage. 77. Bravery, spirit, valor, hero 
ism, fearlessness. Anto., cowardice, timidity 
fear. 

•Courtesy, n. Civility, urbanity, polite 
ness. Anto., rudeness, boorishness. 

Covenant, n. See Contract. 

Covert, adj. Secret, disguised, hidden 
concealed. Anto., open, displayed, shown. 

Covetousness, n. Stinginess, avarice 
parsimony, penuriousness. A/7to., generosity 
liberality. 

Cowardice, n. Fear, timidity, poltroon 
ery, pusillanimity. A7ito., courage, bravery 
valor. 

Coy. adj. Shy, bashful, reserved, demure 
modest. Anto., bold, brazen, shameless. 

Crack. 77. 1. Crevice, chink, cranny 

opening, breach, fissure. 2. Explosion, re 
port. 

Crafty, adj. Shrewd, cunning, artful 
astute, subtle, tricky. Anto., simple, artless 
ingenuous. 

Cravat, n. Necktie, neck-cloth, necker 
chief. 

Crave, v. 1. Beg, beseech, solicit, en 
treat, implore. 2. Desire. Anto., 1. Give, of 
fer, confer. 2. Disdain. 

Crazy, adj. 1. Insane, mad, lunatic. 2 
Ricketty, tottering. Anto., 1. Sane. 2. Strong 
stalwart. 

Create, v. 1. Cause, produce, originate 
2. Make, constitute. Anto., destroy. 

Credit, n. 1. Trust, belief, faith, confi 
dence. 2. Esteem, reputableness, regard. 3 
Honor, merit. Anto., discredit, incredulity 

Creditable, adj. Reputable, honorable 
Anto., dishonorable, shameful. 

Credulous, adj. Unsuspecting, super 
stitious, gullible. Anto., knowing, disbeliev 
ing, doubtful. 

Creed. n. Belief, doctrines, dogmas 
Anto., skepticism, heterodoxy. 

Crestfallen. adj. Discouraged, dis 
heartened, depressed, dejected. Anto., en 
couraged, emboldened, determined. 

Crisis. 77. 1. Height, acme. 2. Emer¬ 

gency, exigency, strait, pinch. 

Criterion, n. Measure, test, standard. 

Croak, v. Murmur, grumble, complain. 
A7ito., rejoice, congratulate. 

Crooked, adj. 1. Bent, curved, awry, 
distorted. 2. Dishonest, knavish, unfair, un¬ 
scrupulous. Anto., 1. Straight. 2. Honest, 
fair, honorable. 

Cross, adj. Captious, peevish, petulant, 
fretful, snappish. A/7to., agreeable, good- 
humored. 

Cruel, adj. Pitiless, unmerciful, inhuman, 
barbarous, brutal, savage. A/ito., kind, piti¬ 
ful, merciful, human. 

Cube. 77. Die, a regular solid with six 
equal square sides. 

Cultivation. 77. 1. Culture, civilization, 

refinement. 2. Tillage. Anto., desolation, 
desert. 

Cure. 71. 1. Remedy, restorative, correc¬ 

tive. 2. Healing, restoration. A/ito., 1, 
Poison. 2. Relapse. 

Curious, adj. 1. Prying, inquisitive. 2. 
Rare, unique, queer. Anto., 1. Uninterested, 
careless. 2. Common, ordinary, usual. 


Current, adj. 1. Present, existing. 2. 
Common, general, rife. Anto., 1. Past. 2. 
Rare, unique, singular. 

Curse, n. Imprecation, execration, male¬ 
diction. Anto., blessing, benison. 

Cursory, adj. Superficial, hasty, careless, 
desultory. Anto., thorough, careful, exact. 

Curtail, v. Retrench, reduce, shorten, 
abridge, decrease. Anto., increase, augment, 
lengthen. 

Custody, n. Care, keeping, watch, pro¬ 
tection. 

Custom, n. 1. Usage, practice, habit. 2. 
Tax, impost, duty, tribute. 

Cynical, adj. Morose, carping, sarcastic, 
snarling, satirical. Anto., agreeable, jovial, 
companionable. 


Daily, adj. Diurnal, quotidian. Anto., 
irregular, disordered. 

Dainty, adj. 1. Nice, delicate, savory, 
delicious. 2. Squeamish, fastidious. 3. Ele¬ 
gant, fine. Anto., 1. Nasty, tasteless, bitter. 

2. Careless, slovenly. 3. Coarse. 

Dalliance. «. Fondling, caressing, en¬ 
dearment. 

Damage, v. Mar, harm, hurt, impair, 
injure. Anto., help, strengthen, defend. 

Dampness, n. Moisture, humidity, damp. 
Anto., dryness, aridity. 

Damsel, n. Lass, miss, maid, maiden, 
girl. Anto., lad, boy, youth, young man. 

Danger, n. Risk, venture, hazard, peril, 
jeopardy. Anto., safety, security. 

Daring, adj. Courage, bravery, valor, 
intrepidity. Anto., cowardice, fear, timidity. 

Dark. adj. 1. Cloudy, rayless, murky, 
shady, unilluminated. 2. Gloomy, dismal. 3. 
Wicked, foul, atrocious. 4. Obscure, mys¬ 
tical, mysterious. Anto., bright, light. 3. 
Honest, fair. 4. Open, intelligible. 

Date. n. Time, period, age, era, epoch. 

Dead. adj. 1. Inanimate, lifeless, breath¬ 
less, defunct. 2. Dull, frigid, obtuse, callous. 

3. Useless, unprofitable. Anto., 1. Live, 
breathing. 2. Attentive, active, sharp. 3. 
Useful. 

Deadly, adj. 1. Deleterious, destructive, 
noxious, fatal, mortal. 2. Rancorous, im¬ 
placable. Anto., wholesome, healthy. 

Dear. adj. 1. Beloved, darling, precious. 
2. Costly, high-priced, expensive. Anto., 1. 
Hated, despised, loathed. 2. Cheap, low, 
common. 

Debase, v. See Abase. 

Debate, v. Discuss, canvass, argue, dis¬ 
pute, contest. 

Deceitful, adj. Deceptive, illusive, de¬ 
lusive, fallacious. Auto., truthful, plain, 
open, honest, correct. 

Deceive, v. Delude, over-reach, fool, 
trick, cheat, gull, dupe. _ 

Decide, -v. Determine, conclude. Anto., 
differ, disagree. 

Declaration, n. Assertion, averment, 
avowal, affirmation, asseveration. Anto., de¬ 
nial, negative. 

Decorate, v. Deck, adorn, ornament, 
embellish, beautify. Anto., spoil, spot. 

Decorum. 77. Propriety, decency. Anto., 
impropriety, misbehavior. 

Decoy, v. Tempt, allure, entice, inveigle, 
seduce. Anto., repel, warn, advise. 

Decrease, v. Diminish, lessen. Anto., 
increase, augment, replenish. 

Decree, n. Order, mandate, fiat, edict. 

Deduct. v. Separate, subtract, take 
away. Anto., add, increase, augment. 

Defame, v. Asperse, calumniate, slam 
der, vilify. Anto., praise, glorify, celebrate 
defend. 

Defeat, v. 1. Beat, conquer, overcome 
rout. 2. Balk, disappoint, baffle, foil, frus 
trate. 

Defect, n. 1. Flaw, blemish, imperfec 
tion. 2. Fault, failing. Anto., perfection 
improvement, beauty. 

Defend, v. 1. Guard, shield, protect. 2 
Uphold, maintain, vindicate. Anto., 1. Ex 
pose. 2. Asperse, slander, defame. 

Defer. v. Adjourn, delay, postpone. 
Anto., push, force, expedite. 


N 


19 


" 


(5 


o 








































68 o 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Deference, n. Regard, respect, rever¬ 
ence, homage. Anio., disrespect, irreverence, 
contumely. 

Definite, adj. Certain, determined, exact, 
precise. Anto., uncertain, indefinite, vague. 

Defraud, z>. Cheat, gull, over-reach. 

Defy. v. Brave, dare, disregard, despise. 
Anto., submit, humiliate, concede. 

Deity, n. Divinity, Godhead, God. Anto., 
Devil. ’ ’ 

Dejected, adj. Depressed, disheartened, 
despondent. Anto., joyous, mercurial, glad. 

Delay, v. Dinger, stop, procrastinate. 
Anto., hasten, expedite. 

Delectable, adj. Pleasant, agreeable, de- 
lightful. Anto., abominable, despicable, 
nasty. 

Delegate, n. Commissioner, represen¬ 
tative, deputy. 

Delicious, adj. Delicate, palatable, lus¬ 
cious. . Anto., bitter, nauseous. 

Delightful, adj. Charming, enchanting, 
ravishing. Anto., displeasing. 

Delinquent, n. Offender, wrong-doer, 
culprit, criminal. 

Delirium, n. \\ andering, hallucination, 
derangement. 

Delude. . See Deceive. 

Demand, v. Require, claim, exact. Anto., 
give, offer, relinquish. 

Demolish, ■v. Destroy, overthrow, level, 
ruin. Anto., build, construct, raise. 

Demonstrate. v. Show, establish, 
prove. 

Demonstration, n. Proof, manifesta¬ 
tion. 

Demoralize, v. Corrupt, deprave, vitiate. 
Anto., reform, rescue. 

Denote, v. Imply, signify, indicate, 
mark, designate. 

Deny. v. i. Contradict, gainsav. 2. Dis¬ 
own, disavow, abjure. 3. Withhold. Anto., 
avow, admit, concede. 

Depart, v. 1. Go, start, leave, set out. 
2. Vanish, disappear. Anto., 1. Come, re¬ 
turn. 2. Emerge, appear. 

Dependence, n. Reliance, trust, confi¬ 
dence^ Anto., independence. 

Depict, v. 1. Describe. 2. Delineate, 
portray, pencil, paint. 

Deplore, v. Lament, mourn, bewail, 
bemoan. Anto., rejoice, congratulate, cele¬ 
brate. 

Deportment, n. Demeanor, behavior 
carriage, conduct. 

Deprecate, v. Regret. Anto., desire, 
commend. 

Depreciate, v. 1. Underrate, undervalue, 
lessen the.price of. 2. Censure, degrade, tra¬ 
duce, malign. Anto., 1. Overrate. 2. Praise, 
vindicate. 

Depress. . y. 1. Lower, drop, sink. 2. 
Deject, dispirit, chill. 3. Debase, humiliate. 
Anto., 1. Elevate, raise. 2. Encourage, r. 
Exalt. 6 6 

Derange, v. Confuse, displace, unsettle, 
disorder. Anto., arrange. 

Descend, v. 1. Fall, drop, sink, go down. 

2. Dismount. Anto., ascend. 

Design, n. 1. Sketch, outline, plan, 
draught. 2. Intent, aim, purpose, object, 
scheme. 

Designate, v. 1. Name, call, style, de¬ 
nominate. 2. Denote, indicate, show, specify 

3. Appoint. 

Desire, v. 1. Ask, request. 2. Wish, 
want, fancy, covet, crave. 

Desolation. n. 1. Gloom, sadness, 
wretchedness, misery. 2. Ruin, destruction. 
Anto., joy, pleasure, happiness. 

Despair, n. Desperation, despondency, 
hopelessness. Anto., hope, cheerfulness. 

Despicable, adj. Mean, pitiful, con¬ 
temptible, abject. Anto., elevated, generous, 
praiseworthy. 

Despotic, adj. Absolute, arbitrary, im¬ 
perious, tyrannical. Anto., free, democratic, 
constitutional. 

Destiny, n. 1. Fate, necessity. 2. Lot, 
doom, fortune, fate. 

Destroy, v. 1. Consume, waste, devour, 
desolate. 2. Demolish, overthrow, subvert. 


3. Annihilate, extirpate, eradicate, kill. Anto., 
create, build, call together, construct. 

Detach. v. Separate, sever, disjoin. 
Anto., join. 

Detain, v. Restrain, confine, delay, re¬ 
tain. Anto., hasten, expedite, send away. 

Detect. v. Descry, discover, expose. 

Determine, v. 1. Settle, end, decide, 
conclude. 2. Lead, influence, induce. 3. As¬ 
certain, verify. Anto., 1. Begin, commence, 
unsettle. 2. Follow. 3. Falsify, negative. 

Detraction, n. Censure,slander,calumny, 
defamation. Anto., praise, commendation. 

Develop, v. Unfold, open, evolve,grow. 
Anto., close, end, wither, wilt, droop. 

Devil, n. 1. Satan, Belial, Lucifer, arch¬ 
enemy, the tempter, the adversary, the prince 
of darkness. 2. Demon. Anto., God, Deity. 

Devoid, adj. Empty, destitute, vacant, 
void. Anto., full, complete, overflowing. 

Dexterous, adj. Adroit, skillful, handy, 
apt, clever. Anto., awkward, unskillful, 
boorish, rough. 

Diction. n. Expression, phraseology, 
language, style. 

Dictionary, n. 1. Lexicon, glossary, 
vocabulary. 2. Encyclopedia. 

Die. -v. Expire, decease, wither, perish. 
Anto., live, breathe, flourish, grow. 

Different, adj. 1. Various, manifold, 
unlike, diverse. 2. Separate, distinct. Anto., 
similar, alike, homogeneous. 

Difficult, adj. Arduous, hard, herculean. 
Anto., easy, facile. 

Digest, n. Compend, abstract, brief, epi¬ 
tome. 

Dilemma, n. Strait, predicament, quan¬ 
dary. 

Diligence, n. Activity, industry, perse¬ 
verance, assiduity. Anto., idleness, laziness, 
lassitude, languor. 

Diminish, v. See Decrease. 

Direction, n. 1. Order. 2. Address, su¬ 
perscription. 3. Course, bearing. 

Disaffection, n. Breach, disagreement, 
dissatisfaction, estrangement, alienation. 

Disagree. v. 1. Quarrel, wrangle, bicker. 
2. Dissent, differ, vary. Anto., 1. Conciliate, 
pacify. 2. Agree, equate. 

Disappear, -v. Vanish, pass, fade, dis¬ 
solve. Anto., appear, emerge, come into 
view. 

Disapproval, n. Disapprobation, dis¬ 
like, displeasure. Anto., approbation, liking, 
pleasure. 

Disarrange. v. Unsettle, derange. 
Anto., order, marshal, fix. 

Disbelief, n. Incredulity, distrust, doubt, 
skepticism, infidelity. Anto., faith, belief, 
trust. 

Discomfort, v. Annoy, trouble, disturb, 
molest. Anto., comfort, ease, quiet, pacify, 
calm. 

Discontent, n. Uneasiness, disquietude, 
dissatisfaction. Anto., comfort, ease, quiet, 
peace, contentment. 

Discourtesy, n. Incivilitv, impoliteness, 
rudeness. Anto., courtesy, breeding, good 
manners, behavior. 

Discredit, n. 1. Distrust. 2. Disrepute, 
obloquy. Anto., 1. Credit. 2. Reputation, 
standing. 

Discuss, v. Canvass, sift, argue, ventilate, 
debate. 

Disease, n. Ailment, complaint, illness, 
sickness, malady. Anto., health. 

Disgrace, v. Degrade, debase, sully, 
stain, dishonor. Anto., exonerate, exculpate, 
clear, release, justify, vindicate. 

Dishonest, adj. Unfair, false, knavish, 
fraudulent. Anto., honest, reputable, right, 
proper, trusty, sincere, candid. 

Dislike, n. Aversion, antipathv, repug¬ 
nance, disgust. Anto., liking, admiration, 
love, regard. 

Dismiss, v. Discharge, discard, turn off. 
Anto., receive, take back. 

Disoblige, v. Discommode, offend, dis¬ 
please. Anto., oblige, favor. 

Dispassionate, adj. Sober, calm, tem¬ 
perate, composed, imperturbable. Anto., pas¬ 
sionate, stormy, disturbed. 


Display, v. 1. Exhibit, show. 2. Un 
fold, open, spread. Anto., hide, concea 
cover, close. 

Displease, v. 1. Dissatisfy, offend, dis 
gust. 2. Anger, irritate, affront. Anto 
please, comfort, ease, quiet. 

Disregard, v. Overlook, slight, neglec 
contemn. Anto., regard, favor, notice, watch 
oversee. 

Dissembler, n. Feigner, hypocrite. 

Dissipate, v. 1. Lavish, squander 
waste. 2. Dispel, scatter. Anto., 1. Save 
economize. 2. Gather. 

Dissolute, adj. See Abandoned. 

Distant, adj. 1. Remote, far. 2. Re 
served, coy, shy, cold. Anto., 1. Near, close 
2. Bold, shameless, impudent. 

Distress, n. 1. Suffering, pain, anguish 
agony. 2. Adversity, trouble. 3. Want, in 
dfgence, poverty. Anto., 1. Pleasure, ease 
contentment. 2. Happiness. 3. Wealth, af 
fluen ce. 

Distrust, n. Mistrust, suspicion, dis 
credit, disbelief. Anto., trust, confidence, re 
liance. 

Diversity, n. 1. Variation, unlikeness 
difference. 2. Variety. Anto., sameness 
likeness, homogeneity. 

Docile, adj. Apt, tractable, teachable 
Anto., intractable, savage, untamable. 

Doleful. adj. I. Melancholy, woeful, 
sad, sorrowful. 2. Dolorous, gloomy. Anto. 
joyous, bright, happy. 

Domestic, adj. Homely, tame. Anto. 
exoteric, extraneous, foreign, wild. 

Doubt, n. 1. Suspense, irresolution, un 
certainty. 2. Suspicion, mistrust. Anto. 
x. Foreknowledge, resolution, certainty. 2 
Confidence. 

Drag. v. Draw, pull, haul, tug. 

Dread. n. Fear, awe, apprehension 
Anto., courage, boldness, valor. 

Dreadful, adj. Awful, frightful, fearful 
direful, horrible, terrible. 

Droll. adj. 1. Odd, queer. 2. Comic, 
funny, farcical. Anto., 1. Usual, ordinary 
2. Solemn, funereal. 

Droop, v. 1. Decline, fail, languish. 2 
Fade, wilt, wither. Anto., 1. Rise, succeed 
2. Bloom, blossom, grow, wax. 

Dull. adj. 1. Stupid, shallow. 2. Inert 
sluggish. 3. Blunt, obtuse. 4. Gloomy. Anto. 

1. Knowing, deep. 2. Active. 3. Sharp, 
shre»vd. 4. Bright. 

Dunce, n. Simpleton, fool, ninny, idiot, 
dolt, oaf, dullard. Anto., sage. 

E 

Eager, adj. 1. Zealous, ardent, impetuous. 

2. Impatient, longing, yearning. Anto., 1. 
J.ukewarm. 2. Patient. 

Earn. v. 1. Gain, obtain, get, acquire, 
win. 2. Merit, deserve. Anto., squander. 

Easy. adj. Light, not difficult. 2. Quiet, 
comfortable. 3. Unconstrained. Anto., 1. 
Difficult. 2. Uneasy. 3. Confined. 

Eccentric, adj. Odd, peculiar, erratic, 
anomalous, aberrant. Anto., usual, ordinary, 
commonplace. 

Ecstacy. n. 1. Delight, rapture, trans¬ 
port. 2. Enthusiasm. Anto., despair, sorrow, 
torture. 

Educate, v. Train, discipline, instruct, 
school, teach. Anto., ignore. 

Efface, v. Cancel, blot, erase, expunge, 
obliterate. Anto., rewrite, strengthen. 

Effective, adj. 1. Active, effectual. 2. 
Sufficient, cogent, energetic, forcible, potent. 
Anto., ineffectual, idle, slow, weak. 

Effectual, adj. See Effective. 

Egotistical, adj. Conceited, self-impor¬ 
tant, selfish. Anto., humble, lowly, gener¬ 
ous. 

Elevate, v. 1. Exalt, promote. 2. Raise, 
lift. 3. Improve, refine, ennoble. 4. Animate, 
cheer, elate. Anto., depress, lower, vulgarize, 
deaden,sadden. 

Embarrass, v. 1. Disconcert, confuse, 
confound. 2. Distress, hamper, clog. 

3. Perplex. Anto., assist, help, explain. 

Embolden, v. Inspirit, reassure, animate 

encourage. Anto., abash, confuse. 







































\ 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


68l 


Emergency, n. Strait, difficulty, exi¬ 
gency, necessity, crisis. 

Eminent. adj. Exalted, remarkable, 
prominent, conspicuous, distinguished. Auto., 
obscure, lowly, meek, humble. 

Emotion, n. Feeling, excitement, agita¬ 
tion, passion. Anto., calm, quiet, ease. 

Employment, n. Engagement, occu¬ 
pation, pursuit, avocation, business. Anto., 
idleness, leisure. 

Encourage. See Embolden. 

Endless. adj. i. Unlimited, boundless, 
illimitable, infinite. 2. Eternal. Anto., lim¬ 
ited, ephemeral. 2. Finite, mortal. 

Energetic, adj. Active, forcible, strong, 
vigorous, powerful. Anto., feeble, weak, en ¬ 
ervated. 

Enervate, v. Weaken, enfeeble, break, 
debilitate, paralyze. Anto., invigorate, nerve, 
strengthen. 

Engagement, n. 1. Emplovment. 2. 
Encounter, battle. 3. Promise, pledge, assur¬ 
ance, contract. 

Engross, -v. Occupy, absorb, engage, 
monopolize, forestall. Anto., vacate, empty. 

Enhance, v. 1. Raise, heighten, swell, 
advance. 2. Augment, increase. Anto., 
lower, recede, reduce. 

Enjoyment, n. Gratification, delight, 
pleasure, happiness. Anto., sorrow, sadness, 
grief. 

Enlarge. See Augment. 

Enmity, n. Animosity, aversion, hostil¬ 
ity, hatred, malevolence. Anto., friendship, 
kindliness, love, admiration. 

Ennoble, v. See Elevate. 

Ennui. n. Listlessness, irksomeness, 
tedium, languor, lassitude. Anto., liveliness, 
vigor, enjoyment, buoyancy. 

Enterprise, n. 1. Attempt, undertaking, 
endeavor, venture. 2. Energy. 

Entertain. -v. Divert, amuse, please. 
Anto., sadden, make gloomy. 

Enthusiasm, n. Earnestness, devotion, 
zeal, ardor. Anto., frivolity, ennui, luke¬ 
warmness. 

Entice, v. See Allure. 

Entreat, v. Petition, ask, beseech, im¬ 
plore, pray, supplicate. 

Enumerate, v. Number, count, reckon, 
numerate. 

Ephemeral, adj. Short-lived, transitory, 
living but a day. Anto., eternal, endless. 

Epicure, n. Gourmand, sybarite, sensu¬ 
alist, voluptuary. Anto., ascetic, stoic. 

Epithet. n. Name, designation, appel¬ 
lation. 

Equable. adj. Even, regular, steady, 
equal, uniform. Anto., eccentric, unequal, 
rugged. 

Equestrian, n. 1. Rider, horseman. 2. 
Chevalier, chasseur, knight, cavalier. Anto., 
pedestrian, infantry, footman. 

Equitable, adj. 1. Fair, reasonable, 
justifiable, right. 2. Just, honest, impartial. 
Anto., unjust, unreasonable, wrong, dis¬ 
honest. 

Equivocate. v. Lie, shuffle, dodge, 
quibble, prevaricate. 

Error, n. 1. Oversight, mistake, blunder. 
2. Transgression, fault, offence, sin. 

Erudition. n. Learning, knowledge, 

lore, science, scholarship. Anto., ignorance. 
Eschew, v. Avoid, shun. Anto., seek. 
Espouse, -v. 1. Marry, wed. 2. Betroth. 

Anto., divorce. 

Establish, v. 1. Organize, found, insti¬ 
tute, fix, plant, settle. 2. Prove. 3. Confirm, 
ratify. Anto.,\. Overthrow, destroy, unsettle. 
2. Disprove. 3. Deny, refuse. 

Esteem, n. 1 . Honor, respect, reverence. 
2. Valuation, opinion. Anto., contempt, 
irreverence. 

Eternal. See Endless. 

Evasion, n. Quibble, shift, subterfuge, 
equivocation. 

Evening. n. Dusk, twilight, eve, even, 
nightfall. Anto., morning, dawn, aurora. 

Event, n. 1. Occurrence, incident, acci¬ 
dent. 2. Conclusion, result, consequence. 

Ever. adj. 1. Evermore, always, aye, 
perpetually, eternally. 2. At any time. Anto., 
never. 


Evident, adj. Apparent, obvious, clear, 
palpable, manifest. Anto., obscure, hidden. 

Exalt, v. 1. Glorify, bless, praise, extol, 
magnify. 2. Raise, erect, elevate. 3. Dignify, 
ennoble. Anto., 1. Execrate. 2. Lower. 3. 
Abase. 

Exasperate, v. Irritate, vex, offend, pro¬ 
voke, incense, anger, enrage. Anto., soothe, 
mollify, pacify, please. 

Excellent, adj. 1. Choice, prime, ster¬ 
ling, matchless, superior. 2. Good, virtuous, 
worthv. Anto., bad, low. 2. Villainous, 
worthless. 

Excel, v. Surpass, beat, outdo, exceed. 
Anto., fail, fall behind. 

Excerpt, n. Citation, extract, quotation. 
Exc ulp ate. v. Excuse, justify, pardon, 
clear, exonerate. Anto., convict, indict, ar 
raign, blame. 

Excursion, n. Ramble, jaunt, trip, tour, 
journey. 

Excuse, n. 1. Plea, justification, apology. 
2. Guise, color, pretext, pretence. 

Execute. See Accomplish. 

Exegesis, n. 1. Exegetics, explanation, 
exposition, interpretation. 

Exercise, v. Practice, pursue. 2. Drill, 
train, discipline. 3. Exert, use, apply. _ Anto., 
rust, decay, degenerate, become sluggish. 

Exhale. v. Breathe, evaporate, emit. 
Anto., inhale, inspire. 

Exhilarate, v. Animate, gladden, cheer, 
elate, inspirit. Anto., depress, discourage, 
deject, dampen, chill. 

Exigency. See Emergency. 

Exonerate. See Acquit and Exculpate. 
Expectation, n. Prospect, anticipation, 
confidence, hope, trust, reliance. Anto., sud¬ 
denness, abruptness, fear, dismay. 

Expedite, v. Quicken, hurry, hasten, 
accelerate, speed. Anto., delay, retard, clog, 
bar. 

Expense, n. Outlay, charge, expenditure, 
cost. 

Experience, n. 1. Knowledge, wisdom. 
2. Practice. Anto., 1. Ignorance. 2. Inexper¬ 
ience. 

Experiment, v. Proof, test, trial, ex¬ 
amination, assay. 

Explain, v. Expound, illustrate, unfold, 
interpret, elucidate. Anto., confuse, muddle, 
darken. 

Expound. See Explain. 

Expression, n. 1. Phrase, term, utter¬ 
ance, declaration. 2. Look, appearance, as¬ 
pect. 

Extend, v. 1. Expand, augment, dilate, 
enlarge, protract, prolong,. 2. Yield, offer. 
Anto., 1. Abridge, shorten, lessen. 2. Take, 
receive. 

Extraordinary, adj. Uncommon, sig¬ 
nal, rare, unusual, remarkable. Anto., com¬ 
mon, usual, customary. 

Extravagant . Adj. 1. Wasteful, lavish, 
profuse, prodigal. 2. Wild, absurd. • 3. Un¬ 
reasonable, inordinate, preposterous. Anto., 

1. Stingy, miserable, close. 2. Probable, 
credible. 3. Common, ordinary, customary. 

Extricate, v. Relieve, dear, disentan¬ 
gle. Anto., involve, entangle. 

Exuberate, adj. Full, copious, liberal, 
lavish. Anto., empty, vacant, scarce. 

F 

Fable, n. 1. Tale, novel, romance, myth. 

2. Falsehood, fiction, fabrication, lie. Anto., 
history. 2. Truth, verity, fact. 

Facetious, adj. Sportive, waggish, jo- 
cose, jocular. Anto., serious, gloomy, sat¬ 
urnine. 

Fail. v. 1. Miss, miscarry. 2. Omit, neg¬ 
lect. 3. Decay, wane, decline. 4. Break. 
Anto., accomplish, succeed. 2. Perform. 3. 
Grow, strengthen. 4. Mend. 

Faithful. adj. 1. Constant, loyal, true. 
2. Reliable, truthful. 3. Close, strict. Anto., 
faithless, deceitful. 

Faithless, adj. Perfidious, treacherous, 
false. Anto., faithful. 

False, adj. :. Untrue. 2. Deceptive, 
fallacious, spurious, counterfeit. 3. Incor¬ 
rect. Anto., 1. True. 2. Real, genuine, act¬ 
ual. 3. Correct. 


Family, n. 1. Class, race, lineage, tribe. 

2. Household. 3. Order. Anto., individual. 

Fascinate, v. Charm, catch, captivate, 
bewitch, enamor. Anto., alarm, dismay, dis¬ 
enchant, intimidate. 

Fast. n. 1. Abstinence, fasting. Anto., 
feast, gorge. 

Fate. n. 1. Fatality, destiny, lot, doom. 
Anto., chance. 

Feast, n. 1. Festival, holiday. 2. Enter¬ 
tainment, banquet, carousal. Anto., fast, 
abstinence. 

Feeble, adj. 1. Weak. 2. Languid, 
sickly, frail, debilitated. Anto., strong, ener¬ 
getic, stalwart. 

Feeling, n. 1. Affectation, sensibility, 
emotion. 2. Sensation, touch. Anto., cal¬ 
lousness, hard-heartedness. 

Feminine. adj. 1. Delicate, soft, 
womanly. 2. Effeminate. Anto., 1. Coarse, 
hard. 2. Masculine. 

Fervor, n. 1. Eagerness, ardor, zeal. 2. 
Warmth. Anto., laziness, apathy. 

Festival, n. See Feast. 

Feudal, adj. Feodal, military (tenure.) 
Anto., allodial, democratic. 

Fickle, adj. Changeable, unstable, vari¬ 
able, capricious, inconstant. Anto., faithful, 
constant, immutable. 

Final, adj. 1. Conclusive, decisive. 2. 
Ultimate, last. Anto., opening, beginning. 

Fine. adj. 1. Nice, refined. 2 . Little, 
small, minute. 3. Excellent. 4. Handsome, 
beautiful, elegant. 5. Delicate. 6. Light. 
Anto., coarse, large, mean, ugly. 

Finish, v. 1. Conclude, end, terminate. 
2. Perform, accomplish, complete. 3. Per¬ 
fect. Anto., 1. Begin, open. 2 and 3. De¬ 
stroy, tear down. 

Firmness, n. 1. Strength, stability. 2. 
Solidity, hardness. Anto., 1. Weakness. 2. 
Softness, penetrability. 

Flag. n. Standard, colors, ensign, ban¬ 
ner. 

Flashy, adj. Gay, airy, jaunty, showy, 
tawdry, ostentatious, flaunting. Anto., som¬ 
bre, solemn. 

Flattery, n. 1. Adulation, fawning, ser¬ 
vility, sycophancy, obsequiousness. 2. Com¬ 
pliment. Anto., blame, objection, disap¬ 
proval, detraction. 

Flavor, n. 1. Taste, smack, savor. 2. 
Smell, odor, fragrance. Anto., tastelessness. 

Flaw. n. 1. Fracture, crack. 2. Speck, 
spot, fault, imperfection, defect, blemish. 
Anto., 1. Whole, solid. 2. Perfect, immacu¬ 
late, clear. 

Flimsy, adj. 1. Thin, slight. 2. Trivial, 
feeble, weak, frivolous, shallow. Anto., \. 
Strong, stalwart. 2. Worthy, good, earnest, 
deep. 

Fluctuate, v. 1. Waver, vacillate. 2. 

Oscillate. 

Fluency, n. Flow, glibness, volubility. 
Anto., silence, taciturnity. 

Fondness, n. 1. Liking, partiality. 2. 
Love, tenderness. Anto., hate, dislike. 

Food. n. Victuals, viands, fare, subsist¬ 
ence, aliment, nu4riment. 

Fool. See Dunce. 

Foppish, adj. Dandified, coxcombical, 
dandyish. Anto., slovenly, untidy. 

Forcible, adj. 1. Vigorous. 2. Strong, 
potent, cogent, powerful. 3. Violent. Anto., 
feeble, weak, puny. 

Forego, v. Resign, yield, surrender, re¬ 
linquish, abandon. Anto., take, receive, de 
m and. 

Foresight. n. Prudence, precaution, 
anticipation, forecast, prescience. Anto., 
imprudence, rashness. 

Forethought, n. See Foresight. 
Forgive, v. Excuse, absolve, pardon, 
acquit. Anto., avenge, charge, indict, impli¬ 
cate, accuse. 

Formidable. adj. Dreadful, tremen¬ 
dous, terrible, shocking. Anto., small, ri¬ 
diculous, puny. 

Forsake, v. Abandon, quit, desert, re¬ 
nounce, forswear. Anto, cleave. 

Forswear, v. 1. Renounce, forsake, de¬ 
sert. 2. Recant, abjure. Anto., subscribe. 















































682 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Fortitude, n. Resolution, firmness, en¬ 
durance. Anto., weakness. 

Fortune. n. j. Chance, luck, fortuity. 

2. Property, estate, riches, wealth. 3. Des¬ 
tiny, lotj fate, doom. Anto., 2. Poverty. 

Fragile. adj. Weak, feeble, frail, frag- 
ible. Anto., strong. 

Fragrance, n. Aroma, perfume, balmi¬ 
ness, incense. Anto., stench, effluvia. 

Frail, adj. See Fragile. 

Frank, adj. Open, sincere, artless, can¬ 
did. Anto., artful. 

Fraud, 71. Cheat, deception, collusion, 
guile. Anto., honesty. 

Freak, n. Fancy, humor, crotchet, va¬ 
gary, whim, caprice. Anto., purpose, res¬ 
olution. 

Free. adj. 1. Unrestrained, unobstruct¬ 
ed. 2. Gratuitous, willing. 3. Frank, sin¬ 
cere, artless. 4. Generous, liberal. Anto., 

1. Slavish. 2. Costly. 3. Artful. 4. Stingy. 

Free. v. 1. Clear, rid. 2. Release, lib¬ 
erate, emancipate. Anto., bind, enslave. 

Freeze, v. 1. Congeal. 2. Chill, be¬ 
numb. Anto., melt. 

Fretful. adj. Captious, waspish, splen- [ 
etic, snappish, petulant. Anto., equable, 
good-humored. 

Frivolous, adj. See Flimsy. 

Frugality. n. Carefulness, economy, 
thrift. Anto., extravagance, wastefulness. 

Fruitful, adj. 1. Fecund, prolific, pro¬ 
ductive. 2. Plenteous. Anto., sterile, fruit¬ 
less, unproductive. 

Fruitless, adj. Rarren, sterile, unpro¬ 
ductive. 2. Futile, useless. Anto., fruitful. 

Frustrate, v. Balk, baffle, defeat, foil, 
disappoint. Anto.. expedite. 

Fully, adj. Wholly, entirely, completely. 
Anto., partly. 

Furniture, n. 1. Effects, goods, mov¬ 
ables, chattels. 2. Apparatus. 3. Decorations, 
ornaments. 

Futile, adj. 1. Useless, fruitless, vain, 
idle. 2. Frivolous, trifling. Anto., 1. Fruit¬ 
ful. 2. Earnest. 

c 

Gage. n. 1. Challenge. 2. Pawn, secur¬ 
ity, pledge. 

Gain. n. Advantage, benefit, profit, 
emolument. Anto., loss. 

Gain. v. Get, secure, win, earn, achieve, 
obtain, procure. Anto., lose. 

Gang. n. Band, party, set, company, 
coterie. Anto., individual. 

Garb. 71. Dress, habit, attire, apparel. 
Anto., nudity, nakedness. 

Garble, v. Falsify, misquote, mutilate. 
Anto., restore, verify. 

Garrulity, n. Babble, talkativeness, lo¬ 
quacity. Anto., taciturnity. 

Gathering, n. Meeting, company, as¬ 
sembly, concourse. 2. Earning, acquisition. 

3. Abscess. 

Gaudy, adj. See Flashy. 

Gawky, adj. See Awkward. 

Generous, adj. Liberal, bountiful, mag¬ 
nificent, noble. Anto., 1. Stingy. 2. Mean. 

Gentle. adj. 1. Bland, lenient, kind, ' 
mild, humane. 2. Docile, tame, quiet, tract¬ 
able. Anto., rough. 

Genuine, adj. 1. True, authentic, un¬ 
alloyed^ 2. Unaffected,sincere. Anto., false. 

Giddiness, n. Dizziness, vertigo. 

Giddy, adj. 1. Dizzy. 2. P’ickle, unsta¬ 
ble. 3. Flighty, careless, heedless. Anto., 
sedate, balanced. 

Gift. n. 1. Endowment, talent, faculty, 
genius. 2. Present, donation, offering, grat¬ 
uity} contribution, subscription, douceur. 

Gigantic. adj. Huge, vast, colossal. 
Anto., small, mean, little. 

Gingerly, adv. Dainty, careful, cau¬ 
tious, fastidious. Anto., rash, careless. 

Girdle. 71. Band, cincture, belt, cestus, 
zone. 

Glad. adj. 1. Pleased, gratified, rejoiced. 

2. Cheerful, joyous. 3. Gratifying. Anto., 
sad, sombre. 

Gloomy, adj. 1. Dull, obscure, dismal, 
dusky, lowering. 2. Depressed, dejected, 
sad. Anto., bright, joyful. 


Go. v. 1. Move, advance, proceed. 2. 
Depart. 3. Extend. 4. Fare. 5. Lend, con¬ 
tribute. Anto., come. 

Go. interj. Avaunt, begone. 

God. n. Lord, Creator, Almighty, Omni¬ 
potence, Providence, Jehovah. 

Good Nature, n. Kindness, amiability, 
benevolence, benignity. Anto., malevolence, 
rudeness. 

Goods. 71., fl. 1. Wares, merchandise. 
2. Chattels, furniture. 

Grandeur. 71. Greatness, sublimity. 2. 
Dignity, state, magnificence, majesty. Anto., 
humility. 

Graiit. v. 1. Concede, admit. 2. Give, 
bestow, vouchsafe. 3. Transfer, convey. 
Anto., take. 

Grateful. adj. 1. Obliged, beholden, 
thankful. 2. Palatable, cordial, delicious, 
refreshing. 3. Pleasant, agreeable, delightful. 
Anto., ungrateful. 

Gratify, v. Indulge, humor, delight, sat¬ 
isfy, please. Anto., displease. 

Great. adj. 1. Bulky, big, large, huge, 
vast. 2. Noted, distinguished, eminent, ex¬ 
alted, illustrious. 3. Noble, magnanimous. 

4. Numerous. Anto., small. 

Greedy, adj. Gluttonous, rapacious, in¬ 
satiate, ravenous, voracious. Anto., gener¬ 
ous, unselfish. 

Grief, n. Distress, sorrow, regret, afflic¬ 
tion, tribulation, woe, anguish. Anto., joy. 

Gruff, adj. Blunt, harsh, rough, rude, 
churlish. Anto., polite. 

Grumble, v. Croak, murmur, complain, 
growl. Anto., rejoice. 

Guard, v. Protect, watch, shelter, shield, 
defend. Anto., attack, harass. 

Guarded, adj. Careful, watchful, cau¬ 
tious, wary. Anto., unguarded. 

Guidance. n. Lead, conduct, direction, 
government. A/ilo., following. 

Guile, n. Artifice, duplicity, deceit, sub¬ 
tlety, cunning, craft, fraud. Anto., honesty, 
simplicity. 

Guiltless, adj. Innocent, blameless, spot¬ 
less, pure, immaculate. Anto., guilty. 

Guilty, adj. Culpable, sinful, criminal. 
Anto., guiltless. 

Gyrate, v. Whirl, rotate, revolve. 

H 

Hail. v. Greet, welcome, salute. 

Hale. adj. Sound, strong, healthy, hardy, 
hearty, robust. Anto., feeble. 

Handsome, adj. 1. Comely, fair, pretty, 
beautiful. 2. Ample, plentiful. 3. Generous, 
magnanimous, noble. Anto., ugly. 

Happiness. 71. Enjoyment, bliss, beat¬ 
itude, felicity. Anto., sorrow. 

Harass, v. 1. Worry, vex, plague, tease, 
trouble, distress. 2. Fag, exhaust, jade. 
Anto., please, comfort, protect. 

Hard. adj. 1. Compact, solid, impene¬ 
trable. 2. Knotty, difficult. 3. Arduous, 
laborious. 4. Unfavorable. 5. Callous, cruel. 
Anto., soft. 

Hasten, v. Accelerate, dispatch, speed, 
quicken, expedite. Anto., hinder, delay. 

Hate. v. Detest, abominate, loathe, ab¬ 
hor. Anto., love. 

Hate. 71. Enmity, antipathy, hostility, 
detestation, hatred. Anto., love. 

Haughty, adj. Lofty, proud supercil¬ 
ious, arrogant. Anto., modest. 

Head-strong, adj. Unruly, dogged,stub¬ 
born, obstinate. Anto., reasonable, judicious. 

Heal. ■v. 1. Remedy, cure, restore. 2. 

Settle, reconcile. Anto., 1. Hurt, wound. 2. 
Unsettle, disrupt. 

Healthy, adj. Well, sound, hale, vigor¬ 
ous. Anto., sickly. 

Hearken, v. Attend, listen, hear. 

Hearty, adj. See Hale. 

Heart-broken, adj. Desolate,wretched, 
disconsolate, inconsolable. Anto., joyous, 
happy. 

Heartless, adj. Unkind, cruel, cold, piti¬ 
less. Anto., cordial, kind. 

Heavenly, adj. 1. Angelic, divine, god¬ 
like. 2. Celestial. Anto., Mundane. 

Heedless, adj. Careless, thoughtless, inat¬ 
tentive, negligent. Anto., careful. 


Heighten, v. 1. Raise, elevate, exalt. 2. 
Increase, enhance. 3. Intensify. Anto., 
lower, decrease. 

Hell. 71. Hades, purgatory, Gehenna. 
Anto., heaven. 

Helpful. adj. Useful, beneficent, con¬ 
venient. Anto., helpless. 

Helpless, adj. Weak, feeble, infirm, power¬ 
less, impotent, imbecile. Anto., strong, help¬ 
ful. 

Herculean, adj. See Strong, Difficult. 

Heroic, adj. 1. Bold, valiant, brave, cour¬ 
ageous, noble, dauntless. 2. Epic. Anto., 

1. Cowardly. 

Hesitation. 71. Doubt, suspense, uncer¬ 
tainty, vacillation. Anto., determination. 

Hideous, adj. Dreadful, frightful, horrible, 
appalling, ghastly. Anto., beautiful. 

Highwayman, n. Robber, bandit, bri¬ 
gand, road-agent, marauder. 

Hinder, v. Stop, impede, retard, check, 
thwart. Anto., hasten. 

Hint. n. Allusion, suggestion, intimation, 
insinuation. 

Holiday. «. Festival, anniversary, cele¬ 
bration. Anto., fast-day. 

Holy. adj. 1. Good’pious, religious, de¬ 
vout, pure, saintly, godly. 2. Hallowed, 
sacred. Anto., wicked, bad. 

Home. n. Abode, domicile, residence, 
dwelling. 

Homely, adj. 1. Plain, coarse, uncomely. 

2. Domestic, homelike. 3. Ugly. Anto., 
beautiful, handsome. 

Honest, adj. 1. Equitable, right, proper, 
honorable. 2. True, faithful, just, upright, 
trustworthy. 3. Candid, sincere. Anto., dis¬ 
honest, inequitable. 

Honor, n. Credit, esteem. 2. Respect, 
homage. 3. Distinction, dignity. 4. Integ¬ 
rity, nobility, probity. Anto., dishonor. 

Honor, t. Dignify, exalt. 2. Observe, 
celebrate. 3. Respect,’ reverence, venerate. 
Anto., abase. 

Hope. v. Believe, trust, desire, expect. 
Anto., despair. 

Hostile, adj. 1. Adverse, opposite, con¬ 
trary, repugnant. 2. Unfriendly. Anto., 
amicable, friendly. 

Hostility. 71. See Hate. 

Hot. adj. 1. Fiery. 2. Pungent, biting, 
acrid. 3. Glowing, ardent, fervid. 4. Pas¬ 
sionate, irascible, impetuous. Anto., cold, 
cool. 

Hue. n. Tint, tinge, shade, color. 

Huge. adj. See Gigantic. 

Humane, a. Kind, charitable, benevo¬ 
lent, gentle, tender. Anto., cruel. 

Humility, n. Modesty, meekness, lowli¬ 
ness, humbleness. Anto., grandeur. 

Humorous, adj. Funny, witty, jocular, 
jocose, facetious. Anto., serious. 

II urry. v. See Hasten. 

Hurry, n. 1. Haste, dispatch, prompti¬ 
tude, celerity. 2. Bustle, flutter, precipita¬ 
tion. Anto., hinder, delay. 

Hypocrisy, n. 1. Deceit, dissimulation, 
imposture. 2. Cant, pharisaism, sanctimo¬ 
niousness. Anto., openness, truth, candor. 

Hypocrite, n. 1. Cheat, pretender, im¬ 
postor, dissembler. 2. Pharisee, canter. 

Hypothesis, n. Theory, supposition. 

I 

Ideal, adj. Fancied, unreal, shadowy, im¬ 
aginary. Anto., real. 

Idleness, n. Inactivity, inertness, lazi¬ 
ness, sloth. Anto., labor. 

Ignorance, n. Darkness, blindness, 
nescience, illiteracy. Anto., knowledge. 

Ill-bred. adj. Uncourtly, uncouth, un¬ 
polished, impolite, rude. Anto., polite. 

Illustrious, adj. 1. Bright, glorious. 2. 
Famous, celebrated, eminent, renowned. 
Anto., 1. Dim. 2. Unknown, infamous. 

Immoderate, a. Unreasonable, extrava¬ 
gant, inordinate, excessive. Anto., moder¬ 
ate. 

Imperious, adj. See Despotic. 

Impetuous, adj. Hasty, precipitate, pas¬ 
sionate, violent, vehement, furious. Anto., 
calm. 





























V 


Importance, n. Moment, weight, con¬ 
cern, significance, consequence. Auto., 
frivolity. 

Impression, n.. i. Stamp, impress. 2. 
Idea, notion. 3. Effect, sensation, in¬ 
fluence. 

Improve, v. 1. Mend. 2. Progress. 3. 
Rise, increase. Anto., deteriorate, lessen. 

Imprudent, adj. Incautious, indiscreet, 
injudicious, careless, rash. Anto., cautious. 

Impure, adj. 1. Unclean,dirty, foul, filthy. 
2. Coarse, gross, immodest, indecent, 06- 
scene, vulgar, lewd. Anto., pure. 

Inability, n. 1. Incompetency, inca¬ 
pacity, inefficiency, impotence. 2.'Disabil¬ 
ity, disqualification. Anto., ability. 

Inaccurate, adj. Inexact, incorrect, erro¬ 
neous. Anto., accurate. 

Inapt, adj. Unfit, unsuitable, inappropri¬ 
ate, inapposite. Anto., suitable, meet. 
Incapacity, n. See Inability. 
Incompatible, adj. Unadapted, incon¬ 
gruous, inconsistent, unsuitable. Anto., 
compatible. 

Incompetent, adj. i. Unable, incapable. 

2. Disqualified, incapacitated, unfit. 3. In¬ 
sufficient. Anto., able, fit, sufficient. 

Inconsistent, adj. 1. Contrary. See In¬ 
compatible. 

Incontinence, n. Unchastity, wanton¬ 
ness, lechery, lewdness, lasciviousness. Anto., 
chastity. 

Inconvertible, adj. Unchangeable, un¬ 
alterable, not convertible. Anto., change¬ 
able. 

Incorrect, adj. 1. Faulty. 2. Inaccurate, 
inexact, erroneous, false, untrue. Anto., 
correct. 

Indefinite. adj. Undefined, indistinct, 
unsettled, doubtful, uncertain, loose. Anto., 
definite. 

Independence, n. Liberty, freedom, 
self-direction. Anto., dependence. 

Individual, n. Being, person, character. 
Anto., band, community. 

Ineffectual, adj. 1. Feeble, weak, power¬ 
less. 2. Inoperative, unavailing, useless, 
abortive. Anto., effectual. 

Inequitable, adj. Unfair, unjust, dis¬ 
honorable. Anto., equitable. 

Inexperience, n. Ignorance, greenness, 
rawness. Anto., experience. 

Ingenuous, adj. Honest, frank, candid, 
artless, guileless. Anto., crafty. 

Inharmony, n. Discord, harshness, dis¬ 
sonance, discordance. Anto., concert. 

Innocent, adj. 1. Harmless, innocuous. 2. 
Clean, guiltless, spotless, immaculate. Anto., 
Guilty. 

Insanity, n. See Lunacy. 

Inspire, v. 1. Inhale. 2. Infuse, instil. 

3. Cheer, animate, inspirit. Anto., 1. Respire. 
3. Discourage. 

Instruction, n. 1. Direction, mandate. 

2. Discipline, teaching, training, education. 

3. Counsel, precept. 

Insult, n. Affront, indignity, offence, 
outrage. Anto., apology, favor. 

Integrity, n. Honesty, honor, rectitude, 
probity, virtue. 2. Completeness, entirety. 
Anto., dishonesty. 

Intellect, n. Mind, sense, brains, reason, 
understanding. Anto., body. 

Intemperance, n. Excess, dissipation. 
Anto., temperance. 

Intense, adj. 1. Extreme, excessive. 2. 
Severe, close, strained. 3. Ardent, earnest. 
Anto., slight, frivolous. 

Intercede, v. Mediate, plead, arbitrate, 
interpose. Anto., demand, require. 

Intermission, n. Pause, rest, suspen¬ 
sion, stop, interruption. Anto., continuation. 

Intermit, v. Subside, abate, cease. Anto., 
continue, persist. 

Interpose, v. 1. Remark. 2. Mediate, 
arbitrate, intercede. 

Interpret, v. Construe, render. 2. De¬ 
fine, explain, elucidate, decipher. 

Interrogate, v. Ask, examine, question, 
catechize. Anto., answer. 

Interval, n. Season, term, space, spell, 
period. Anto., continuation. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Intervening, adj. Interjacent, interme¬ 
diate, interposed. 

Intimidate, v. Daunt, frighten, alarm, 
scare, terrify. Anto., embolden, encourage. 

Intoxication, n. Drunkenness, inebriety, 
inebriation. Anto., temperance, sobriety. 

Intrepid, adj. Brave, daring, valorous, 
bold, dauntless. Anto., cowardly. 

Intrinsic, adj. 1. True, genuine, essential, 
real. 2. Inherent, inborn, native. Anto. 1. 
Counterfeit. 2. Alien, foreign. 

Introductory, adj. Preliminary, prefa¬ 
tory. 

Intrude, v. 1. Obtrude. 2. Trespass, 
infringe, encroach. Anto., eject, expel, pro¬ 
trude. 

Intrust, v. Consign, deliver, commit, 
confide. Anto., distrust. 

Invade, -v. 1. Assault, attack, assail. 2. 
Infringe. Anto., repel. 

Invalid, adj. 1. Weak. 2. Null, void. 
Anto., valid. 

Invalid, n. Valetudinarian, sick person. 

Invective, n. 1. Abuse, contumely. 2. 
Satire, sarcasm, lampoon. Anto., panegyric. 

Invent, v. 1. Devise. 2.Fabricate. 3. Im¬ 
agine, originate, concoct. Anto., copy, fol¬ 
low. 

Invest, v. 1. Put at interest. 2. Array, 
clothe, dress. 

Investigation, n. Scrutiny, examination, 
inquisition, inquiry. 

Invigorate, v. Animate, fortify, strength¬ 
en. Anto., weaken. 

Invincible, adj. Unconquerable. 2. In¬ 
surmountable, insuperable. Anto., vincible. 

Invite, v. 1. Bid, summon,ask, request. 
2. Attract, entice allure. Anto., reject, 
delay, provoke. 

Involve, v. Include, embrace. 2. En¬ 
tangle, implicate. 3. Entwine, interweave. 
Anto., simplify, analyze. 

Irksome, adj. Weary, tiresome, tedious, 
wearisome. Anto., pleasant. 

Irony, n. Banter, mockery, raillery, ridi¬ 
cule. Anto., praise. 

Irrational, adj. 1. Brutish. 2. Unwise, 
silly, unreasonable, absurd. Anto., rational. 

Irrefragible. adj. Undeniable, irrefut¬ 
able, indubitable, incontestable. Anto., 
dubious. 

Irritate, v. Fret, nettle, incense, pro¬ 
voke, exasperate. Anto., soothe. 

Irruption, n. Inroad, foray, raid, in¬ 
cursion. 

Issue, n. 1. Offspring, children, prog¬ 
eny. 2. Conclusion, outcome, result. 3. 
Outlet, exit. Anto., return, inlet. 

Itinerant, adj. Wandering, nomadic, rov¬ 
ing, travelling. Anto., homely, settled. 


J 

Jade. v. Fatigue, weary, tire, fag, ex¬ 
haust. Anto., invigorate. 

Jealousy, n. Suspicion, apprehension. 
Anto., confidence. 

Jest. n. Quip, crank, joke, sally, witti¬ 
cism. 

Jocose, adj. Droll, witty, comical, spor¬ 
tive, facetious. Anto., serious. 

Jocund, adj. Joyful, blithe, jolly, gay, 
buxom. Anto., sad, gloomy. 

Join. v. 1. Combine, unite, couple. 2. 
Annex, add, attach. Anto., separate. 

Joke. 11. See Jest. 

Jollity, n. Merriment, gayety,fun, frolic, 
hilarity. 

Journey, n. Excursion, trip, expedition, 
travel, tour. 

Joy. n. Happiness, bliss. 2. Delight, 
gladness, glee, ecstacy, transport. Anto., 
sorrow. 

Joyous, adj. Glad, happy, gleeful, joyful, 
jolly. Anto ., sad. 

Judgment, n. 1. Opinion, decision, esti¬ 
mate. 2. Sense, discernment, sagacity, wis¬ 
dom. 

Just. adj. 1. Exact, correct, true. 2. 
Merited, deserved. 3. Equitable. 4. Honest, 
fair, upright. Anto., Unjust, unfair, fraud¬ 
ulent. 


683 


Justice, n. 1. Right, fairness, equity. 2. 
Judge. Anto., injustice. 

Justify, v. Warrant, defend, exculpate, 
vindicate. Anto., 'criminate. 

Justness. 11. 1. Fairness, right, equity. 

2. Accuracy, propriety. Anto., 1. Criminality. 
2. Impropriety. 

Juvenile, adj. Childish, puerile, young, 
youthful. Anto., manly. 


K 

Keen. adj. 1. Shrewd, sagacious, astute. 

2. Earnest, zealous. 3. Severe, poignant, 
caustic. 4. Sharp. Anto., dull. 

Keep. v. 1. Retain. 2. Fulfil, observe. 

3. Support, maintain. 4. Preserve, con^ 
tinue. 5. Celebrate. Anto., dispense, dis¬ 
tribute. 

Kind. adj. Good, clement,humane, gentle, 
sympathetic, tender, affectionate. Anto., 
cruel, unkind. 

Kingly, adj. Royal, august, imperial, re¬ 
gal. Anto., plebeian. 

Knowledge. n. 1. Learning, lore, 
scholarship, erudition. 2. Notice. 3. Per¬ 
ception, judgment. Anto., ignorance. 

L 


Labor, n. 1. Toil, work, effort, drud¬ 
gery. 2. Child-birth, parturition. Anto. 
Idleness. 

Lack. n. Need, deficiency, scarcity, in- 
sufficiencv. Anto., plenty. 

Lament, v. Mourn, grieve, weep. Anto., 
rejoice. 

Lancinate. v. Sever, mangle, tear, lacer¬ 
ate. Anto., heal, join. 

Land. n. Soil, ground, earth, real prop ■ 
erty. 

Landscape, n. Prospect, view, rural 
scene. 

Language, n. Speech, expression, ver¬ 
nacular, dialect, tongue. 

Languish, v. 1. Faint, wither, fade, 
droop. 2. Look tender. Anto., invigorate, 
strengthen. 

Larceny, n. Theft, pilfering, thievery, 
stealing. 

Large, adj. 1. Bulky, big, great. 2. Broad, 
extensive. 3. Full, abundant. Anto., small. 

Lascivious, a. Loose, unchaste, lustful, 
lewd, lecherous. Anto., chaste, pure. 

Last. adj. 1. Latest. 2. Ultimate, final. 
3. Hindmost. 4. Extreme. Anto., first. 

Last. adv. The last time. 

Last. v. Remain, continue, endure. Anto., 
perish, dissolve. 

Latent, adj. Secret, unseen, veiled, con¬ 
cealed. Anto., patent. 

Laugh, n. Laughter, cachinnation, roar, 
guffaw. Anto., sigh. 

Laughable, adj. Droll,ridiculous, farci¬ 
cal, comical. Anto., solemn. 

Lavish, adj. Extravagant, wasteful, pro¬ 
fuse. Anto., niggardly. 

Lavish, v. Dissipate, waste, squander. 

Law. n. 1. Rule, regulation, statute, enact¬ 
ment, ordinance. 2. Formula. 3. Code. 4. 
Jurisprudence. Anto., lawlessness. 

Lawful, adj Legal, legitimate, constitu¬ 
tional. Anto., unlawful. 

Lawyer, n. Attorney, counsellor, advo¬ 
cate, counsel. 

Lazy. adj. Idle, dronish, sluggish, inac¬ 
tive, slothful. Anto., active, nimble. 

Lead. n. Direction, guidance, leader¬ 
ship. Anto., following. 

League, n. Combination, alliance, con • 
federacy, union. Anto., disunion, separa- 
tion. „ 

Lean. -v. Incline. 2. Bear, recline, rest. 
3. Tend. 

Leave. «. Allowance, permission, license, 
liberty. Anto., prohibition. 

Lecture, n. Lesson, discourse, prelec¬ 
tion. 

Legacy, n. Gift, bequest, devise. 

Legal, adj. See Lawful. 

Legible, adj. Fair, readable, plain. Anto., 
illegible. 


f 






























1 


684 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Leisure. ti. Spare time. Anto., occupa¬ 
tion. 

Lengllion. v. I. Extend, protract, pro¬ 
long, continue. 2. Stretch, elongate. Anto., 
shorten. 

Leniency. 77. Tenderness, mercy, mild¬ 
ness, clemency. Anto., cruelty. 

Letter, n. Note, epistle. 2. Alphabeti¬ 
cal character. 

Levity, n. Frivolity, giddiness, flighti¬ 
ness. Anto., sobriety. 

Liberality, n. 1. Bounty, generosity, 
beneficence, charity. 2. Toleration, candor. 
Anto., closeness, meanness. 

Liberate, v. Discharge, emancipate, re¬ 
lease. Anto., arrest. 

Lie. 71. Fib, untruth, falsehood. A/ito., 
truth. 

Lie. v. 1. Falsify. 2. Recline. 3. Rest, 
remain. Anto., 1. Verify. 

Life. 71. 1. Vitality. 2. Existence. 3. 

Memoir, biography. Anto., death. 

Light. 71. 1. Daylight, sunrise. 2. Illum¬ 
ination. 3. Instruction. 4. Window. Anto., 
darkness. 

Light, adj. j. Buoyant. 2. Easy. 3. Por¬ 
ous. 4. Unburdened. 5. Trifling, small. 6. 
Flimsy. 7. Airy, gay. Anto., heavy. 

Like. adj. Resembling, same, similar. 
Anto., unlike, 

Like. v. Choose, prefer, list, elect. Anto., 
dislike. 

Liking. 71. Choice, preference, par¬ 
tiality. Anto., impartiality. 

Limited, adj. Confined, bounded, restrain¬ 
ed, defined, restricted, circumscribed. A/ilo., 
unlimited. 

Lineage. 71. Race, house, family, ances¬ 
try, line. 

Link. v. Conjoin, tie, bind, connect, 
unite. A/ilo., loosen. 

Liquidation. 71. Adjustment, discharge, 
settlement, payment. 

Little, adj. 1. Small, diminutive, minute, 
tiny. 2. Scanty, inconsiderable. Anto., 
noble, large. 

Live. adj. 1. Existing, alive, living. 2. 
Alert, enterprising. A/ito., dead. 

Live. v. 1. Exist. 2. Endure, con¬ 
tinue. 3. Abide, dwell, reside. 4. Subsist. 
A/ilo., die. 

Lively, adj. 1. Agile, quick, nimble. 2. 
Sprightly, blithe, joyous. 3. Vigorous, pi¬ 
quant, strong. 4. Vivid. A/ito., slow, slug¬ 
gish, languid. 

Loathsome, adj. Offensive, disgusting, 
appalling, revolting. Anto., delectable, pleas¬ 
ant. 

Lofty, z. High. 2. Dignified, sublime. 
3. Haughty, proud, arrogant. A/ito., humble, 
modest. 

Lonely, adj. 1. Companionless, lone, 
solitary. 2. Secluded, lonesome, isolated. 
A/ito., crowded. 

Loosen, v. 1. Relax. 2. Loose, release. 
Anto., tighten, tie, bind. 

Lordly, adj. Dignified, maiestic, lofty- 
2. Proud, haughty. Anto., meek, lowly, 
humble. 

Lose. v. 1. Miss, forfeit. 2. Waste, squan¬ 
der. Anto., 1. Find. 2. Gain, earn. 

Loss. 71. Deprivation, privation, for¬ 
feiture, waste, damage, detriment, destruction. 
A/ito., gain, profit. 

Love. v. Like. Anto., hate. 

Love. 71. Affection, attachment, fond¬ 
ness, liking. Anto., hate. 

Low. adj. 1. Depressed. 2. Mean, ab¬ 
ject, disreputable. 3. Cheap. A/ito., 1. High. 
2. Proud, worthy. 3. Dear. 

Loyal, adj. Faithful, true. Anto., dis¬ 
loyal, traitorous. 

Lucid, adj. 1. Clear, transparent, pel¬ 
lucid, distinct, plain, bright, shining. Anto., 
ambiguous, opaque, sombre. 

Luck. 77 . Chance, hap, fortune, fate. 

Lunacy. 77. Derangement, madness, in¬ 
sanity) craziness. Anto., sanity. 

Luxuriate, v. 1. Revel, wanton. 2. Flour¬ 
ish. Anto., 1. Chasten. 2. Wither. 


M 

Maceration, n. Soaking, softening, 
steeping. Anto., drying. 

Machination, 77. Plot, stratagem, in¬ 
trigue, conspiracy. Anto., artlessness. 

Mad. adj. l. Crazy, delirious, insane. 
2. Enraged, frantic, violent. Anto., 1, Sane. 
2. Pacified. 

Magic, n. Enchantment, sorcery, necro¬ 
mancy. 

Magnanimous, adj. See Noble, Lofty. 

Magnificence. 71. Grandeur, splendor, 
eclat. A 7 ito., squalor, poverty. 

Main. adj. Principal, leading, chief. 
Anto., subordinate, secondary. 

Majority. 71. 1. Manhood, full age. 2. 

Greater number. Anto., minority. 

Malefactor. 77. Culprit, criminal, felon, 
convict. 

Malice, n. Spite, rancor, hate, venom, 
malignity. Anto., love, benevolence, benig¬ 
nity. 

Mammoth, adj. Sec Large. 

Manly, adj. Manful, brave, stout, strong, 
bold, noble, heroic. Anto., effeminate. 

Manifest, adj. Clear, apparent, patient, 
obvious, plain, glaring. A/ito., hidden, ob¬ 
scure, occult. 

Manners. 71. Breeding, behavior, de¬ 
portment, habits, morals. A/ito., misbe¬ 
havior, vulgarism. 

Marry, v. Espouse, wed, take for hus¬ 
band or wife. A/ito., divorce. 

Mask. v. Disguise, shroud, screen, veil, 
hide, cliak. Anto., display. 

Matchless, adj. Excellent, inimitable, un¬ 
rivaled, peerless, incomparable. Anto., com¬ 
mon, ordinary. 

Matrimony. 71. Wedlock, marriage, 
nuptial state. A 7 ito., spinsterhood, bachelor¬ 
hood. 

Mean. v. 1. Purpose, intend, design. 2. 
Denote, imply, signify. 

Mean. adj. 1. Average, middle, medium. 
2. Miserly, stingy, base, surly, grumbling, 
poor, petty, wretched. A/ilo., 1. Extreme. 2. 
Noble, lofty. 

Meek. adj. Modest, humble, mild, gentle, 
submissive. Anto., bold. 

Meekness. 71. Modesty, humility, gentle¬ 
ness, mildness, submissiveness. A/ito., 
boldness, hardihood. 

Melancholy. 71. Depression, gloom, sad¬ 
ness, dejection, despondency. A 7 ito., joy, 
buoyancy. 

Memory, n. 1. Remembrance, recol¬ 
lection. 2. Reputation, renown, fame. Anto., 
forgetfulness, oblivion. 

Mental, adj. Ideal, rational, intellect¬ 
ual, metaphysical. Anto., physical. 

Mercy, n. Mildness, compassion, clem¬ 
ency, lenity. Anto., harshness, implaca¬ 
bility. 

Meritorious, adj. Good, worthy, deserv¬ 
ing, excellent. Anto., unworthy. 

Merry, adj. Gay, gleeful, mirthful, 
joyful, hilarious. Anto., sad, sorrowful. 

Mighty, adj. 1. Able, strong, puissant. 
2. Effective, forcible. 3. Immense, vast, 
stupendous. A 7 ito., feeble, small. 

Mind. 71. l. Reason, intellect, under¬ 
standing. 2. Inclination, desire. 

Minority, n. 1. Nonage, infancy, pupil¬ 
age, childhood. 2. Smaller number. Anto., 
majority. 

Misadventure, n. Misfortune, mishap, 
reverse, mischance. Anto., adventure. 

Mischief. 77. 1. Trouble. 2. Detriment, 
harm, hurt, evil, injury. A/7I0., benefit, ad¬ 
vantage, utility. 

Miserable, adj. 1. Depressed, unhappy, 
affected, forlorn. 2. Abject, mean, value¬ 
less. Ai 7 to., happy, lucky, lofty. 

Moderate, adj. 1. Mild, judicious, rea¬ 
sonable. 2. Frugal, sparing. A 77 to., im¬ 
moderate, extravagrant. 

Modern, adj. Late, new, novel, recent. 
Anto., ancient, old. 

Modest, adj. 1. Humble, unpretend¬ 
ing. 2. Moderate. 3. Chaste, pure. A/ 7 to., 
bold, lofty, immodest. 


Morality. «. 1. Goodness, virtue. 2. 

Ethics, morals. A 77 to., immorality. 

Morbid, adj. Unsound, sickly,unhealthy, 
vitiated. A/ 7 to., sound, healthy. 

Morning. 77. Daybreak, dawn, forenoon. 
Anto.. evening. 

Mortal, adj. Deadly, fatal. 2. Human, 
Anto., immortal. 

Mortal. 77. Human, man. Anto., immor¬ 
tal. 

Mundane, adj. Worldly, earthly, ter¬ 
restrial. Anto., heavenly. 

Murmur, n. 1. Whisper, muttering. 2. 
complaint. A/7I0. 1. Shout. 2. Commen¬ 

dation. 

Muse. v. Think, contemplate, reflect, 
ponder, meditate, brood. 

Music. 77. Harmony, symphony, melody, 
science of harmonics. 

Mutual . adj. Interchanged, reciprocal, 
correlative. Anto , sole, solitary. 

Mystify, v. Puzzle, perplex, baffle, be¬ 
wilder, pose. Anto., clear, explain. 

N 

Naked, adj. 1. Nude, bare, undressed. 
2. Defenceless, unprotected. 3. Sheer, sim¬ 
ple. Anto., clad, covered. 

Natural. 1. Regular normal. 2. Native, 
original, characteristic. A/ilo., unnatural. 

Near, adj Close nigh, adjacent 2. 
Familiar, allied, intimate. 3. Impending, 
imminent. Anto., far. 

Nerve. t. Brace, fortify, strengthen, 
invigorate. A77to., weaken. 

Never, adv. Not ever. Anto., ever, alwavs. 

New. adj. Fresh, novel. 2. Modern, 
recent. Anto.. old, ancient. 

Nice. adj. 1. Precise, exact, critical. 2. 
Subtle, fine. 3 Delicate, dainty, delicious. 
Anto , 1. Careless. 2 Coarse. 3. Unpleasant. 

Niggardly, adj. Mean, mercenary, stingy, 
miserly, illiberal, avaricious. Anto., gener¬ 
ous, open. 

Nimble, adj. Quick, agile, alert, spright¬ 
ly. Anto., slow, lazy. 

Noble, adj. 1. D gnified, worthy, superior, 
exalted. 2. Grand, magnificent. Anto., ig¬ 
noble. 

Noise. 77. Sound, din, clatter, uproar, 
clamor. Anto., silence. 

Nominate, a Name, propose,designate. 

Note. 7/. 1. Minute, memorandum. 2. Com¬ 
ment, remark. 3. Celebrity, renown. 4. Bill, 
promissory note. 

Note. v. 1. Record. 2. Notice, observe, 
heed. 3. Denote, designate. 

Noted, adj. See llt/istr/ 07 is. 

Notion. 77. See Idea. 

Notorious, adj. 1. Conspicuous. 2. Open, 
obvious, well-known. A>/lo., unknown. 

Novel, adj. See New. 

Novel. 77. Tale, story, romance, fiction. 

Noxious, adj. Harmful, hurtful, dele¬ 
terious, baleful, deadly. Anto., wholesome. 

Number. ». 1. Numeral, figure, digit. 

2. Multitude, many. 

Nuptials. 77. Wedding, marriage. Anto., 
divorce. 

Nurture. 77. Discipline, training, breed¬ 
ing, schooling, education. 

Nutriment, n. Food, diet, provision, 
sustenance, nutrition, nourishment. A//lo., 
poison. 

Nutritious, adj. Sustaining. 

Nourishing, adj. Wholesome, strengthen¬ 
ing. Anto., noxious. 

o 

Obdurate, adj. Obstinate, stubborn, cal¬ 
lous, unfeeling. A 77 to., flexible'. 

Object. 77. End, purpose, aim, design. 2. 
Mark. Anto., subject. 

Oblige. 1. Please, favor, accommodate, 
serve. 2. Obligate. 3. Compel, coerce. Anto., 
disoblige. 

Oblivion, n. Forgetfulness, amnesty. 
Anto., remembrance. 

Obscure, adj. Dark, dim, vague, indis¬ 
tinct. 2. Humble, unknown. Anto., 1. Light, 
plain, clear. 2. Noted. 




























SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 


685 


Obscure, v. Cloud,darken,shade,eclipse. 
Auto., clear, illuminate. 

Obsequies, n. Funeral rites, exequies. 
Obsolete, adj. Disused, antiquated, 
neglected. Anto., new, fashionable. 

Obvious, adj. Plain, clear, manifest, 
visible, apparent. Auto., hidden. 

Occasional, adj. Casual, irregular, inci¬ 
dental. Anto., regular. 

Occupation, n. 1. Calling, business, 
pursuit, profession. 2. Use, possession. Anto., 

1. Idleness. 2. Forfeiture. 

Occupy, v. Hold, possess, use. Anto., 

vacate. 

Occurrence, n. Adventure, incident, con¬ 
tingency. 

Odor. n. Scent, perfume, fragrance. 
Offend, v. Displease, annoy, vex. Anto., 
please. 

Offence, n. Crime, indignity, injury, in¬ 
sult, misdeed, transgression, trespass, out¬ 
rage. Anto., favor, obligation. 

Offensive, adj. Abusive, impertinent, in¬ 
jurious, insulting, insolent, obnoxious, oppro¬ 
brious, rude, scurrilous. Anto., pleasant. 

Offering, n. 1. Oblation, presentation, 
gift. 2. Sacrifice. 

Office, n. 1. Charge, trust, duty, service. 

2. Situation, berth, station. 

Officious, adj. Active, busy, forward, in¬ 
trusive, obtrusive. Anto., modest. 

Offspring, n. Children, issue, descend¬ 
ants, posterity. Anto., ancestry. 

Only. adj. Alone, adv. Barely, merely, 
simply, singly, solely. 

Opaque, adj. 1. Dark, obscure. 2. Not 
transparent, impervious to light. Anto., 
transparent. 

Open. a. 1. Unclosed, extended. 2. Clear, 
public. 3. Fair, candid, unreserved. 4. 
Liberal. 5. Unsettled. Anto., closed. 

Opening, n. Aperture,cavity, hole, fissure. 
Anto., solid. 

Operation, n. Action, agency, surgical 
act, process. 

Opinion, n. Notion, view, judgment 
belief. 2. Estimate. 

Opinionated, adj. Conceited, egotistical 
obstinate. Anto., modest. 

Opponent, n. Adversary, antagonist 
enemy, foe. Anto., friend, ally. 

Opposite, adj. Adverse, contrary, inimi 
cal, repugnant. Anto., alike, congenial. 

Opprobrious, adj. Abusive, insulting, in 
solent, offensive, scurrilous. Anto., eulogis 
tic. 

Opprobrium, n. Disgrace, ignominy 
infamy. Anto., eminence. 

Option, n. Choice, election. 

Oration, n. Address, speech, discourse 
harangue. 

Ordain, v. Appoint, order, prescribe 
invest. 

Order, n. 1. Class, degree, fraternity 
method, rank, series, succession. 2. Com 
mand, injunction, mandate, precept. Anto. 
disorder. 

Orderly, adj. 1. Methodical, systematic 
regular, quiet. 2. «. Soldier. Anto., irregu 
lar. 

Ordinary, adj. 1. Usual, common, habit 
ual. 2. Homely, plain, ugly. 3. Inferior 
vulgar. Anto., extraordinary. 

Origin, n. 1. Cause, occasion. 2. Spring 
beginning, source. Anto., end. 

Original, adj. First, primary, primitive 
pristine. Anto., copied. 

Ornament, v. Adorn, embellish, beauti 
fy, decorate. Anto., spoil, wreck, destroy 
Ornate, adj. Adorned, bedecked, decorat 
ed, embellished, garnished. Anto., unadorn 
ed. 

Ostensible, adj. Color.able, feasible, pro 
fessed, plausible, specious, apparent, de 
dared, manifest. Anto., real. 

Ostentation, n. Show, display, flourish 
pomposity. Anto., plainness. 

Outlive, v. See Survive. 

Outrage, v. Abuse, maltreat, offend, in 
suit, shock. Anto., honor, praise. 

Outrage, n. Affront, offence, abuse, in 
dignity, insult. Anto., favor, obligation. 


Outward, adj. Extraneous, exterior, ex¬ 
ternal, extrinsic, outer. Anto., inward. 

Oval. adj. Egg-shaped, elliptical. 

Overbearing, adj. Haughty, arrogant 
lordly, imperious, domineering, dictatorial 
i Anto., gentle. 

Overcome, v. Conquer, subdue, sur 
mount, vanquish. Anto., surrender. 

Overflow, v. 1. Flow, deluge, inundate 
2. Overrun, overspread. 

Oversight, n. x. Blunder, mistake, er 
ror, inadvertency. 2. Management, super 
vision, control. Anto., correction. 

Overthrow, v. 1. Defeat, overcome 
conquer, vanquish. 2. Upset, overturn, sub 
vert. 3. Ruin, molest. Anto., surrender, yield 

Overwhelm, v. 1. Overflow. 2. Defeat 
conquer, vanquish, subdue. 

Owner, n. Holder, possessor, proprietor 

P 

Pacify, v. 1. Appease, conciliate. 2 
Calm, still, compose, tranquilize, quiet, quell 
Anto., excite. 

Pain. n. 1. Ache, distress, suffering 
pang, anguish, agony. 2. Penalty. 3. Un¬ 
easiness, sorrow, grief, woe. Anto., pleasure 

Paint, v. 1. Depict, delineate, portray 
pencil, sketch. 2. Color. 3. Represent. 

Pair. n. Brace, couple. Anto., single. 

Pale. adj. 1. Colorless, wan, whitish 
ashy, pallid. 2. Dim, sombre. Anto., florid 

Palliate. v. Cover, extenuate, gloss, 
varnish. Anto., accuse, charge. 

Palpable, adj. Obvious, evident, mani 
fest, plain, glaring. 2. Tangible. Anto., occult, 

Palpitate, v. Pulsate, throb, flutter, go 
pit-a-pat. Anto., quiet. 

Paltry. adj. 1. Little, small, unimportant, 
petty, miserable, trivial. 2. Abject, base, 
mean, pitiful, contemptible. Anto., worthy, 
great, noble. 

Panegyric, n. Encomium, praise, eulogy. 
Anto., condemnation. 

Pang. n. See Pain. 

Parasite, n. Flatterer, sycophant, han¬ 
ger-on. 

Pardon, n. Grace, forgiveness, remis¬ 
sion, absolution, mercy, amnesty. Anto., im¬ 
placability. 

Parentage, n. Birth, lineage, pedigree, 
stock. 

Parody, n. Burlesque, travesty, carica¬ 
ture. 

Parsimonious, adj. Close, mean, stin¬ 
gy, miserly, penurious, covetous, sordid. 
Anto., generous. 

Partial, adj. 1. Incomplete, imperfect. 
2. Unfair, warped, biased, prejudiced, un¬ 
just. Anto., complete. 

Part. n. 1. Piece, portion, fraction. 2. 
Element, ingredient. 3. Lot. 4. Charge, 
function. 

Particle, n. Grain, jot, tittle, iota, bit, 
atom, molecule. Anto., mass. 

Particular, adj. Appropriate, circum¬ 
stantial, distinct, exact, exclusive, nice, pecu¬ 
liar, punctual, specific. Anto., careless, in¬ 
appropriate. 

Particularly, adv. Chiefly, distinctly, 
especially, specifically, principally. Anto., 
generally. 

Partisan, n. Supporter, adherent, fol¬ 
lower, disciple, champion, votary. Anto., op¬ 
ponent. 

Partly, adv. In part. Anto., wholly. 

Partner, n. 1. Colleague, associate, 
sharer, participator, partaker. 2. Member of 
a firm. 

Passion, n. 1. Ardor, emotion, fervor, 
zeal. 2. Love, affection, fondness, attach¬ 
ment, devotion. 3. Anger, wrath, fury. 4. 
Pathos. Anto., quietude, placidity, languor. 

Passive, adj. Calm, patient, resigned, 
submissive, unresisting. Anto., rebellious. 

Patent, adj. Open, plain, apparent, ob¬ 
vious. Anto., latent. 

Pathetic. adj. Touching, affecting, 
moving, tender, melting, plaintive. Anto., 
ludicrous. 

Patience, n. Resignation, endurance, 
fortitude, sufferance. Anto., impatience. 


Patient, adj. Composed, calm, enduring 
passive, it. An invalid. Anto., fretful. 

Patrician. n. Nobleman, aristocrat 
Anto., plebeian. 

Patronize, v. Aid, favor, support, help 
befriend. Anto., abuse, condemn. 

Pause, v. 1. Stop, cease, desist, delay 
rest, stay. 2. Waver, hesitate. Anto., con 
tinue. 

Pay. n. Compensation, reward, requital 
wages, salary, hire. 

Peaceable, adj. Calm, gentle, pacific 
mild, quiet, serene, tranquil, undisturbed 
Anto., turbulent. 

Peaceful, adj. 1. Still, quiet, undisturb 
ed, calm, placid, tranquil, serene. 2. Mild 
friendly. Auto., disturbed. 

Peculiar, adj. Particular, singular, spe 
cial, characteristic, rare, exceptional. 

Peevish, adj. Captious, cross, fretful 
irritable, petulant. Anto., patient. 

Penalty, n. Chastisement, fine, forfeiture 
mulct, punishment. Anto., reward. 

Penetrating, adj. Discerning, intelli 
ent, sagacious, acute, keen, shrewd. Anto. 
ull. 

Penitence, n. Compunction, remorse 
contrition, repentance. Anto., impenitence. 

Penniless, adj. Poor, destitute, needy 
indigent, reduced, pinched, distressed. Anto. 
rich, moneyed. 

Penurious, adj. Beggarly, miserly, nig 
gardly, parsimonious, sparing. Anto., gener 
ous. 

Penury, n. Indigence, need, poverty 
want. Anto., affluence. 

Perceive, v. 1. Notice, see, discover 
discern. 2. Feel. 3. Understand, know 
Anto., -miss. 

Perception, n. Conception, sensation 
idea, notion, sentiment. 

Peremptory, adj. Absolute, arbitrary 
despotic, dogmatical, positive. Anto., vacil 
lating. 

Perfect. adj. 1. Finished, complete 
elaborate. 2. Blameless, pure, holy. Anto. 
imperfect. 

Perfidious, adj. Faithless, treacherous 
Anto., faithful. 

Perforate, v. Bore, pierce, penetrate 
Anto., plug, fill. 

Perform, v. Accomplish, achieve, ef 
feet, execute, fulfil, produce. Anto., fail. 

Perfume, n. Aroma, fragrance, balmi 
ness, incense. Anto., stench. 

Peril, n. Venture, risk, danger, hazarc 
jeopardy. Anto., safety. 

Period, n. Circuit, date, age, epoch, era 

Perjure, v. See Forswear. 

Permanent, adj. Fixed, abiding, last 
ing, stable, enduring, steadfast, immutable 
Anto., unstable. 

Permit, v. Allow, suffer, consent, ad 
mit, tolerate, yield. Anto., refuse. 

Pernicious, adj. Destructive, hurtfu 
mischievous, noisome, noxious. Anto 
healthful. 

Perpetual, adj. Continuous, constan' 
incessant, unceasing, uninterrupted. Anto 
transient. 

Perplex, v. 1. Puzzle, embarrass, be 
wilder, confound. 2. Involve, entangle, com 
plicate. Anto., explain. 

Persevere, v. Continue, insist, persis 
prosecute, pursue. Anto., unstable. 

Perspicuity, n. Transparency, clear 
ness, translucency. Anto., obscurity. 

Persuade, v. 1. Convince. 2. Influence 
induce, lead, incite, impel. Anto., dissuade 

Pertinent, adj. Apposite, appropriate 
Anto., improper. 

Perverse, adj. Cross, crooked, forwari 
stubborn, untractable. Anto., yielding. 

Pestilential, adj. Contagious, epidem 
ical, infectious, mischievous. Anto., whole 
some. 

Petition, n. Application, appeal, prayer 
suit, entreaty, supplication. 

Picture, n. Effigy, likeness, representa 
tion. 

Pious. adj. Religious, devout, holy 
saintly, godly. Anto., impious. 



































686 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Pique, n. Offence, resentment, umbrage, 
grudge. Anto., pleasure, friendliness. 

Pique, v. i. Urge, spur, incite, instigate. 
2. Displease, offend, irritate, nettle, exasper¬ 
ate.. Anto., please. 

Pitiless. adj. Unmerciful, relentless, 
ruthless, cruel, unfeeling, inexorable. Anto., 
merciful. 

Pity. n. Sympathy, compassion, fellow- 
feeling. Anto., cruelty. 

Place, i . 71 . Ground, post, position, seat, 
site, situation, space. 2. adj. Dispose, lay, 
order, put, set. Anto., 2. Displace. 

Placid, adj. See Peaceful. 

Plague, v. Tease, vex, trouble, fret, 
bother. Anto., please. 

Pleasant, adj. i. Agreeable, pleasing, 
delightful. 2. Witty, sportive, amusing. 3. 
Cheerful, lively, vivacious. Anto., disagree¬ 
able. 

Please, -v. Delight, gratify, humor, sat¬ 
isfy. Anto., displease. 

Pleasure, n. 1. Comfort, enjoyment, 
gratification, joy. 2. Luxury, voluptuous¬ 
ness. 3. Choice, will, preference. Anto., 
pain. 

Plebeian, adj. Mean, base, vulgar, ig¬ 
noble. Anto., patrician. 

Pledge, n. Deposit, earnest, hostage, 
security, pawn. 

Plentiful, adj. Abundant, ample, copi¬ 
ous, exuberant, plenteous. Anto., scarcity. 

Pliable, adj. 1. Limber, flexible, supple, 
lithe. 2. Compliant, tractable. Anto., inflex¬ 
ible. 

Pliant, adj. Rending, flexible, pliable, 
lithe ; limber, supple, yielding. Anto., stiff. 

Plight. v. Case, condition, predicament, 
situation, state. 

Plot. v. Scheme, concoct, project, devise, 
brew, hatch. 

Pluck. n. Resolution, courage, spirit, 
mettle, nerve, fortitude. Anto., cowardice. 

Polished, adj. 1. Refined, accomplished, 
polite, cultivated, elegant. 2. Burnished. 3. 
Attic, classic. Anto., rough, coarse. 

Polite, adj. Refined, accomplished, gen¬ 
teel, courteous, courtly, polished, urbane. 
Anto., impolite. 

Politeness, n. Affability, civility, cour¬ 
teousness, courtesy, good manners. Anto., 
impoliteness. 

Politic, adj. Artful, civil, cunning, pru¬ 
dent. Anto., impolitic. 

Pollute, n. Contaminate, corrupt, defile, 
infect, vitiate. Anto., purify. 

Pomp. 71. Display, parade, show, pa¬ 
geantry, state, ostentation. 

Pompous, adj. Dignified, lofty, magis¬ 
terial, magnificent, stately, showy, ostenta¬ 
tious. A?ito., modest. 

Ponder. 11. Consider, muse, reflect, 

think. 

Portion, n. Division, dower, fortune, 
part, quantity, share. Anto., whole. 

Position, n. Place, post, situation, sta¬ 
tion. 

Positive, adj. Certain, confident, dog¬ 
matical, real. Anto., doubtful. 

Possess, v. Have, hold, occupy. A/ilo., 
dispossess, distrain. 

Posterior, adj. 1. Hind, rear, back. 2. 
Following, succeeding, subsequent, ensuing. 
A?ito., anterior. 

Postpone, v. Adjourn, defer, delay, pro¬ 
crastinate. Anto., expedite. 

Posture, n. Action, attitude, gesture, 
position. 

Potent, adj. Strong, influential, cogent, 
powerful, mighty, puissant. Anto., weak. 

Poverty, n. Indigence, need, penurv, 
want. Anto., wealth. 

Powerful, adj. Mighty, influential, po¬ 
tent, strong, vigorous. Anto., weak. 

Practicable, adj. Feasible, possible, 
practical. Anto., impracticable. 

Practice. n. Custom, habit, manner, use. 
A/ito., prodigy. 

Praise, n. 1. Worship, homage. 2. Ap¬ 
proval, commendation, laudation, applause, 
encomium. 3. Eulogy, panegyric. A/ito., 
blame. 


Praise, v. 1. Exalt, glorify. 2. Approve, 
applaud,commend. 3. Eulogize,extol. Anto., 
censure. 

Prayer, n. Entreaty, petition, suit, re¬ 
quest, supplication. Anto., anathema. 

Precarious, adj. Doubtful, equivocal, 
dubious, uncertain. Anto., certain. 

Precedence. 71. Pre-eminence, prefer¬ 
ence, priority. A 7 ito., subsequence. 

Precedent. 1. «. Example. 2. Adj. 
Former, antecedent. Anto., 2. Subsequent. 

Preceding, adj. Antecedent, anterior, 
foregoing, former, previous, prior. Anto., 
following. 

Precept. 71. Doctrine, law, rule, injunc¬ 
tion, mandate, maxim, principle. 

Precious, adj. Costly, uncommon, val¬ 
uable. Anto., common. 

Precise, adj. 1. Accurate, correct, exact. 
2. Nice. 3. Stiff, strict. Anto., not exact. 

Preclude, v. Hinder, obviate, prevent. 
A 7 ito., assist. 

Preconcerted, adj. Premeditated, pre¬ 
determined, considered beforehand. Anto., 
unconsidered. 

Precursor, n. Forerunner, harbinger, 
messenger. A 7 ito., follower, disciple. 

Predicament. 71. 1. Condition, plight, 

situation. 2. Class, state. 

Predict, v. Foretell, prophesy, prognos¬ 
ticate. 

Predominate, adj. Overruling, supreme, 
prevalent, prevailing. 

Preface, n. Introduction, prelude,proem. 
A/ito., conclusion, peroration. 

Prefer, v. Advance, choose, forward, 
encourage, promote. 2. Offer, present. 

Preference. n. Choice, precedence, 
priority. 

Preferment, n. Advancement, prefer¬ 
ence, promotion. A71I0., abasement. 

Prejudice. 71. 1. Bias, detriment, disad¬ 

vantage, hurt, injury. 2. Prepossession. Anto., 
justice. 

Preliminary, adj. 1. Antecedent, intro¬ 
ductory, preparatory, previous. 2. A first 
step. 

Prepare, v. Equip, make ready, fit, 
qualify. A 7 ito., retard. 

Preponderate, v. 1. Outweigh, over¬ 
balance. 2. Prevail. 

Proficiency. n. Advancement, progress, 
improvement. Anto., deficiency. 

Profit, n. Advantage, benefit, emolument, 
gain. Anto., loss. 

Profligate, adj. Set Abandoned. 

Profuse, adj. Extravagant, lavish, prod¬ 
igal. A 7 ito., niggardly. 

Progeny, n. Issue, offspring, race. 

Progress. 71. Advancement, gradation, 
motion, proficiency. Anto., retrogression. 

Project. 71. Design, plan, scheme. 

Prolific, adj. Fertile, fruitful, produc¬ 
tive. Anto., barren, sterile. 

Prolix, adj. Diffuse, long, tedious. A 7 ito., 
brief, laconic. 

Prolong, v. Belay, extend, postpone, 
procrastinate, protract,retard. Anto., shorten. 

Prominent, adj. Conspicuous, protuber¬ 
ant, eminent, projecting. Anto., unnotice- 
able. 

Promiscuous, adj. Mingled indiscrim¬ 
inate, common, confused. Anto., select. 

Promise. 71. Word, assurance, engage¬ 
ment, pledge. 

Promote, v. Advance, encourage, for¬ 
ward, prefer. Anto., discourage. 

Prompt, adj. 1. Early, punctual, timely. 
2. Apt, ready, quick. Anto., unready, dilatory. 

Pronounce, v. Affirm, articulate, declare, 
speak, utter. 

Proof. 71. 1. ‘Argument. 2. Demonstra¬ 
tion, evidence, testimony. 

Propagate, v. Circulate, diffuse, dis¬ 
seminate, increase, multiply. Anto., diminish, 
prune. 

Propensity. 71. Inclination, proneness, 
bias, tendency. 

Proper, adj. 1. Fitting, appropriate, 
suitable, becoming, seemly, right. 2. Partic¬ 
ular, specific, not common. Anto., wrong. 

Propitiate, v. Appease, reconcile, atone, 
conciliate. Anto., provoke. 


Propitious, adj. 1. Auspicious, favor¬ 
able. 2. Kind, merciful. Anto., unfavorable. 

Proportion. 71. Form, rate, relation, 
ratio, size, symmetry. 

Proportionate, adj. Adequate, equal, 
commensurate. Anto., unequal. 

Propose, v. Bid, intend, offer, purpose, 
tender. 

Prosecute, v. t. Arraign, accuse. 2. 
Continue, pursue. Anto., exculpate, pardon. 

Prospect. 71. Landscape, survey, view. 

Prospective, adj. Foreseeing, forward, 
future. 

Prosperity. 71. Welfare, success, thrift, 
luck, happiness. Anto., loss, poverty. 

Prosperous, adj. Flourishing, fortunate, 
lucky, successful. Anto., unsuccessful. 

Protect. -v. Cherish, defend, foster, 
guard, patronize, shelter, shield. A/ito., 
abandon. 

Protract, v. Defer, delay, postpone, 
prolong, retard. Anto., contract. 

Protracted, adj. Continued, extended, 
prolonged, drawn out. Anto., shortened. 

Proud, adj. Arrogant, assuming, con¬ 
ceited, haughty, vain. Anto., unassuming. 

Proverb. 71. Adage, aphorism, maxim, 
apothegm, by-word, saw, saying. 

Provide, v. Furnish, prepare, procure, 
supply. 

Provident, adj. Careful, economical, 
cautious, frugal, far-sighted, prudent. Anto., 
prodigal. 

Provisions. 71. Subsistence, food, vict¬ 
uals, viands, bread, provender. 

Proviso. 71. Condition, stipulation. 

Provoke, v. I. Irritate, anger, offend, 
affront, enrage, exasperate, infuriate. 2. 
Awaken, arouse, excite, stimulate, inflame. 
A 7 ito., propitiate. 

Proxy. 71. Deputy, representative, agent, 
substitute. 

Prudence, n. Carefulness, discretion, 
forethought, judgment, wisdom. Anto., in¬ 
discretion. 

Prudish, adj. Coy, demure, reserved, 
over-modest. Anto., brazen, immodest. 

Publish. v. 1. Announce, declare, pro¬ 
claim, herald, advertise. 2. Issue, emit. 
Anto., suppress. 

Puerile, adj. Boyish, childish, juvenile. 
Anto., manly. 

Pull. v. Drag, draw, gather, hale, haul, 
pluck, lug. Anto., push. 

Pulsation. 71. Beat, beating, throb, throb¬ 
bing. 

Pulverize, v. Bruise, grind, comminute, 
triturate. 

Punctual, adj. See Prompt. 

Punish, v. Correct, discipline, chastise, 
castigate, whip, scourge. Anto., reward. 

Pure. adj. 1. Clear, clean, unsullied, un • 
defiled, spotless, untarnished, immaculate. 2. 
True, innocent, sinless. 3. Chaste, modest. 4. 
Unmixed, genuine. Anto., impure. 

Purpose. 71. Object, aim, intent, end, 
design. 

Pursue, v. Chase, continue, follow, pros¬ 
ecute, persist. Anto., escape. 

Puzzle, v. See Perplex. 

Puzzle. 71. 1. Mystery, riddle, enigma. 

2. Embarrassment, perplexity, nonplus. 

Q 

Quack. 71. Impostor, pretender, humbug, 
charlatan. Anto., savant. 

Quail, -v. Shrink, blanch, quake, cower, 
tremble. Anto., brave. 

Qualified. adj. Adapted, competent, 
fitted. Anto., incompetent. 

Qualify, v. Adapt, equip, furnish, fit, 
modify, prepare, temper. 

Quality. 71. Rank, property, distinction, 
accomplishment, attribute. 

Quandary. 71. Puzzle, difficulty, per¬ 
plexity, strait, nonplus, dilemma. 

Quarrel. 71. Disagreement, wrangle, 
squabble, contention, dissension, strife, alter¬ 
cation, brawl. Anto., agreement. 

Queer, adj. Odd, singular, droll, strange, 
whimsical, unique, quaint. Anto., usual, or¬ 
dinary, customary. 





























■V 


V 


Query, n. Inquiry, question, interroga¬ 
tory. Anto., answer. * 

Question, n. See Query. 

Question, v. I. Ask, enquire, examine, 
interrogate, catechize. 2. Doubt, dispute, 
controvert. Anto., reply. 

Questionable, adj. Doubtful, suspici¬ 
ous. Anto., authentic. 

Quick. adj. i. Brisk, active, prompt, 
agile. 2. Rapid, swift. 3. Clever, sharp, 
shrewd, acute, keen, discerning. Anto., dull, 
slow. 

Quiet, adj. Still, resting, dormant, mo¬ 
tionless, quiescent. Anto., turbulent. 

Quit. v. 1. L eave, withdraw, vacate. 2. 
Resign, abandon, forsake. 3. Clear, acquit, 
absolve. 

Quiver, v. Shake, tremble, shudder, 
shiver, quake. 

Quota, n. Share, portion, allotment, 
contingent, proportion. 

Quotation, n. Extract, excerpt, selection, 
citation. 

Quote, v. Adduce, cite. Anto., originate. 


R 


Rabble, n. Mob, rout, herd. 

Race. n. Breed, course, family, genera¬ 
tion, lineage, progress. Anto., mongrel. 

Radiance, n. Brightness, brilliancy, lus¬ 
tre, splendor, effulgence. Anto., gloom. 

Radical, adj. 1. Entire, complete, thor¬ 
ough, perfect. 2. Fundamental, original, 
organic. 3. Simple, primitive, underived. 
Anto., superficial. 

Rage. n. Anger, choler, fury, violence. 
Anto., calm. 

Raise. v. Advance, collect, elevate, 
heighten, erect, exalt, propagate. Anto., 
lower. 

Rally. v. 1. Banter, deride, mock, ridi¬ 
cule. 2/Collect. Anto., 1. Praise. 2. Scatter. 

Random, adj. Casual, chance, fortui¬ 
tous. Anto., chosen, destined. 

Rank. n. Class, degree, position. 

Ransom. n. Free, redeem, manumit. 
Anto., imprison. 

Rapacious, adj. Greedy, ravenous, vo¬ 
racious. Anto., generous. 

Rapidity, n. Agility, celerity, fleetness, 
speed, swiftness, velocity. Anto., sloth. 

Rapt. adj. Charmed, delighted, enrapt¬ 
ured, fascinated, entranced, transported, rav¬ 
ished. Anto., dejected. 

Rapture, n. Ecstacy, transport. Anto., 
dejection. 

Rare. adj. 1. Excellent, incomparable. 
2. Raw. 3. Thin. 4. Scarce, singular, uncom¬ 
mon. Anto., 1,4. Common. 3. Dense. 

Rash. adj. Impulsive, hasty, heedless, 
headlong, reckless, precipitate. Anto., cal¬ 
culating. 

Rate. n. Assessment, degree, proportion, 
price, quota, ratio, value. 

Rational, adj. 1. Sane. 2. Sensible, wise, 
intelligent. 3. Reasonable. Anto., irrational. 

Ravenous, adj. Greed}', rapacious, vo¬ 
racious. Anto., generous. 

Refer, v. 1. Allude, suggest, hint, inti¬ 
mate. 2. Appeal. 3. Bear, bring. 

Refined, adj. 1. Accomplished, cultur¬ 
ed, polite, polished, elegant, courtly. 2. Puri¬ 
fied. 3. Pure, chaste, classic, exquisite,Attic. 
Anto., coarse. 

Reflect, v. Consider, censure, muse, pon¬ 
der, reproach, think. 

Reform, v. Amend, better, correct, im¬ 
prove, rectify. Anto., injure, mar. 

Refractory, adj. Contumacious, per¬ 
verse, ungovernable, unruly. Anto., obe¬ 
dient. 

Refrain, v. Abstain, forbear, spare. 

Refresh, v. Cool, renew, invigorate, 
revive. Anto., tire. 

Refute, v. Disprove, oppugn. Anto., 
accept. 

Regale, v. Entertain, feast, gratify, re¬ 
fresh. 

Regard, n. 1. Concern, esteem, respect, 
liking, affection. 2. Relation, reference. 3. 
Consideration, heed. Anto., contempt. 


Ql 


/ 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


Regardless, adj. Heedless, indifferent, 
negligent, unconcerned, unobservant. Anto., 
Observant. 

Region, n. 1. District, clime, territory. 
2. Portion, part. 

Regret, v. Complain, grieve, lament, re¬ 
pent. Anto., rejoice. 

Regulate, v. Adjust, direct, rule, dis¬ 
pose, govern, plan. Anto., disorder. 

Reiterate, v. Repeat again, quote, re¬ 
cite. Anto., retract. 

Rehearse, v. 1. Recapitulate. 2. Recite, 
repeat. 

Reject, v. Refuse, repel, decline. 2. 
Discard. Anto., accept. 

Rejoice, v. Triumph, exult, glory. Anto., 
lament. 

Rejoinder, n. Answer, reply, replica¬ 
tion, response. 

Relevant, adj. Apposite, fit, pertinent, 
proper, suitable to the purpose. Anto., ir¬ 
relevant. 

Reliance, n. Confidence, dependence, 
repose, trust. Anto., suspicion. 

Relieve, v. Aid, alleviate, assist, help, 
mitigate, succor. Anto., injure, despoil. 

Religious, adj. Devout, holy, pious. An¬ 
to., profane. 

Reluctant, adj. Disinclined, unwilling, 
indisposed, loth, averse. Anto., willing. 

Remain, v. Abide, await, continue, so¬ 
journ, stay, tarry. Anto., depart. 

Remainder, n. Remnant, residue, rest. 
Remains, n. Eeavings, relics, manes. 
Remark, n. Annotation, observation, 
note, comment. 

Reminiscence, n. Remembrance, recol¬ 
lection, memoir. 

Remiss, adj. 1. Careless, negligent, in¬ 
attentive. 2. Slow, slack, dilatory. Anto., 
careful. 

Remit, v. 1. Abate, relax. 2. Absolve, 
forgive, liberate, pardon. 3. Transmit. 

Remorse. n. Compunction, sorrow, 
penitence, conviction. Anto., callousness. 
Renegade, n. 1. Turncoat, apostate. 
Renew, v. Refresh, renovate, revive. 
Anto., wear out. 

Renounce, v. Abandon, abdicate, fore¬ 
go, quit, relinquish, resign. Anto., keep. 

Renovate, v. Restore, renew, revive, 
resuscitate. 

Renown, n. Celebrity, fame, reputation, 
distinction. Anto., infamy. 

Renunciation. n. 1. Abandonment, 
surrender. 2. Abnegation, rejection, repu¬ 
diation. 

Repair, v. Recover, restore, retrieve. 
Anto., destroy. 

Reparation, n. Amends, restoration, 
restitution. Anto., injury. 

Repartee, n. Reply, retort. 

Repeal, v. Abolish, abrogate, annul, 
cancel, destroy, revoke. Anto., reenact. 

Repel, v. Repulse, drive back. 2. With¬ 
stand, resist, confront, oppose, check. Anto., 
attract. 

Repetition, adj. Recital, tautology. 
Replenish, v. Fill, refill, supply. Anto., 
empty. 

Repose, n. Ease, quiet, rest, sleep. Anto . f 
disquiet. 

Reprehensible, adj. Blamable, censur¬ 
able, culpable, reprovable. Anto., commend¬ 
able. 

Reproach, -v. Blame, condemn, censure, 
reprove, upbraid. Anto., commend. 

Reproof, v. Blame, censure, reprehen¬ 
sion. Anto., praise. 

Reprove, v. Chide, rebuke, reprimand. 
Anto., praise. 

Repugnance, n. Antipathy, aversion, 
dislike, hatred. Anto., liking. 

Repugnant. adj. Adverse, contrary, 
hostile, inimical, opposite, distasteful. Anto., 
similar, homogeneous. 

Repulsion, n. Power of repelling, resist¬ 
ance. Anto., attraction. 

Reputation, n. Character, renown, cred¬ 
it, fame, honor, repute. Anto., notoriety. 

Request, v. Ask,beg, beseech, demand, 
entreat, implore, solicit. Anto., grant. 


S> j- 



687 


Requisite. adj. Essential, expedient, 
necessary. Anto., unnecessary. 

Requite, v. 1. Compensate, reward, re¬ 
ciprocate. 2. Avenge. 

Research, n. Examination, enquiry, in¬ 
vestigation, careful scrutiny. 

Resemblance, n. Likeness, similarity. 
Anto., unlikeness. 

Reservation, n. Reserve, retention. 
Anto., donation. 

Reside, v. Abide, inhabit, sojourn, 
dwell, live. Anto., alienate. 

Residence, n. Abode, domicile, dwell¬ 
ing. 

Residue, n. Remainder, remnant. 

Resign, v. Abdicate, forego, give up, 
relinquish, renounce. Anto., retain. 

Resignation, n. Acquiescence, endur¬ 
ance, patience, submission. Anto., rebellion, 

Resist, -v. Confront, oppose, withstand, 
repel. Anto., assist, submit. 

Resolute, adj. Courageous, determined, 
fixed, steady. Anto., irresolute. 

Resolution, n. 1. Intention, resolve. 2. 
Firmness, constancy, decision. Anto., 2. 
Irresolution, weakness, vacillation. 

Resort, v. Frequent, haunt. 

Resource, n. Expedient, means, resort. 

Respect, n. 1. Esteem, regard, rever¬ 
ence, veneration. 2. Favor, good will. 3. 
Reference. Anto., irreverence. 

Respect, v. Honor, esteem, regard, 
venerate. Anto., dishonor, disgrace. 

Respectful, adj. Civil, dutiful, obedient. 
Anto., uncivil. 

Respite, n. 1. Interval. 2. Reprieve, 
suspension, delay. Anto., continuation. 

Response, n. Answer,reply,replication, 
rejoinder. Anto., question. 

Responsible, adj. Accountable, amen¬ 
able, answerable. Anto., irresponsible. 

Rest. n. x. Cessation, ease, intermis¬ 
sion, quiet, repose, stop, pause. 2. Remain¬ 
der, others. Anto., 1. Motion, unrest. 

Restless, adj. Unsettled, unquiet, roving. 
Anto., quiet. 

Restore, v. 1. Heal, cure. 2. Give up, 
repay, return, render, replace. Anto., 2. Keep. 

Restoration, n. Amends, reparation, 
restitution. Anto., retention. 

Restrain, v. Coerce, constrain, limit, 
repress, restrict, curb. Anto., liberate. 

Restrict, v. Bound, restrain, limit, con¬ 
fine. Anto., free. 

Result, n. Consequence, effect, event, 
issue. 

Resurrection, n. Rising again. 

Retain, v. Detain, hold, reserve, keep. 
Anto., yield. 

Retaliation, n. Reprisal, repayment. 


Anto., pardon. 

Retard, v. Hinder, obstruct, delay, 
check, impede. Anto., hasten. 

Retire, v. Recede, retreat,secede, with¬ 
draw. Anto., come forward, approach. 

Retract, v. Abjure, recall, recant, re¬ 
voke. Anto., reiterate. 

Retrenchment, n. Diminution, reduc¬ 
tion, curtailment. Anto., increase. 

Retrieve, v. Regain, recover. Anto., lose. 

Retrogression, n. Retrogradation, go¬ 
ing backward. Anto., progression. 

Retrospect, n. Review, re-survey. Anto., 
forecast. 

Reveal, v. Discover, disclose, divulge, 
communicate, impart, publish. Anto., con- 
ceal. 

Revenge, n. Requital, retaliation. Anto., 
forgiveness. 

Revenue, n. Income, receipts. Anto., 
expenditure. 

Revere, v. Honor, venerate, adore, rev¬ 
erence. Anto., execrate. 

Reverse, v. Change, subvert, overturn, 
invert. Anto., establish. 

Review, v. Notice, revise, survey, recon¬ 
sider, inspect. 

Revision, n. Review, reconsideration, 
revisal. 

Revive, v. 1. Refresh, quicken, rouse, 
cheer, animate. 2. Revivify. • 

Revoke, v. Abolish, abrogate, annul, 
ranrel. reneal. retract. Anto.. reiterate. 





<5 


































SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


\ 

688 


Reward, n. Compensation,recompense, 
remuneration, requital, satisfaction. Auto., 
punishment. 

Riches, n. Fortune, wealth, affluence, 
opulence. Anto., poverty. 

Ridicule, n. Mockery, derision, sneer, 
sarcasm, raillery, satire. Atito., sympathy. 

Ridiculous, adj. Absurd, preposterous, 
droll, ludicrous. Anto., solemn, funereal. 

Right, adj. True, straight, just, proper, 
Anto., wrong. 

Right. n. Privilege, claim, immunity. 
Anto., disadvantage. 

Righteous, adj. Good, honest, virtuous, 
upright, just, devout, religious, pious, holy, 
saintly. Anto., bad. 

Rigid, adj. i. Strict, stern, severe, harsh, 
rigorous. 2. Stiff, unpliant, indexible. Anto., 
pliable. 

Rigorous, adj. i. Rigid, severe, harsh, 
austere. 2. Precise, accurate, exact. Anto., 
' lax. 

Ripe. adj. 1. Mature. 2. Finished, con¬ 
summate. 3. Ready, fit, prepared. Anto., 
green, raw, immature. 

Ripeness. n. Maturity, perfection, 
growth. Anto., immaturity. 

Rise. n. Increase, ascent, origin. Anto., 
subsidence. 

Rite. n. Ceremony, form, observance. 

Rivalry, n. Contention, emulation, com¬ 
petition. Anto., friendliness. 

Road. n. Course, path, way, route. 

Roam. v. Ramble, range, wander, rove, 
stroll. 

Robust, adj. Athletic, stout, strong, 
brawny, stalwart, hale, mighty, powerful. 
Anto., weak. 

Romance, n. Tale, story, novel, fiction. 
Anto., history. 

Room. n. Apartment, chamber, space. 

Room, -v. Lodge. 

Rough, adj. 1. Coarse, rude, blunt, un¬ 
gentle, churlish. 2. Uneven. 3. Unpol¬ 
ished. Anto., smooth. 

Round, adj. Globular, circular. Anto., 
cubical. 

Round, n. 1. Circuit, tour, step. 2. 
Globe, orb, sphere. Anto., 2. Cube. 

Roundness. n. Rotundness, rotundity, 
circularity, sphericity. 

Route, n. Road, way, course, path. 

Rude. adj. See Rough. 

Rudeness, n. 1. Roughness. 2. Gruff¬ 
ness, coarseness, incivility, churlishness. 3. 
Inelegance. Anto., politeness, urbanity. 

Rugged. adj. 1. Uneven, irregular, 

rough. 2. Harsh. 3. Robust, vigorous. 
Anto., smooth. 

Ruinous. adj. Baneful, noxious, des¬ 
tructive, calamitous. Anto., helpful. 

Rule. n. 1. Law, government, com¬ 

mand. 2. Maxim, method, precept. 3. 
Guide, regulation. Anto., lawlessness. 

Rule. v. 1. Govern, control. 2. Mark. 
Anto., rebel. 

Rumor, n. Talk, gossip, report, news, 
bruit. 

Rupture. n. 1. Altercation, quarrel, 

feud. 2. Hernia. 3. Fracture, breach. 

Rural, adj. Country, pastoral, rustic. 
Anto., urbane. 

Ruse. n. Artifice, fraud, trick, wile. 

Rustic, n. Clown, peasant, swain, boor, 

lout, bumpkin. 

Rustic, adj, 1. Uncouth, unpolished, awk- 
wark, rude. 2. Country, rural. Anto., 
urban. 

Ruthless, adj. Cruel, pitiless, merciless, 
relentless, savage, inhuman. Anto., pitiful. 

s 

Sacred, adj. Divine, devoted, holy. 
Anto., profane. 

Sad. adj. 1. Depressed, sorrowful, cheer¬ 
less, disconsolate. 2. Dismal, gloomy, 
mournful. Anto., joyous. 

Safe. adj. 1. Guarded, protected. 2. 
Sound, secure. 3. Reliable. Ajito., dangerous. 

Sagacity, n. Acuteness, discernment, 
penetration. Anto., dulness. 


Sailor, n. Mariner, seaman. Anto., 
landsman. 

Salary, n. Hire, pay, stipend, wages. 

Sanction, n. 1. Countenance, support. 
2. Ratification, confirmation. Anto., rejec¬ 
tion, prohibition. 

Sane. adj. Sober, lucid, sound. Anto., 
crazy. 

Sapient, adj. Sagacious, wise, discern¬ 
ing. Anto., foolish. 

Sarcasm, n. Irony, ridicule, satire. 

Satiate, v. 1. Cloy, glut. 2. Satisfy, 
gratify. Anto., hunger, starve. 

Satisfaction, n. 1. Atonement. 2. Con¬ 
tent. 3. Remuneration, reward. Anto., dis¬ 
satisfaction. 

Satisfy, v. Gratify, please. 2. Glut, 
satiate, cloy. Anto., displease. 

Saving, adj. Thrifty, economical, fru¬ 
gal, sparing. Anto., prodigal. 

Saying. 1. Remark, observation, 

statement. 2. Maxim, proverb, aphorism, 
adage, saw. 

Scandal, n. Discredit, disgrace, infamy, 
reproach, detraction. Anto., praise. 

Scarce, adj. Singular, rare, uncommon. 
Anto., common. 

Scarcity. n. Want, lack, deficiency, 
dearth. Anto., abundance. 

Search, v. Examine, investigate, en¬ 
quire, pursue, scrutinize, seek. 

Secede. v. Recede, retire, withdraw. 
Anto., return. 

Seclusion, n. Loneliness, retirement, 
privacy, solitude. 

Secondary, adj. Inferior, subordinate, 
second. Anto., primary. 

Secret, adj. Clandestine, covered, hid¬ 
den, concealed, latent, mysterious. Anto., 
open. 

Secular, adj. Temporal, worldly. Anto., 
religious. 

Secure, v. 1. Be certain, guard, make 
sure., 2. Guarantee. Anto., lose. 

Sedate, adj. Calm, composed, quiet, 
still, serene, unruffled. Anto., lively. 

Seduce, -v. Allure, attract, decoy. Anto., 
repel. 

See. v. Behold, eye, look, observe, per¬ 
ceive, view. 

Seek. v. 1. Search for, ask for. 2. Strive, 
try, endeavor. Anto., lose. 

Sell. v. Vend, barter, dispose of. Anto., 
buy. 

Senile, adj. Aged, old, infirm. Anto., 
juvenile. 

Sensation, n. Perception, sentiment, 
feeling. 

Sense, n. Feeling, judgment, import, 
meaning, reason. 

Sensibility, n. Delicacy, feeling, sus¬ 
ceptibility. 

Sensitive, adj. 1. Impressible, easily af¬ 
fected. 2. Perceptive. Anto., callous. 

Sentence, n. Decision, judgment, period, 
phrase, proposition. 

Sentiment, n. Feeling, notion, opinion, 
sensation. Anto., insensibility. 

Sentimental. adj. Romantic. Anto., 
prosaic. 

Separate, v. 1. Disjoin, divide, detach, 
disunite, isolate. 2. Cleave, sever. Anto., 
join. 

Serious, adj. 1. Weighty, momentous. 
2. Sober, grave, solemn, earnest. Anto., jo¬ 
cose. 

Servile, adj. Fawning, mean, slavish. 
Anto., free. 

Settle, v. Adjust, arrange, determine, 
establish, regulate,fix. Anto., unsettle. 

Settled, adj. Conclusive, confirmed, de¬ 
cisive, definitive, established. Anto., unset¬ 
tled. 

Sever, v. Detach, disjoin, divide, separ¬ 
ate. Anto., join. 

Several, adj. Different, distinct, diverse, 
sundry, various. 

Severe, adj. Austere, cruel, harsh, rigid, 
rigorous, rough, sharp, strict, unyielding, 
stern. Anto., mild. 

Severity. n. 1. Austerity, rigor, stern¬ 
ness. 2. Keenness, causticity. 3. Violence. 
Anto., mildness. 


Shake, v. Agitate, quake, quiver, shiver, 
shudder, totter, tremble. Anto., steady. 

Shallow, adj. 1. Shoal. 2. Frivolous, 
flimsy, trivial. 3. Superficial, ignorant. Anto., 
deep. 

Shame, n. Disgrace, dishonor, ignominy, 
reproach. Anto., honor. 

Shameless, adj. Immodest, impudent, 
indecent, indelicate. Anto., modest. 

Shape, v. Fashion, form, mould. 

Share, v. Apportion, distribute, divide, 
partake, participate. 

Share, n. Dividend, part. Anto., whole. 

Sharpness. n. Acrimony, acuteness, 
penetration, shrewdness, sagacity. Anto., 
dulness. 

Shelter, n. Asylum, refuge, retreat. 

Shelter, v. Cover, defend, harbor, lodge, 
protect, screen. Anto., cast forth. 

Shine, v. Gleam, glare, glisten, glitter. 

Anto., darken. 

Shining. adj. 1. Brilliant, glittering, 
radiant, sparkling. 2. Bright, splendid, re¬ 
splendent. Anto., dark, dim. 

Shock, v. 1. Affright, terrify. 2. Appal, 
disturb, dismay. 3. Offend, disgust. Anto., 
encourage, inspirit. 

Shocking. adj. Dreadful, disgusting, 
terrible. Anto., pleasant. 

Short, adj. 1. Defective, scanty, want¬ 
ing. 2. Brief, concise, compendious, laconic, 
succinct, summary. Anto., long. 

Shorten, v. 1. Abridge, abbreviate, re¬ 
trench. 2. Diminish. Anto., extend. 

Show. n. 1. Displav, parade, pomp. 2. 
Exhibition, representation, sight, spectacle. 

Show. v. Display, exhibit, parade. Anto., 
hide, cover. 

Showy. adj. Gay, gorgeous, gaudy, 
flaunting, garish. 2. Pompous, ostentatious, 
magnificent. Anto., simple, plain. 

Shrewd, adj. Acute, keen, penetrating, 
artful, sly, sagacious. Anto., dull. 

Shudder, v. Shrink, shake, quake, 

quiver. 

Shun. v. Avoid, elude, evade, eschew. 

Anto.,seek. 

Sickly, adj. Diseased, ill, indisposed, 
morbid, sick, unwell. Anto., healthy. 

Sign. n. 1. Mark, note, symptom, prog¬ 
nostic, presage, signal. 2. Omen, token, sym¬ 
bol. 

Signify, v. 1. Betoken, declare, express, 
intimate, testify, utter. 2. Denote, imply. 

Significant, adj. 1. Indicative, expres¬ 
sive, betokening. 2. Momentous. Anto., 
common, usual. 

Silence, n. Stilness, taciturnity, mute¬ 
ness, oblivion. Anto., sound, noise. 

Silence, v. Still, stop, appease. 

Silent, adj. 1. Dumb, mute, speechless. 

2. Still, quiet. Anto., noisy. 

Silly, adj. Absurd, foolish, simple, stupid, 
weak, dull. Anto., sedate. 

Similarity. n. Likeness, resemblance, 
similitude. Anto., unlikeness. 

Simile, n. Comparison, similitude. 

Simple, adj. 1. Elementary, single, not 
complex. 2. Open, artless, sincere. 3. Plain. 

4. Silly. Anto., complex, artful. 

Simplicity. n. Artlessness, plainness, 
singleness. 2. Folly. Anto., artfulness. 

Simply, adv. 1. Merely, only, solely. 2. 
Artlessly. 

Since, conj. As, because, for, insomuch 
as. 

Sincere, adj. 1. Frank, honest, plain, 
genuine. 2. True, upright, incorrupt. Anto., 
false. 

Sinewy, adj. See Robust. 

Single, adj. 1. Unmarried. 2. Alone, 
solitary. 3. Particular, individual. Anto., 
married, double, several. 

Singular, adj. t. Odd, strange, uncom¬ 
mon, rare. 2. Peculiar, exceptional. Anto., 
customary, usual. 

Situation, n. 1. Case, plight, predica¬ 
ment, condition. 2. Locality, place, position, 
site. 

Skilful. adj. Clever, skilled, knowing, 
intelligent, ready, adroit, quick. Anto., un- > 

skilful. 































SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 


689 


Slander, v. Asperse, blacken, defame 
traduce, libel. Auto., praise. 

Slavery, n. Bondage, captivity, servi 
tude, drudgery. Auto., freedom. 

Slender, adj. 1. Fragile, slight. 2. Slim 
3. Limited. An/o., thick. 

Slight, adj. 1. Cursory, desultory, super 
ncial. 2. Slim, weak. Anto., 1. careful. 2 
solid. 

Slight, v. Neglect, scorn. Auto., notice 
commend. 

Slow. adj. 1. Deliberate. 2. Heavy 
dull, stupid. 3. Sluggish. Anto., quick. 

Small, adj. 1. Little, diminutive, stunted 
?• Minute, microscopic. 3. Narrow 
illiberal. Anto., large, great. 

Smell, n. Fragrance, odor, perfume 
scent, stench. 

Smooth, adj. 1. Bland, mild, easy. 2 
Even, level. Anto., rough. 

Smother, v. 1. Stitie, suffocate. 2. Sup 
press. 1 

°dj. Cynical, snappish, wasp 

Sober, adj. 1. Abstemious, abstinent 
temperate, moderate. 2. Grave. Anto., in 
temperate, gay. 

n. 1. Abstinence, temperance 
2. Coolness, soberness, gravity. Anto., in 
temperance, intoxication. 

Social. %>. Companionable, conversable 
familiar, sociable, convivial. Anto., unsocial 

Society, adj. 1. Company, association 
fellowship, corporation. 2. The public. 

Soft. adj. 1. Compliant, ductile, flexible 
tractable, pliant, yielding. 2. Mild, docile 
gentle. Anto., hard. 

Soiled. a< ^‘ Stained, spotted, tarnished 
denied, polluted. Anto., clean, pure. 

Solicit, v. 1. Ask, request. 2. Beg, en 
treat, implore. 3. Beseech, supplicate. Anto. 
give. _ 

Solicitation, n. 1. Importunity, entreaty 
2. Invitation. Anto., offering. 

Solicitude, 71. Anxiety, carefulness, trou 
ble. Anto., carelessness. 

Solid, adj. Firm, hard, stable, substan 
tial. Anto., unstable. 

Solitary, adj. 1. Alone, retired, sole. 2 
Desolate, deserted, remote. 3. Lonely, only 
Anto., crowded. J 

Sombre, adj. 1. Dark, shady, dusky 
sunless. 2. Sad, doleful, mournful. Anto. 
gav, bright. 

Soothe, v. 1. Allay, lessen, mitigate 
ease. 2. Quiet, compose, pacify, appease 
Anto., irritate. 

Sorrow, n. 1. Grief, affliction, trouble 
sadness. 2. Regret. Anto., joy. 

Sort. n. 1. Kind, species. 2. Order 
rank. 3. Manner. 

Sound, adj. 1. Hearty, healthy, sane. 2 
Entire, perfect, unhurt. Anto., ill. 

Sound, n. 1. Tone, noise, report. 2 
Strait. Anto., silence. 

Sour. adj. Acid, acrimonious, acetose 
acetous, sharp, tart. Anto., sweet. 

Source, n. Cause, fountain, origin, rea 
son, spring. 

Spacious, adj. Ample, capacious. Anto. 
small. 

Sparkle, v. 1. Twinkle, glitter, glisten 
scintillate, corruscate. 2. Bubble, effervesce 
Anto., darken. 

Speak. -v. Articulate, converse, dis 
course, pronounce, say, talk, tell, utter. Anto. 
silence. 

Speaking, n. 1. Elocution, declamation 
oratory. 2. Discourse, talk. 

Species, n. Class, kind, sort, race. 

Specific, adj. Particular, special, definite 
Anto., indefinite. 

Specimen, n. Model, pattern, sample 
example. 

Specious, adj. Colorable, feasible, ostens 
ible, plausible, showy. Anto., real,genuine 

Spectator, n. Beholder, bystander, ob 
server. 

Speculation. n. Conjecture, scheme 
theory. 

Speech, n. 1. Talk. 2. Language, dia 
lect. 3. Address, discourse, harangue, ora 
tion. 


Speechless, adj. Dumb, mute, silent. 

Spend, v. Dissipate, exhaust, lay out, 
expend, squander, waste, consume. Anto., 
save. 

Sphere, n. Circle, globe, orb. Anto., 
cube. 

Spill. v. Pour, shed, waste. Anto., fill, 
gather. 

Spirit, n. 1. Ardor, breath, courage, 
temper. 2. Ghost, soul. Anto., mortal. 

Spirited, adj. Active, animated, ardent, 
lively, vivacious. Anto., stupid. 

Spiritless, adj. 1. Dull, cold, apathetic, 
feeble, soulless. 2. Dejected, downcast. 3. 
Stupid, heavy, prosy, insipid. Anto., spirited. 

Spirits, it. Animation, courage, life, vi¬ 
vacity. Anto., dullness. 

Spiritual, adj. Ecclesiastical, imma¬ 
terial, incorporeal, unearthly, heavenly. 
Anto., worldly, terrestrial. 

Spite. n. Grudge, malice, malignity, 
malevolence, pique, rancor. Anto., forgive¬ 
ness. 

Spite, v. Anger, vex, thwart. Anto., 
pardon, please. 

Splendid, adj. 1. Showy, sumptuous, 
gorgeous, magnificent, superb. 2. Beaming, 
radiant, glowing, effulgent, brilliant. 3. No¬ 
ble, heroic. 4. Glorious, eminent. Anto., 
mean, dull, low. 

Splendor, n. Brightness, brilliancy, lus¬ 
tre, magnificence, pomp, pageantry. Anto., 
dullness, poverty. 

Splenetic, adj. 1. Fretful, peevish. 2. 
Gloomy, morose, sullen. Anto., amicable. 

Sport. 71. 1. Amusement, game, pastime, 

play. 2. Diversion, recreation. Anto., work. 

Spotless, adj. 1. Blameless, faultless, 
stainless. 2. Unblemished, unspotted. 3. 
Innocent. Anto., stained. 

Spread, v. 1. Circulate, disseminate, 
distribute, scatter. 2. Disperse, dispense. 3. 
Propagate, diffuse. Anto., collect. 

Spring, v. 1. Emanate, flow, proceed, 
issue. 2. Arise, start, leap. 

Sprinkle, v. Bedew, scatter, besprinkle. 

Sprout, v. Bud, germinate, shoot out. 

Squander, v. Expend, spend, lose, lavish, 
dissipate, waste. Anto., earn, husband. 

Stability, n. Firmness, steadiness, fixed¬ 
ness. Anto., instability, unstableness,Incon¬ 
stancy, fickleness. 

Stain, v. 1. Foul, soil, sully, tarnish, 
blot, spot. 2. Color, tinge. Anto., clean. 

Stain, n. 1. Color, discolor. 2. Dye, 
tinge. 3. Flaw, speck, spot, blemish, blot. 

Stale. adj. 1. Old, faded. 2. Common, 
trite. 3. Vapid, flat, musty, insipid. Anto., 
new, fresh. 

Stammer, v. Falter, hesitate, stutter. 

Stamp. 7 i. Print, mark, impression. 

Standard. 71. Criterion, rule, test. 

Standard, adj. 1. Legal, usual, ap¬ 
proved. 2. Banner. Anto., unusual. 

State. 71. Condition, position, situation, 
predicament, plight. 

Station. 71. Post, place, position, situ¬ 
ation. 

Stay. v. 1. Prop, support. 2. Abide, 
continue, remain. 3. Delay, hinder, stop. 4. 
Support. 

Steadfast, adj. Firm, constant,resolute. 
Anto., shaky. 

Steal, v. 1. Pilfer, purloin, poach, em¬ 
bezzle. 2. Win, gain, allure. Anto., lose. 

Stench. 71. Bad smell, stink. Anto., 
fragrance, perfume. 

Sterling, adj. Real, genuine, true, pure. 
Anto., false, counterfeit. 

Sterility. 71. Barrenness, unfruitfulness, 
aridity. Anto., fruitfulness. 

Stern, adj. Austere, rigid, rigorous, se¬ 
vere, strict. Anto., mild. 

Sticking, adj. Adherent, adhesive, ten¬ 
acious. 

Still, n. 1. Allay, appease, assuage. 2. 
Calm, lull, quiet, silence, pacify. Anto., en¬ 
rage, move, disturb. 

Stimulate, v. Animate, excite, incite, 
arouse, kindle, fire. Anto., depress. 

Stingy, adj. Close, mean, miserly, nig¬ 
gardly, penurious, sordid. Anto., generous. 

Stock. 71. 1. Accumulation, fund, hoard, 

provisions, store, supply. 2. Cattle. 


Stoic. 71. Follower of Zeno. Anto., epi¬ 
curean. 

Stoop, v. Bend, condescend, submit. 
Anto., straighten. 

Stop. n. Cessation, intermission, rest. 
Anto., continuance. 

Stop. v. Check, hinder, impede. Anto., aid. 

Stormy, adj. 1. Gusty, squally, tem¬ 
pestuous, boisterous. 2. Rough, passionate. 
A/ilo., calm. 

Story. 71. Anecdote, incident, memoir, 
tale. 

Stout, adj. See Strong, Robust. 

Strait, adj. 1. Close, narrow. 2. Strict. 
Anto., wide, loose. 

' Strange. Adj. Curious, eccentric, odd, sin¬ 
gular, surprising, wonderful, foreign, unusu¬ 
al. Anto., usual. 

Stratagem. 71. Device, artifice, ruse, 
dodge, trick. Anto., simplicity. 

Strength, n. 1. Authority. 2. Force, 

might, power, potency. Anto., weakness. 

Strenuously, adv. Ardently, zealously, 
earnestly’, vigorously. Anto., weakly, feebly. 

Strict, adj. Accurate, exact, nice, par¬ 
ticular, precise, rigorous, severe, stern. Anto., 
lenient. 

Stricture. 71. Animadversion, censure, 

contraction, criticism. Anto., commendation, 

Strife. 71. Contention, contest, dissension, 
discord. Anto., peace. 

Strong, adj. 1. Efficient, powerful, po¬ 
tent, mighty’. 2. Athletic, stalwart, robust, 
stout. 3. Forcible, cogent. 4. Tough, tena¬ 
cious. Anto., feeble, weak. 

Structure. 71. 1. Make, construction, 

texture. 2. Building, pile, edifice. 

Stubborn, adj. Wilful, obstinate, mulish, 
perverse, obdurate, cantankerous. A/ito., 
docile. 

Stupid, adj. 1. Sleepy, drowsy, torpid. 
2. Flat, heavy, insipid, humdrum. 3. Dull, 
obtuse, foolish, witless, daft. Anto., shrewd. 

Style. 71. Manner, mode, phraseology, 
diction. 

Style, v. Characterize, designate, de¬ 
nominate, entitle, name. 

Subdue, v. 1. Defeat, conquer, van¬ 
quish, overwhelm. 2. Subject, control. A/ito., 
submit. 

Subject, adj. Exposed, liable, subser¬ 
vient. Anto., shielded, secured. 

Subject, /i. Object, matter, material. 

Subject, v. Subdue, subjugate. 

Sublime, adj. Elevated, exalted, grand, 
great, lofty, majestic, high. Anto., mean, 
low, base. 

Submissive, adj. Compliant, obedient, 
humble, yielding. Anto., rebellious. 

Submission. 77. 1. Compliance, obedi¬ 

ence, meekness, humility. 2. Forbearance, 
endurance. A/ito., revolt. 

Subordinate, n. Inferior, dependent. 
Anto., superior. 

Suborn, v. Forswear, perjure. Anto., 
verifv. 

Subsequent, adj. 1. After, following. 
2. Posterior, consequent. Anto., preceding. 

Subservient, adj. 1. Inferior, subordin¬ 
ate. 2. Subject. Anto., superior. 

Subside, v. 1. Abate, sink. 2. Intermit. 
Anto., rise. 

Subsistence. 71. See Sustenance. 

Substantial, adj. 1. Responsible. 2. 
Solid, stout, strong. Anto., unstable. 

Substantiate, v. Prove, establish, cor¬ 
roborate, verify. Anto., disprove. 

Substitute, v. Change, exchange. Anto., 
retain. 

Subterfuge, n. 1. Evasion, shift. 2. 
Quirk, trick. 

Subtile, adj. 1. Fine, delicate, nice. 2. 
Thin, rare, ethereal. Anto., coarse, rough. 

Subtle, adj. 1. Keen, sagacious, pro¬ 
found. 2. Artful, sly, astute, crafty. Anto., 
1. Dull. 2. Open. 

Subtract, v. Deduct, withdraw. Anto., 
add. 

Subvert, v. 1. Invert, reverse. 2. Over¬ 
turn, overthrow. Anto., maintain, build. 

Successful, adj. Fortunate, lucky, pros¬ 
perous. Anto., unsuccessful. 

Succession, n. Order, series. Anto., 
disorder. 






























SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 



690 


Succinct, adj. Brief, concise, terse, com¬ 
pact. Anlo., verbose. 

Succor, v. Aid, help, assist, relieve. 
Auto., injure, harry, mar. 

Sudden, adj. .Hasty, unanticipated, un¬ 
expected, unlooked-for. M//^o.,slow. 

Suffer, v. 1. Allow, permit, tolerate. 2. 
Endure, bear. 

Suffocate, v. Choke, smother, stifle. 
Sufficient, adj. 1. Adequate, enough. 
2. Competent. Auto., want. 

Suffrage. «. 1. Aid, voice. 2. Vote. 
Suggest, v. Allude, hint, insinuate, in¬ 
timate. 

Suggestion, n. Hint, allusion, intima¬ 
tion, insinuation. 

Suitable, adj. 1. Agreeable, becoming. 
2. Apt, fit, expedient. Auto., unfit. 

Suitor, n. 1. Lover, wooer. 2. Peti¬ 
tioner. 

Summary, n. Abstract, compendium, 
digest, synopsis, epitome. 

Summon, v . Bid, call, cite, invite. Anto., 
send. 

Sundry, adj. 1. Different, diverse. 2. 
Several, various. Anto., single. 

Superficial, adj. Flimsy, shallow, slight. 
Anto., thorough. 

Supersede, v. 1. Supplant, displace. 
2. Annul, suspend. 

Supplicate, v. Ask, beg, beseech, en¬ 
treat, implore, solicit. Anto., command. 

Supjmrt. v. Assist, cherish, defend, en¬ 
dure, encourage, favor, forward, maintain, 
nurture, patronize, protect, prop, sustain, 
stay, second, uphold. Anto., destroy, injure. 

Suppose, v. Consider, imagine, appre¬ 
hend, presume, think, believe. 

Supreme, adj. Paramount, first, prin¬ 
cipal, chief, highest, greatest. Anto., sec¬ 
ondary. 

Sure. adj. Certain, confident, infallible. 
Anto., uncertain. 

Surface. n. Outside, superficies. Anto., 
interior. 

Surly, adj. Morose, touchy, cross, fret¬ 
ful, peevish, cynical, rude. Anto., amiable. 

Surmise, v. Believe, conjecture, pre¬ 
sume, suppose, suspect, think. Anto., doubt. 

Surmount, v. Conquer, overcome, rise 
above, subdue, vanquish. Anto., yield. 

Surpass, v. Excel, exceed, outdo, out¬ 
strip. Anto., fall short. 

Surprise, n. Admiration, amazement, as¬ 
tonishment, wonder. Anto., habit, use. 

Surrender, v. Cede, deliver, give up, 
resign, yield. Anto., take. 

Surround, v. Beset, encircle, encompass, 
environ, enclose, invest. 

Survey, n. Prospect, retrospect, review. 
Suspense, n. Doubt, indetermination, 
hesitation. Anto., certainty. 

Suspicion, n. Distrust, jealousy. Anto., 
trust. 

Sustain, v. See Support. 

Sustenance, n. Living, maintenance, 
livelihood, subsistence, support. 

Swarm, n. Crowd, throng, multitude, 
concourse. Anto., few. 

Sweetheart, n. Admirer, beau, lover, 
wooer. 2. Flame, lady-love. 

Sweetness, n. 1. Beauty, loveliness. 2. 
Agreeableness. 3. Mildness, gentleness, 
amiability. Anto., bitterness, sourness. 

Swiftness, n. 1. Celerity, rapidity, fleet¬ 
ness, speed, velocity. Anto., slowness. 

Swiftly, adv. Speedily, post-haste, quick¬ 
ly, apace. Anto., slowly. 

Sycophant, n. Toady, fawner, parasite. 
Symbol, n. Token, sign, figure, emblem. 
Symmetry. n. Harmony, proportion. 
Anto., inharmony. 

Sympathy, n. 1. Pity, kindness, com¬ 
passion, condolence, commiseration, fellow- 
feeling. 2. Harmony, affinity, correlation. 3. 
Agreement. Anto., apathy, mercilessness, 
cruelty. 

Symptom, n. Indication, mark, note, 
sign, token. 

Synopsis, n. See Summary. 

System, n. Method, order, scheme. Anto., 
confusion. 

Systematize. Arrange, order, regulate, 
methodize. Anto., disarrange. 


Table. ?/. 1. Board. 2. Repast, food, 
fare. 3. List, index, catalogue. 

Tacit, adj. Implied, silent, inferred, un¬ 
derstood. Anto., spoken, expressed. 

Taciturnity, w. Reserve, reticence, close¬ 
ness. Anto., loquacity. 

Tact. n. Adroitness, skill, quickness, 
judgment. Anto., awkwardness, gaucherie. 

Talent, n. Ability, capability, faculty, 
endowment, gift. 

Talk. n. Chat, communication, confer¬ 
ence, collpquy, conversation, dialogue, dis¬ 
course. Anto., silence. 

Talk. v. Chat, converse, discourse, speak, 
state, tell. Anto., silence. 

Talkativeness, n. Loquacity, garrulity. 
Anto., taciturnity. 

Tally, v. Accord, agree, match, com¬ 
port, harmonize. 

Tantalize, v. 1. Aggravate, irritate, pro¬ 
voke, tease, torment. 2. Taunt. Anto., please, 
harmonize, gladden. 

Taste, n. 1. Discernment, judgment, per¬ 
ception. 2. Flavor, relish, savor. 

Tattler. n. Gossip, prattler, babbler, 
gadabout. 

Taunt, v. Deride, mock, ridicule, jeer, 
flout. Anto., praise, commend. 

Tax. n. 1. Assessment, custom, duty, toll, 
rate. 2. Contribution, tribute. 

Teacher, n. See Schoolmaster. 

Tedious, adj. Dilatory, slow, tiresome, 
tardy, wearisome. Anto., prompt. 

Tell. v. Acquaint, communicate, dis¬ 
close, impart, inform, mention, make known, 
report, reveal, talk. Anto., listen. 

Temerity, n. Heedlessness, rashness, 
precipitancy. Anto., caution. 

Temper, n. Disposition, temperament. 

2. Humor, mood. 3. Frame. 

Temperate, adj. Abstinent, abstemious, 

moderate, sober. Anto., immoderate. 

Tempest, n. 1. Storm, gale, squall, hur¬ 
ricane, tornado. 2. Tumult, disturbance. 
Anto., calm. 

Tempt, v. 1. Allure, entice, induce, de¬ 
coy, seduce, inveigle. 2. Incline, provoke. 

3. Test, try, prove. 

Temporal, adj. 1. Secular, worldly. 2. 
Sublunary. Anto'., spiritual, eternal. 

Temporary, adj. 1. Transient, transi¬ 
tory. 2. Fleeting. Anto., permanent. 

Tendency, n. 1. Inclination, propensity, 
proneness. 2. Drift, scope. 3. Aim. Anto., 
disinclination. 

Tender, adj. 1. Kind, compassionate, 
mild, lenient, sympathetic. 2. Delicate, soft. 
3. Womanly, effeminate. 4. Feeble, infantile. 
5. Pathetic. 6. Sensitive. Anto., tough, cal¬ 
lous, brutal. 

Tenderness. n. Affection, benignity, 
fondness, humanity. Anto., roughness. 

Tenet. n. Doctrine, dogma, opinion, 
position, principle. 

Term. n. 1. Boundary, limit. 2. Condi¬ 
tion, stipulation. 3. Expression, word. 

Terminate, v. Complete, finish, end, 
close. Anto., commence, begin. 

Terrible, adj. Dreadful, fearful, fright¬ 
ful, terrific, horrible, shocking. Anto., de¬ 
lightful. 

Territory, n. Country, domain, land. 
Terror, n. Alarm apprehension, conster¬ 
nation, dread, fear, fright. Anto., confidence. 

Terse. adj. Compact, concise, pithy, 
sententious. Anto., verbose. 

Test. n. Criterion, experiment, trial, ex¬ 
perience, proof, standard. 

Testify, v. Declare, prove, signify, wit¬ 
ness, affirm. 

Testimony, n. Evidence, proof. 

Text. n. Verse,,passage, sentence, para¬ 
graph. 2. Topic, subject, theme. 3. Body. 

Thankful, adj. Grateful. Anto., un¬ 
grateful. 

Theory, n. Speculation. Anto., practice. 
Therefore, adv. Accordingly,hence, so, 
then, consequently, thence, wherefore. 
Thick, adj. Dense, close. Anto., thin. 
Think. v. Cogitate, conceive, consider, 
contemplate, deliberate, imagine, opine, med¬ 
itate, ponder, surmise. 


Thirsty, adj. 1. Dry, parched. 2. Eager, 
longing, craving, greedy. 

Though, conj. Although, while. 

Thought. n. Cogitation, conception, 
conceit, contemplation, deliberation, fancy, 
idea, imagination, meditation, notion, re¬ 
flection, supposition. 

Thoughtful. adj. Anxious, attentive, 
careful, circumspect, considerate, contem¬ 
plative, deliberate, discreet, reflective, solici¬ 
tous, wary. Anto., thoughtless. 

Thoughtless, adj. Careless, gay, incon¬ 
siderate, foolish, hasty, indiscreet, unreflec- 
tive. Anto., thoughtful. 

Thrive, v. 1. Succeed, prosper. 2. Im¬ 
prove, flourish, grow, advance. Anto., decay. 

Throng. n. Multitude, crowd, horde, 
host. 

Through, prep. By, with. 

Throw, v. Cast, fling, hurl, toss. Anto.. 
catch. 

Thwart, v. 1. Balk, defeat, oppose, ob¬ 
struct, frustrate. 2. Cross, traverse. Anto., 
aid. 

Time. n. Age, date, duration, epoch, era, 
period, season. 

Timely, adj. Prompt, punctual, oppor¬ 
tune, seasonable. Anto., untimely. 

Timidity, n. 1. Bashfulness, coyness, 
diffidence, sheepishness. 2. Timorousness, 
cowardice, pusillanimity. Anto., audacity. 

Tiny. adj. Small, little, puny, diminutive. 
Anto., great, large. 

Tired, adj. Fatigued, harassed, laded, 
wearied. Anto., buoyant, eager. 

Tiresome. adj. Tedious, wearisome. 
Anto., interesting. 

Title, n. j. 'Name, appellation, designa¬ 
tion, cognomen. 2. Right. 3. Inscription. 

Toast. n. 1. Toasted bread. 2. Pledge, 
health. 3. Sentiment. 

Token, ti. Indication, mark, note, sign, 
symptom. 

Tolerate, v. Admit, allow, suffer, per¬ 
mit. Anto., prohibit, decline. 

Tolerance, n. Toleration, sufferance, 
endurance. Anto., intolerance. 

Too. adv. 1. Over, more than enough. 
2. Also, besides. 

Torment, v. 1. Tease, plague, provoke, 
worry, harass, tantalize. 2. Distress, agon¬ 
ize, torture, rack. Anto., appease. 

Torture. See Torment. 

Tortuous. adj. Tormenting, twisting, 
winding. Anto., easy, straight. 

Total. adj. Complete, entire, whole, 
gross. Anto., part. 

Touch, n. Contact, proof, test, feeling. 

Touching, adj. Tender, moving, pa¬ 
thetic, melting, affecting. Anto., ridiculous, 
prosy. 

Tough, adj. t. Cohesive, tenacious. 2. 
Hardv, strong, firm. 3. Stubborn, obdurate, 
refractory. Anto., .tender, brittle. 

Tour. n. Circuit, excursion, ramble, jaunt, 
round, trip. 

Toy. n. Bubble, trifle, bagatelle. 2. Play¬ 
thing, trinket, gimcrack. 

Trace, v. 1. Deduce, derive. 2. Sketch, 
follow. 

Trace, n. Mark, track, vestige, footstep. 

Trade, n. Avocation, business, calling, 
dealing, employment, occupation, traffic. 

Traduce, v. 1. Calumniate, vilify, de¬ 
fame, decry, degrade, depreciate, detract, 
disparage. 2. Censure, condemn. Anto., 
eulogize. 

Tranquility, n. Calmness, quiet, re¬ 
pose, peace, placidity, sereneity. Anto., 
turmoil, tumult. 

Transact, v. Conduct, negotiate, man- 
age. 

Transcend, v. Pass, excel, exceed, sur¬ 
pass, out-do. 

Transient, v. Fleeting, short, moment¬ 
ary. Anto., permanent. 

Transparent, adj. Clear, pellucid, per¬ 
vious, translucent, transpicuous. Anto., 
opaque. 

Transpire, v. 1. Occur, happen. 2. 
come out.be disclosed. 3. Exhale, evaporate, 

Transport, n. 1. Carriage, conveyance, 
transportation. 2. Ecstacy, rapture. 3. 
Rage. Anto., depression, melancholy. 


\[ 


































♦ 


S> 


K 


7 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


69X 


Traveller, n. Tourist, passenger, itiner¬ 
ant, voyager, pilgrim. 

Treacherous, adj. Faithless, perfidious, 
insidious, false. Anto ., faithful. 

Treachery, n. Treason, perfidy, disloy¬ 
alty, perfidiousness. Anto., loyalty. 

Treasonable. adj. Traitorous, treach¬ 
erous. Anto., loyal. 

Treat, v. Entertain, negotiate, feast. 
Tremendous. adj. Dreadful, terrible, 
horrible, frightful, alarming, awful, appal¬ 
ling. Anto., small, mean. 

Trepidation. n. Agitation, emotion, 
tremor, trembling. Anto., calm. 

Trespass. v. 1. Offend, transgress, sin. 

2. Intrude, infringe, encroach. 

Trial, n. 1. Attempt, effort, endeavor, ex¬ 
periment, examination, proof, test. 2. Temp¬ 
tation. 

Tribunal, n. 1. Court, bar, judicatory. 

2. Bench. 

Trick. n. Artifice, cheat, deception, 
fraud, finesse, imposture, sleight, stratagem. 

Trifling, adj. Futile, frivolous, incon¬ 
siderable, light, petty, unimportant. Anto., 
important. 

Trim. v. 1. Lop, clip, shear. 2. Ar¬ 
range, adjust. 3. Deck, decorate, adorn, 
garnish, ornament, embellish. Anto., 1. 
Increase, add. 2. Disarrange. 

Trip. n. Excursion, jaunt, tour, ramble. 
Triumphant, adj. Victorious, success¬ 
ful, conquering. Anto., subdued. 

Troth. *■ n. 1. Faith, fidelity, belief. 2. 
'Truth. Anto., falsehood, lie. 

Trouble, n. Adversity, affliction, anx¬ 
iety, distress, sorrow, vexation. Anto., hap¬ 
piness. 

Trouble, v. Disturb, grieve. 
Troublesome, adj. Annoying, disturb¬ 
ing, harassing, importunate, irksome, per¬ 
plexing, teasing. Anto., pleasant. 

True. adj. Honest, plain, upright, sin¬ 
cere. Anto., treacherous. 

Truce, n. 1. Cessation, intermission. 2. 
Armistice. Anto., continuance. 

Trust, n. Belief, credit, confidence, faith, 
hope. Anto., suspicion. 

Trustee, n. Agent, depositary, fiduciary. 
Truth, n. Faithfulness, fidelity, honesty, 
veracity. Anto., falsehood. 

Tryl v. Attempt, endeavor, essay, test, 
examine. 

Tug. v. Hale, haul, pluck, pull. 

Tuition, n. Schooling, instruction, teach¬ 
ing, education. Anto., ignorance. 

Tumble, v. Drop, fall, rumple, sink, 
turn over. Anto., rise. 

Tune. n. r. Air, strain, melody. 2. Con¬ 
cord, harmony. 

Turbid. adj. Roily, unsettled, thick, 
muddy, foul. Anto., clear. 

Turbulent, adj. Mutinous, riotous, se¬ 
ditious, tumultuous, violent. Anto., quiet. 

Turmoil, n. Disturbance, uproar, com¬ 
motion, tumult. Anto., peace. 

Turn. n. Bent, cast, gyration, meander. 
Anto., disinclination. 

Turn. v. Bend, circulate, contort, dis¬ 
tort, gyrate, revolve, twist, wind, wheel, whirl. 
Anto., straighten, still, quiet. 

Turncoat, n. See Renegade. 
Turpitude, n. Wickedness, baseness, 
depravity, vileness. Anto., goodness. 

Tutor, n. Instructor, governess, gover- 
nante. 

Twaddle, n. Stuff, nonsense, tattle, gos¬ 
sip, balderdash, moonshine. Anto., sense. 
Twilight. n. Dusk. Anto., daylight. 
Twine, n. Encircle, embrace, entwine, 
Anto., untwine. 

Twinge, v. Pinch, pull, twitch, tweak. 
Twinge, n. Pang, grip, twitch, spasm. 
Twit. v. Taunt, blame, reproach. Anto., 
commend. 

Type. n. 1. Printing character. 2. Kind, 
form, sort. 3. Exemplar, original, model. 4. 
Mark, symbol, sign, token, emblem. 

Tyro. n. Beginner, learner, novice. Anto., 
licentiate. 

u 

Ugliness, n. Homeliness, plainness. 2. 
Hideousness, frightfulness. Anto., beauty. 


Ugly. adj. 1. Plain, homely, ordinary, 
unsightly. 2. Horrid, hideous, shocking. 
Anto., pretty. 

Ultimate, adj. Final, last, eventual, ex¬ 
treme. Anto., first. 

Umpire, n. J udge, referee, arbitrator, 
arbiter. 

Unacceptable, adj. Unwelcome, dis¬ 
pleasing, unpalatable. Anto., acceptable. 

Unadorned, adj. Undecorated, ungar¬ 
nished, not embellished, not bedecked. Anto., 
ornate. 

Unbecoming, adj. Improper, unsuita¬ 
ble, indecorous, unseemly. Anto., becoming. 

Unbelief, n. Disbelief, infidelity, skep¬ 
ticism, incredulity, distrust. Anto., belief. 

Unblemished, adj. Pure, clean, spot¬ 
less, sinless, guileless, immaculate. Anto., 
blemished. 

Unbounded, adj. Boundless, illimitable, 
infinite, interminable, unlimited. Anto., lim¬ 
ited. 

Unceasingly, adv. Always, constantly, 
continually, ever, perpetually. Anto., inter¬ 
mittently. 

Uncertain, adj. Doubtful, precarious, 
dubious, equivocal. Anto., certain. 

Unchangeable, adj. Immutable, un¬ 
alterable. Anto., fickle. 

Uncivil, n. Impolite, ungracious, un- 
courteous, rude. Anto., polite. 

Uncommon, adj. Choice, unfrequent, 
rare, scarce, singular, unique. Anto., usual. 

Uncongenial, adj. 1. Unsuited, disa¬ 
greeable. 2. Dissimilar. Anto., congenial. 

Unconcerned, adj. Cool, unaffected, in¬ 
different, careless, apathetic, nonchalant. 
Anto., concerned, excited, vexed. 

Uncover, v. 1. Discover, reveal, dis¬ 
close. 2. Strip, lay bare. Anto., conceal. 

Undaunted, adj. Fearless, brave, bold, 
manful, resolute, intrepid. Anto., weak. 

Undeniable, adj. Evident, obvious, in¬ 
disputable, incontrovertible, irrefragible. 
Anto., disputable. 

Under, prep. Below, beneath, inferior, 
lower, subjacent, subject. 

Understanding, n. 1. Mind, intellect, 
reason, sense. 2. Notion, idea, judgment, 
knowledge. 3. Agreement. 

Undeterminetl. adj. Doubtful, fluctu¬ 
ating, hesitating, irresolute, unsteady, vacil¬ 
lating, wavering. Anto., resolute. 

Unfaithful, adj. False, treacherous, 
faithless, recreant, perfidious, dishonest, dis¬ 
loyal. Anto., faithful. 

Unfit, adj. 1. Inapt, inappropriate, un¬ 
suitable. 2. Incapable, unqualified. Anto., 
competent, convenient. 

Unfold, v. Develop, display, open, di¬ 
vulge, expand, reveal, unravel. Anto., hide. 

Unguarded, adj. 1. Thoughtless, care¬ 
less. 2. Undefended, naked, unprotected. 
Anto., guarded. 

Ungrateful, adj. Unplcasing, thankless. 
Anto., thankful. 

Unhandy, adj. 1. Inconvenient. 2. Clum¬ 
sy, bungling, awkward, maladroit. Anto., 
skilful. 

Unhappy, adj. 1. Afflicted, distressed, 
wretched, miseranle. 2. Disastrous, hard, 
severe. Anto., happv. 

Unhealthy, adj. Diseased, sickly, infirm, 
invalid. Anto., healthy. 

Uniform, adj. 1. Regular, unvarying, 
alike, undeviating. 2. Consonant. Anto., ir¬ 
regular. 

Unkind, adj. Harsh, unamiable, un¬ 
friendly, cruel. Anto., kind. 

Unimportant, adj. Inconsiderable, im¬ 
material, insignificant, trifling, petty, trivial. 
Anto., weighty. 

Unison, n. Accordance, agreement, con¬ 
cord, harmony, melody. Anto., discord. 

Unlawful, adj. Illegal, unlicensed, illicit. 
Anto., legal, lawful. 

Unlearned, adj. Ignorant, illiterate,un¬ 
educated, unlettered. Anto., learned. 

Unlike, adj. Different, dissimilar, dis¬ 
tinct. Anto., similar. 

Unlimited, adj. Boundless, illimitable, 
infinite, unbounded. Anto., limited. 

Unmerciful, adj. Callous, cruel, hard¬ 
hearted, merciless, severe. Anto., merciful. 


Unquestionable, adj. Indisputable, un¬ 
deniable, certain, obvious, incontestable, in¬ 
dubitable, irrefragible. Anto., questionable. 

Unravel, v. Develop, disentangle, extri¬ 
cate, unfold. Anto., tangle. 

Unreal, adj. Shadowy, imaginary, in¬ 
substantial, visionary, ghostly, spectral. 

Unrelenting, adj. Unpitying, relentless, 
rigorous, inexorable, harsh, cruel, merciless. 
Anto., tender. 

Unruly, adj. Ungovernable, mutinous, 
seditious, insubordinate, turbulent. Anto., 
obedient. 

Unseen. adj. Invisible, undiscovered, 
hidden. Anto., visible. 

Unsettled, adj. 1. Vacillating, uncer¬ 
tain, unsteady, wavering, restless. 2. Turbid. 
3. Undetermined. Anto., resolute. 

Unspeakable, adj. Unutterable, inex¬ 
pressible, ineffable. 

Unskilful, adj. Ignorant, wanting art 
or knowledge. Atito., skilful. 

Unsocial, adj. Unsociable, unkind. An¬ 
to., sociable. 

Unstable, adj. 1. Fickle, inconstant, mut¬ 
able, vacillating. 2. Fluctuating. 

Untimely, adj. Premature, inopportune, 
unseasonable. Anto., timely. 

Unsuccessful, adj. Unfortunate, un¬ 
lucky. Anto., successful. 

Untwine, v. Untwist, unwind. 
Unwearied, adj. Indefatigable, restless, 
fresh. Anto., tired. 

Unwilling, adj. Reluctant, loath, indis¬ 
posed, disinclined. Anto., willing. 

Upbraid, v. Blame, censure, reprove, 
condemn, stigmatize, taunt. 

Upright, adj. 1. Erect. 2. Honest, bold. 
Anto., prone. 

Uproar, n. Commotion,hubbub, disturb¬ 
ance, clamor, tumult. Anto., calm. 

Urbanity, n. Civility, courtesy, polite¬ 
ness, suavity. Anto., incivility. 

Urge. •v. 1. Instigate, incite, stimulate, 

spur. 2. Solicit, entreat. 3. Impel, push, 
drive. Anto., hinder. 

Urgent, adj. Importunate, pressing, co¬ 
gent. Anto., unimportant. 

Usage, n. 1. Habit, practice, custom. 
2. Treatment. 

Use. v. 1. Employ. 2. Consume, exhaust, 
expend. 3. Exercise,’ practice. 4. Accustom, 
inure. Anto., abuse. 

Useful, adj. Helpful, serviceable, good, 
convenient, profitable. Anto., futile._ 

Usually, adv. Regularly, ordinarily,gen¬ 
erally, habitually. Anto., seldom. 

Useless, adj. Fruitless, ineffectual, vain. 
Utility, n. Use, service, usefulness, avail, 
benefit, profit. Anto,, worthlessness. 

Utterly, adv. Wholly, completely, fully, 
totally. Anto., partly. 

Uttermost, adj .' 1. Utmost, greatest. 2. 
Extreme, farthest. Anto., nearest, next. 
Unusual, adj. Rare, uncommon. 
Unwelcome, adj. 1. Unacceptable. 2. 
Displeasing. Anto., welcome. 


Vacant, adj. 1. Empty, unfilled, void. 
2. Thoughtless. Anto., filled. 

Vacancy, n. 1. Chasm. 2. Emptiness, 
vacuity. Anto., fulness, plethora. 

Vacate, v. 1. Make empty, void, annul. 
2. Leave. Anto., occupy. 

Vague, adj. Indefinite, uncertain, dim, 
doubtful, obscure. Anto., definite. 

Vain. adj. 1. Inflated, conceited, over¬ 
weening, ostentatious. 2. Useless, fruitless. 
Anto., modest. 

Valediction, n. Taking leave, farewell. 
Anto., welcome. . 

Valid, adj. Sound, just, logical, suffi¬ 
cient, grave. Anto., invalid. 

Valuable, adj. Costly, precious, worthy, 
estimable. Anto., worthless. 

Value, n. Account, appreciation, esti¬ 
mation, price, rate, worth. 

Value, v. Appraise, assess, calculate, 
appreciate, compute, esteem, estimate, regard, 
respect. . 

Vanity, n. Arrogance, conceit, pride, 
haughtiness. Anto., modesty, humility. 


YL 


\ 


“ 











































692 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


f 


Vanquish, v. Beat, overcome, quell, 
conquer ; subdue, confuse, defeat, subjugate. 
Anto., yield. 

Vapid, adj. 1. Insipid, flat, spiritless. 2. 
Dull, tame, prosy. Anto., spirited. 

Variable, adj. Changeable, capricious, 
fickle, unsteady, versatile, wavering. Anto., 
unchangeable. 

Variance, n. Discord, strife, discussion. 
Anto., unison. 

Valuation. 71. 1. Difference, deviation, 
diversity. 2. Change, mutation. Anto., per¬ 
manence. 

Variety, n. 1. Difference, diversity. 2. 
Multiplicity. Auto., simplicity. 

Various, adj. 1. Different, several, sun¬ 
dry, many. 2. Diversified. Anto., simple. 

Veer. v. Turn, shift, change course. 

Vegetate, v. Spring, grow, shoot, ger¬ 
minate. 

Vehement, adj. 1. Passionate, violent, 
furious. 2. Earnest, fervid. 3. Forcible, 
strong. Anto., gentle. 

Velocity. 71. Speed, rapidity, swiftness, 
fleetness. Anto., sloth. 

Venerate, v. Honor, respect, revere, 
adore. A 7 ito., despise. 

Veracity. 71. Candor, truthfulness, hon¬ 
esty, ingenuousness. Anto., mendacity. 

Verbal, adj. 1. Literal. 2. Unwritten, 
oral, spoken, parole. Anto., written. 

Verbose, adj. Diffuse, wordy, windy, 
prolix. Anto., succinct, terse, concise. 

Vestige. 71. Mark, trace, track, footstep. 

Vexation, n. 1. Annoyance, trouble, tor¬ 
ment. 2. Displeasure. Anto., pleasure. 

Vice. 71. Wickedness, crime, sin, moral 
ill. A 7 ito., virtue. 

Vicinity. 71. 1. Neighborhood. 2. Prox¬ 
imity, nearness. 

View. n. 1. Scene, vista, prospect. 2. 
Picture, sketch. 3. Sight, inspection. 4. 
Opinion. 

Vigilant, adj. Watchful, circumspect. 
Anto., heedless. 

Vigorous, adj. 1. Strong, energetic. 2. 
Healthy, sound. 3. Racy, pointed. A7ito., 
weak. 

Violent, adj. 1. Fierce, hot. 2. Vehe¬ 
ment, boisterous, furious, impetuous, turbu¬ 
lent 3. Sharp, intense. Anto., gentle. 

Vile. adj. 1. Wicked, knavish. 2. Low, 
base, mean, foul. Anto., noble, lofty. 

Vindicate, v. Clear, defend, protect, 
justify. Anto., implicate, criminate. 

Virtue, n. 1. Goodness, integrity, worth. 
2. Power, efficacy. A/ito., vice. 

Virtuous, adj. 1. Pure, chaste. 2. Good, 
righteous, exemplary. Anto., bad. 

Visible, adj. 1. Patent, apparent, evi¬ 
dent, obvious. 2. Perceptible. A/ito., unseen. 

Visionary, adj. Enthusiastic, fantastic, 
fanatical, imaginary. A/ilo., cautious, 
sensible. 

Visitation. 71. 1. Affliction, trouble, dis¬ 

pensation. 2. Inspection. 

Vital, adj. Necessary, essential, indis¬ 
pensable. Anto., unnecessary. 

Vitiate, v. Contaminate, pollute, defile, 
infect, sophisticate, taint. Anto., cleanse. 

Vivid, adj. Active, bright, clear, lively, 
lucid, quick, sprightly, striking. Anto., dull. 

V olatility, n. Flightiness, giddiness, lev- 
ity, lightness, liveliness. Anto., steadiness. 

Voluptuous, adj. Sensual, epicurean, 
luxurious. Anto., stoical, harsh. 

Voluptuary. 71. Epicure, sensualist. 
Anto., ascetic. 

Vouch. z>. 1. Attest, warrant, avouch. 
2. Back, support. Anto., deny. 

Vulgarity, -v. Coarseness, grossness, 
meanness, rudeness, vileness. Anto., refine¬ 
ment. 

w 

Wag. 7 i. Humorist, joker, jester, wit. 
Anto., dullard, butt. 

Wages. 71., pi. Pay, salary, hire, com¬ 
pensation, stipend, earnings. 

Wakeful, adj. Sleepless, vigilant, watch¬ 
ful, wary. Anto., drowsy. 

Walk'. 71. Carriage, gait, path. 

Walk. 77. Perambulate. 


Wander, v. 1. Stray, swerve, digress, 
deviate. 2. Stroll, ramble, roam. Anto., run. 

Want. 71. 1. Need. 2. Poverty, indigence. 
3. Lack, dearth, scarcity. Anto., plenty. 

W ares. 71. Commodities, goods, mer¬ 
chandise. 

Wariness. 71. Care, caution, circumspec¬ 
tion, forethought, prudence. Anto., heed¬ 
lessness. 

Warlike, adj. 1. Hostile, inimical. 2. 
Military, bellicose. Anto., peaceful. 

Warm. adj. 1. Genial, pleasant, sunny. 
2. Not cold. 3. Fervent. 4. Excited. Anto., 
cool. 

Warmth. 71. 1., Glow. 2. Zeal, vehe¬ 

mence, ardor, fervor. Anto., coolness. 

Warning. 71. 1. Monition, admonition. 

2. Notice. 3. Caution. 

Wary. adj. Vigilant, cautious, discreet, 
guarded. Auto., heedless. 

Waste. 7 i. 1. Loss, consumption. 2. 

Refuse. 3. Pillage, ruin, destruction, devas¬ 
tation. Anto., replenishment, frugality. 

Wasteful, adj. 1. Destructive. 2. Pro¬ 
fuse, lavish, extravagant. Anto., frugal.^ 

Watchful. adj. Vigilant, careful, wary, 
circumspect, alert. Anto., careless. 

Wave. 71. Ripple, undulation, swell, 
surge, billow, breaker. 

Waver. v. 1. Fluctuate, vacillate. 2. 
Flicker, wave. Anto., steadfast. 

Way. 71. 1. Path, route, course, road. 2. 

Mode, method. 

Wayward, adj. Forward, perverse, ob¬ 
stinate, willful, headstrong, stubborn. A/ilo., 
docile. 

Weak. adj. 1. Feeble, languid, weakly. 
2. Frail, sickly. Anto., strong. 

Weaken, v. Debilitate, unnerve, enfee¬ 
ble. 2. Lower, reduce. Anto., invigorate. 

Weakness, n. Debility, effeminacy. An¬ 
to., strength. 

Wealth. 7 i. Abundance, fortune, afflu¬ 
ence, riches, opulence. Anto., poverty. 

Weariness, n. Exhaustion, languor, 
lassitude, fatigue. Anto., buoyancy, vigor. 

Weary, adj. Annoy, fatigue, harass, 
jade, subdue, tire, vex. Anto., fresh, un¬ 
wearied. 

Wedding, n. Bridal, espousal, mar¬ 
riage, nuptials. Anto., divorce. 

Wedlock. n. Marriage, matrimony. 

Wee. adj. Small, little, diminutive, pigmy', 
tiny. Anto., large. 

Weight, n. 1. Gravity, ponderosity. 2. 
Burden, load. 3. Influence, importance. An¬ 
to., lightness. 

Weighty, adj. Momentous, important. 
Anto., unimportant, light, trifling. 

Welcome, adj. 1. Pleasing, acceptable, 
agreeable, gratifying. 2. Admitted with 
pleasure. Anto., unwelcome. 

Welfare. 11. Weal, well-being, success, 
prosperity. Anto., failure, poverty. 

Whet. v. 1. Stimulate, quicken, excite, 
arouse, kindle. 2. Sharpen. Anto., dull. 

Whimsical, adj. Capricious, fantastic, 
fanciful. Anto., commonplace. 

Whiten, v. Bleach, fade, blanch. Anto., 
blacken. 

Whole, adj. All, sum, total. Anto., part. 

Wicked, adj. 1. Bad, ill, evil, iniquitous. 
2. Sinful, vicious, impious. Anto., virtuous. 

Willingly, adj. Spontaneously, volun¬ 
tarily, readily. Anto., unwillingly. 

Wily. adj. Crafty, artful, sly, cunning, 
insidious, subtle, snaky. Anto., ingenuous. 

Win. v. 1. Gain, get, obtain, acquire, 
earn, achieve. 2. Gain over. Anto., lose. 

Wince, v. Shrink, flinch, startle. 

Winding, adj. Meandering, serpentine, 
flexuous, sinuous. Anto., straight. 

Windy, adj. Breezy, stormy, gusty, tem¬ 
pestuous, blustering. Anto., calm. 

Wisdom, n. 1. Sagacity, sense, judg¬ 
ment. 2. Learning, knowledge. 3. Reason¬ 
ableness. Anto., ignorance. 

Wise. adj. 1. Sage, sensible, judicious. 
2. Erudite. 3. Sly, subtle, knowing. Anto., 
ignorant. 

Wit. n. Burlesque, contrivance, humor, 
irony, ingenuity, stratagem. Anto., dulness. 

With. prep. By, through. 


Withdraw, -v. 1. Recant, disavow. 2. 

Remove. 3. Disengage, wean, go back, re¬ 
cede, retire, retreat, retrograde, take back. 
Anto., 1. Endorse, come forward. 

Withhold. v. 1. Retain. 2. Restrain. 
Anto., release. 

Withstand. v. Oppose, thwart, resist. 

Witness, n. Deponent, evidence, testi¬ 
mony. 

Wonder, n. 1. Marvel, prodigy, miracle. 
2. Surprise, amazement. 3. Curiosity. Anto., 
commonplace. 

Wonderful, adj. Admirable, astonish¬ 
ing, curious, marvellous, strange, surprising. 
Anto., usual, customary. 

Wood. n. 1. Copse, grove, forest. 2. 
Timber. 

Word. n. Expression, promise, term. 

Worker, n. 1. Performer. 2. Operative, 
laborer, workman, artificer. Anto., idler. 

Worship, n. Adore, honor, revere. Anto., 
execrate. 

Worth. n. Desert, excellence, merit, 
price, rate, value. Anto., worthlessness. 

Worthless, adj. Valueless, degraded. 
Anto., valuable. 

Worthy. adj. 1. Good, excellent, estim¬ 
able, virtuous. 2. Deserving. Anto., un¬ 
worthy. 

Wretched, adj. 1. Poor, had, vile, piti¬ 
ful. 2. Calamitous. 3. Forlorn, unhappy, 
miserable. Anto., happy. 

Written, adj. Penned, inscribed, tran¬ 
scribed. Anto., verbal. 

Writer. 11. 1. Author. 2. Scribe, clerk, 

secretary, amanuensis. 3. Penman. 

Wrong, v. Maltreat, injure, abuse, op¬ 
press. Anto., right. 

Wrong, adj. Untrue, faulty, not fit, un¬ 
suitable, unjust. Anto., right. 

Wrong. 71. Injustice, error, injury. 
Anto., right, justice. 

Wrongly, adv. Erroneously. 

W rouglit. v. Done, performed, effected. 

Wry. adj. Crooked, askew, distorted, 
twisted. Anto., straight. 

X 

Xeres. n. Sherry. 

Xiphoid, adj. Swordlike, ensiform. 

Xylography, n. Wood-engraving. 

• Y 

Yearly, adj. Annual!}', per annum. 

Yeoman, n. Farmer, freeholder, com¬ 
moner. Auto., gentleman. 

Yet. coiij. or adv. But, however, never¬ 
theless, notwithstanding, still, hitherto, fur¬ 
ther, besides. 

Yield. v. Allow, cede, communicate, 
comply, conform, concede, give, produce, 
permit, resign, surrender. Anto., take. 

Yield. 71. Crop, product. 

Yielding, adj. Compliant, su missive, 
facile, unresisting, accommodating. Anto., 
stubborn. 

Yoke. 7 i. 1. Link, chain, tie, bond. 2. 

Servitude, dependence, bondage, subjection, 
thraldom. 

Yoke. v. Associate, join, link, couple, 
conjoin. Anto., sever. 

Youth. n. i. Lad, boy, stripling. 2. 
Young men, young women. 3. Juniorit}', 
minority, juvenility, adolescence. A 7 ito., age. 

z 


Zany. adj. Clown, buffoon, harlequin, 

Punch, fool. 

Zeal. 71. Earnestness, fervor, cordiality, 
ardor, passion. 

Zealot. 71. Enthusiast, bigot, fanatic, 
visionary. 

Zealous, adj. Earnest, fervid, glowing, 
burning, passionate. Anto., lukewarm. 

Zenith, n. Top, apex, summit,pinnacle, 
climax. Anto., nadir. 

Zephyr. 71. 1. Breeze. 2. West wind. 

Anto., calm. 

Zero. 71. Cipher, naught, nothing. 

Zest. n. Flavor, taste, savor, relish. 

Zone. n. x. Girdle, belt. 2. Clime, re- \ 

gion. 

































A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES. 


6 93 


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Including Sentences and Quotations from both Living and Dead Languages. 


j|HILE it is not considered good form 
to interlard one’s discourse with 
phrases culled from foreign languages, 
there are many cases wherein a 
thought is more aptly and strikingly put in 
Latin or" French than in English. When this 



is the case it is certainly permissible to use the 
term which puts the idea in the best shape. It 
is also well to have at hand a comprehensive 
dictionary which will show at a glance just what 
a word, phrase or sentence in a foreign tongue 
means. The pages which follow Contain the most 
complete lexicon of the kind ever published. 


A has , F., down with. 

Ab extra, L., from without. 

Ab initio , L., from the beginning. 

Ab infra, L., from within. 

Ab normis sapiens, L., wise without teaching. 
Ab origine, L., from the origin. 

Ab ovo, L., from the egg. 

Absente reo, L., the accused being absent. 

Ab uno disce omnes, L., from one judge all. 
Ab urbo condila, L., from the founding of the 
city. 

A compte, F., on account. 

A corps perdu, F., headlong. 

Adaperturam, L., at the opening. 

Ad astraper aspera, L., to the stars through 
difficulties. (The motto of Kansas.) 

Ad calendas Graecas, L., at the Greek 
calends; meaning never, as the Greeks 
had no calends. 

Ad captandum valgus, L., to catch the vulgar. 
Adetindem, L., toHhe same (degree). 

Ad extremum, L., to the extreme. 

Adfinem, L., to the end. 

Ad infinitum, L., to infinity. 

Ad interim, L., in the meantime. 

A discretion, F., at discretion. 

Ad libitum, L., at pleasure. 

Ad literam, L., (even) to the letter. 

Ad modum, L., after the manner of. 

Ad nauseum, L., to disgust. 

Ad referendum, L., for reconsideration. 

Ad rent, L., to the point. 

Ad unum omnes, L., every one. 

Ad valorem, L., according to value. 

Ad vitam out culpam, L., for life or for fault. 
FEqua animo, L., with mind content. 

JEtatis suee, L., of his (or her) age. 

Affaire d amour, F., a love alfair. 

Affaire d'honneur, F., a duel. 

Affaire de coetir, F., an affair of the heart. 

A fortiori, L., for stronger reason. 

A la campagne, F., as in the country. 

A la Francaise, F., after the French (man¬ 
ner). 

A PAnglaise, F., after the English (manner). 
A la mode, F., after the fashion. 

Alere flammam, L., to feed the flame. 
Alfresco, It., in the open air. 

Alls volat propriis, L., she flies with her own 
wings. (The motto of Oregon.) 

Allez votes en, F., begone. 

Allans, F., come. 

Alma mater , L., benign mother. 

Alter ego, L., another self. 

Alter idem, L., another similar. 

Amende honorable, F., an apology. 

A tnense et tlioro, L., from bed and board. 
Amor patriot, L., patriotism. 


Amourpropre, F., self-love. 

Ancien regime, F., the old rule. 

Anglice, L., in English. 

An tin is opibusque parati, L., prepared with 
our lives and our money. (Motto of South 
Carolina.) 

Anno cetatis suee, L., in the year of his (or 
her) age. 

Anno Christi, L., in the year of Christ. 

Anno Domini, L., in the year of our Lord. 

Anno mundi, L., in the year of the world. 

Annus mirabilis, L., the wonderful year. 

Ante bellum, L., before the war. 

Ante lucent, L., before the light. 

Ante meridiem, L., before noon. 

A V out ranee, F., to the death. 

Aperctt, F., sketch. 

Aplomb, F., firmly; perpendicularly. 

A posteriori, L., reasoning from effect to 
cause. 

A priori, L., reasoning from cause to effect. 

Apropos, F., to the point; by-the-by. 

Aiiua vitee, L., water of life; alcohol. 

Argumentum adhominem, L., an argument to 
the man. 

Argumentum ad ignorantiam, L., an argument 
for the ignorant. 

Argumentum ad baculum, L., an argument 
with a cudgel. 

Arrierepensee, F., on after-thought. 

Ars est celare artem, L., art is to conceal art. 

Ars longa, vita brevis est, L., art is long, life 
is short. 

Asians ad lyratti, L., an ass with a harp ; an 
absurdity. 

A teneris annis, I-., from tender years. 

Ait daces fortuna juvat, L., fortune favors the 
bold. 

Aude sapere, L., dare to be wise. 

Audi alteram, L., hear the other side. 

Au fait, F., expert. 

Au fond, F., at the bottom. 

Au pis alter, F., at the worst. 

Aurapopttlaris, L., the wind of public favor. 

Atirea mediocritas, L., the golden mean. 

Au reste, F., for the rest 

Ail revoir, F., till the next meeting. 

Aussitot dit, aussitot fait, F., no sooner said 
than done. 

A ut a mat a lit odit mulier, L., a woman either 
loves or hates. 

Aut CcEsar aut nullus, L., either C.csar or 
nobody. 

Auto da fe, Portuguese, an act of faith; burn¬ 
ing a heretic. 

Auto de se, L., suicide. 

Au troisieme, F., on the third floor. 


Aut vincere aut mori, L., either to conquer or 
die. 

Aux armes, F., to arms. 

Avant-coureur, F., a forerunner. 

Avant-propos, F., a preface. 

Avecpermission, F., with permission. 

A verbis ad verbera, L., from words to blows. 

A vinculo matrimonii, L., from the bond of 
marriage. 

A volante, F., at pleasure. 

A voire saute, F., to your health. 

Das bleu, F., a blue-stocking. 

Beau ideal, F., an ideal beauty. 

Beau monde, F., the fashionable world. 

Beaux esprits, F., men of wit. 

Beauxyeux, F., beautiful eyes. 

Bel esprit, F., a brilliant mind. 

Bete noir, F., a bugbear. 

Bien seance, F., politeness. 

Billet doux, F., a love-letter. 

Bis dot qui cito dot, L., he gives twice who 
gives quickly. 

Blase, F., surfeited. 

Bon ami, F., good friend. 

Bonbon, F., candy. 

Bonfire malgre, F., willing or unwilling. 
Bonnomie, F., good nature. 

Bonis avibus, L., with lucky omens. 

Bon jour, good day. 

Bonne, F., nurse. 

Bonne foi, F., good faith. 

Bon soir, F., good evening. 

Brevimanu, L., immediately. 

Brutum fulmen, L., harmless thunder. 

Cacoetlies loquendi, L., an itch for speaking. 
Cacoethes scribendi, L., an itch for writing. 

Ccetera desunt, L., the remainder wanting. 
Cteteris paribus, L., other things being 
equal. 

Candida pax, L., white-robed peace. 

Caput, L., head. 

Caput mortuum, L., the dead body. 

Carpe diem , L., be merry to-day. 

Cassis tutissima virtus, L., virtue is the 
safest shield. 

Casus belli, L., a cause for war. 

Catalogue raisonne, F., a topical catalogue. 

Causa sine qua non, L.,an indispensable con¬ 
dition. 

Cedant arma togee, L., let arms yield to the 
gown. 

Cen'est que le premier pas qui coute, F., the 
first step alone is difficult. 

C'est a dire, F., that is to say. 

C/iacun a son gout, F., every man to his taste. 

A 


/ 




































A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES. 


694 


Chef\ F., the head; the leading person or 
part. 

Chef dc bataillon, F., a major. 

Chef de cuisine, F., head cook. 

Chef-d'oeuvre, F., a masterpiece. 

Che re amie, F., a dear friend; a mistress. 

Chevalier a'Industrie, F., knight of industry; 
one who lives by his wits. 

Chiaroscuro, It., distribution of light and 
shade in painting. 

Cicerone, It., a guide who explains curiosities. 

Cicisbeo, It., a male attendant on a married 
lady. 

Ci-devant, F., formerly; heretofore. 

Cogilo, ergo sunt, L., I think, therefore I exist. 

Colubrem in si/mfavere, L., to cherish a ser¬ 
pent in one’s bosom. 

Comme ilfont, F., as it should be. 

Compagnon de voyage, F., a traveling com¬ 
panion. 

Compos mentis, L., sound of mind. 

Compte rendu, F., account rendered; report. 

Comte, F., count. 

Comtesse, F., countess. 

Con amore, F., with love or great pleasure; 
earnestly. 

Con commodo. It., at a convenient rate. 

Conditio sine qua non, L., a necessary condi¬ 
tion. 

Confrere, F., a brother of the same monas¬ 
tery ; an associate. 

Conge d’el ire, F., leave to elect. 

Coiiquiescat in pace, L., may he rest in peace. 

Conseil de famille, F., a family consultation. 

Conseil d'etat, F., a council of state; a privy 
council. 

Constantia et virtute, L., by constancy and 
virtue. 

Consuetudo pro lege servatur, L., custom is 
observed as law. 

Contra bonos mores, L., againstgood morals 
or manners. 

Coram nobis, L., before.us. 

Coram non judice, L., before one not the 
proper judge. 

Corps de garde, F., a body of men who watch 
in a guard-room ; the guard-room itself. 

Corps diplomatique, F., a diplomatic body. 

Corpus Christi, L., Christ’s body. 

Corpus delicti, L., the body, substance or 
foundation of the offence. 

Corrigenda, L., corrections to be made. 

Couleur de rose, F., rose-color; an aspect of 
beauty and attractiveness. 

Coup d'essai, F., a first attempt. 

Coup d'etat, F., a stroke of policy in state af¬ 
fairs. 

Coup de grace, F., the finishing stroke. 

Coup de main, F., a sudden attack; a bold 
effort. 

Coup d'oeil, F., a slight view; a glance. 

Coup de theatre, F., a theatrical effect; clap¬ 
trap. 

Coute qu'il coute, F., let it cost what it may. 

Credula res amor est, L., love is a credulous 
affair. 

Crescite et multiplicamini, L., grow, or in¬ 
crease, and multiply. (The motto of Mary¬ 
land.) 

Crimen Icesce majestatis, L., the crime of high 
treason. 

Cui bono? L., for whose benefit is it? what 
good will it do? 

Cul de sac, F., the bottom of a bag; a place 
closed at one end. 

Cum grano salt’s, L., with a grain of salt; 
with some allowance. 

Cum privilcgio, L., with privilege. 

Currente calomo, L., with a running or rapid 
pen. 

Custos retulorum, L., the keeper of the rolls. 

Da capo, It., from the beginning. 

D'accord, F., agreed ; in tune. 

Damnant quod non intelligunt, L., they con¬ 
demn what they do not understand. 

De bonne grace, F., with good grace; will¬ 
ingly. 

De die in diem, I-., from day to day. 

De facto, L., from the fact; really. 

Degage, F., easy and unconstrained. 

Dei gratia, L., by the grace of God. 

Dejeuner a la fourchette, F., a meat breakfast. 


Dejure, L., from the law; by right. 

Delenda est Carthago, L., Cartilage must be 
blotted out or destroyed. 

De mortuis nil nisi bonum, L., let nothing but 
good be said of the dead. 

De nihilo nihil fit, L., of nothing, nothing is 
made. 

De novo, L., anew; over again from the be¬ 
ginning. 

Deogratias, L., thanks to God. 

Deo juvante, L., with God’s help. 

Deo, non fortitna, L., from God, not from for¬ 
tune. 

Deo volente, L., God willing; by God’s will; 
usually contracted into D. V. 

Deprofundis, I.., out of the depths. 

Dernier ressort, F., a last resource. 

De bonis non, L., of the goods not adminis¬ 
tered on. 

Degustibus non est disputandum, L., there is 
no disputing about tastes. 

Desagremeut, F., something disagreeable. 

Desideratum, L., a thing desired. 

Desunt ccetera, L., the other things are want¬ 
ing ; the remainder is wanting. 

De irop, F., too much, or too many; not 
wanted. 

Dies iree, L., the day of wrath. 

Dies non, L., in law, a day on which judges 
do not sit. 

Dicu defend le droit, F., God defends the 
right. 

Dieu et mon droit, F., God and my right. 

Dignus vindice nodus, L., a knot worthy to be 
untied by such an avenger, or by such 
hands. 

Diipenates, L., household gods. 

Diimajores, L., the greater gods. 

Dii minores, L., the lesser gods. 

Dirigo, L., I direct or guide. (The motto of 
Maine.) 

Disjecta membra, L., scattered limbs or re¬ 
mains. 

Distingue, F., distinguished; eminent. 

Distrait, F., absent in thought. 

Divertissement, F., amusement; sport. 

Divide et impera, L., divide and rule. 

Dolce far niente, It., sweet doing-nothing; 
sweet idleness. 

Double entente, F., double meaning; a play 
on words ; a word or phrase susceptible of 
more than one meaning. (Incorrectly writ¬ 
ten, double entendre.) 

Dramatispcrsoiue, L., the characters or per¬ 
sons represented in a drama. 

Droit desgens, F., the law of nations. 

Dulce do mum, L., sweet home; homewards. 

Dulce est desipere in loco, L., it is pleasant to 
jest or be merry at the proper time. 

Dulce et decorum est pro palria mori, L., it is 
sweet and becoming to die for one’s coun¬ 
try- . 

Dum spiro, spero, L., while I breathe, I hope. 

Dum vivimus, vivamus, L., while we live, let 
us live. 

Eau de Cologne, F., a perfumed liquid; 
Cologne water. 

Eau de vie, F., water of life; brandy. 

Ecce homo, L.,behold the man. (Applied to a 
picture representing our Lord given up to 
the Jews by Pilate, and wearing a crown of 
thorns.) 

Editioprinceps, L., the first edition. 

Ega/ite, F., equality. 

Ego et rex metis, L., I and my king. 

El dorado, Sp., the golden land. 

Emigre, F., an emigrant. 

Empressement, F., ardor; zeal. 

Eli arriere, F., in the rear; behind. 

En attendant, F., in the meanwhile. 

En avaut, F., forward. 

En deshabille, F., in undress. 

En echelon, F., in steps; like stairs. 

En famille, F., in a domestic state. 

Enfansperdus, F., lost children; in mil., the 
forlorn hope. 

En grande tame, F., in full dress. 

En masse, F., in a body. 

En passant, F., in passing; by the way. 

En rapport, F., in relation ; in connection. 

En regie , F., in order; according to rules. 

En route, F., on the way. 


Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem, F., 
with the sword she seeks quiet peace under 
liberty. (The motto of Massachusetts.) 

En suite, F., in company. 

Entente cordiale, F., evidence of good-will 
towards each other, exchanged by the chief 
persons of two states. 

Entourage, F., surroundings; adjuncts. 

En tout, F., in all; wholly. 

Entree, F., entrance; first course at meals; 
freedom of access. 

Entremets, F., dainties; small dishes. 

Entrepot, F., a warehouse; a place for de¬ 
positing goods. 

Entre nous, F., between ourselves. 

Entresol, F., a suite of apartments between 
the basement or ground floor and the sec¬ 
ond floor. 

En verite, F, in truth; verily. 

Epluribus unum, L., one composed of many. 
(The motto of the United States, as one 

g overnment formed of many independent 
tates.) 

Errare est humanum, L., to err is human. 

Esprit borne, F., a narrow, contracted mind. 
Esprit du corps, F., spirit of the body; fel¬ 
lowship ; brotherhood. 

Esse quant videri, L., to be, rather than to - 
seem. 

Esto perpetua, L., let it be perpetual; let it 
endure forever. 

Et catera, L., and the rest; etc. 

Et hoc genus omne, L., and everything of the 
kind. 

Et seq 11 elites, L., Et sequenlia, L., and those 
that follow. 

Et sic de ceeteris, L., and so of the rest. 

Et tu. Brute! L., and thou also, Brutus! 
Eureka, Gr., I have found it. (The motto of 
California.) 

Ex adverse, L., from the opposite side. 

Ex amino, L., with the soul; heartily. 

Ex capite, L., from the head; from memory. 
Ex cathedra, L., from the bench, chair or 
pulpit; with high authority. 

Excelsior, L., higher; more elevated. (The 
motto of New York.) 

Exceptio probate regulam, L., the exception 
proves the rule. 

Excerpta, L., extracts. 

Ex concessio, L., from what is conceded. 

Ex curia, L., out of court. 

Ex dono, L., by the gift. 

Exempli gratia, L., for example; for instance. 
Exeunt, L., they go out. 

Exeunt ontned, L., all go out. 

Exit, L., departure; a passage out; death. 
Exitus actafirobat, L., the event justifies the 
deed. (\V ashingtou's motto.) 

Ex necessitate ret, L., from the necessity of 
the case. 

Ex nihilo nihilfit, L., out of nothing, nothing 
comes. 

Ex officio, L., by virtue of office. 

Ex parte, L., on one part or side only. 

Ex pede Herculitm, L., we see a Hercules 
from the foot; we judge the whole from the 
specimen. 

Experimentum crttcis, L., the experiment of 
the cross; a decisive experiment; a most 
searching test. 

Experto crede, L., trust one who has had ex¬ 
perience. 

Ex post facto, L., after the deed is done. 

Ex tempore, L., off-hand; without premedi¬ 
tation. 

Extra muros, L., beyond the walls. 

Ex uno disce otnnes, L., from one learn all; 

from one you can judge the whole. 

Ex usu, L., from or by use. 

Facetice, L., witticisms; humorous pleas¬ 
antry. 

Facile princeps, L., evidently pre-eminent; 
the admitted chief. 

Facilis est descensus Avcrni, L., the descent 
to hell is easy; the road to evil is easy. 
Fac-simile, L., an exact copy; a likeness. 

Fait accompli, F., a thing already accom¬ 
plished. 

Fas est et ab hoste doceri, L., it is well to 
learn even from an enemy. 


























A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES. 


6 95 


Fata Morgana , It., a meteoric phenomenon 
nearly allied to the mirage. 

Fata obslant, L., the Fates oppose it. 

Fauteuil, F., an easy chair. 

Faux pas, F., a false step ; a mistake. 

Fecit, L., he made it; put after an artist’s 
name. 

Felicitas multos habet amicos, L., prosperity 
has many friends. 

Feliciier, L., happily; successfully. 

Felo de se, L., a self-murderer; one who com¬ 
mits felony by suicide. 

Femme couverte, F., a woman covered or 
sheltered; a married woman. 

Femme de chambre, F., a woman of the cham¬ 
ber; a chamber-maid. 

Femme sole, F., a single woman; an unmar¬ 
ried woman. 

Fene naturce, L., of a wild nature—said of 
wild beasts. 

Festina lente, L., hasten slowly. 

Fete champetre, F., a rural festival. 

Fete Dieu, F., the Corpus Christi festival of 
the Roman Catholic Church. 

Feu dejoie ; F., a bonfire ; a discharge of fire¬ 
arms on joyful occasions. 

Fiat justitia, mat caelum, L., let justice be 
done, though the heavens should fall. 

Fidei defensor, L., defender of the faith. 

Fides Punica, L., Punic faith ; treachery. 

Fidus Achates, L., faithful Achates; a true 
friend. 

Fille de chat&bre, F., a girl of the chamber; a 
chamber-maid. 

Finem respice, L., look to the end. 

Fit fabricando faber, L., a workman is made 
by working; practice makes perfect. 

Flagrante delicto, L., in the commission of 
crime. 

Fortiter in re, L., with firmness in acting. 

Fortuna fa-vetfortibus, F., fortune favors the 
brave. 

Fronti nulla fdes,L., no faith in appearance; 
there is no trusting to appearances. 

Fuit Ilium, L., Troy has been. 

Fulmen brutum, L., a harmless thunderbolt. 

Functus officio, L., having discharged his 
office. 

Furor loquendi, L., a rage for speaking. 

Furorpoeticus, L., poetic fire. 

Furor scribendi, L., a rage for writing. 

Garde die corps, F., a body-guard. 

Garde mobile, F., a guard liable for general 
service. 

Gardez bien, F., guard well; take care. 

Genius loci, L., genius of the place. 

Gens d’a'rmes, F., armed police. 

Gens de lettres, F., literary people. 

Gens de me me famille, F., birds of a feather. 

Genlithomme, F., a gentleman. 

Germanice, L., in German. 

Gloria in excelsis, L., glory to God in the 
highest. 

Gloria Patri, L., glory to the Father. 

Gradies adParnassum, L., a step to Parnas¬ 
sus, a mountain sacred to Apollo and the 
Muses; a book containing aids in writing 
Greek or Latin poetry. 

Grandeparure, F., full-dress. 

Gratis dictum, L., mere assertion. 

Guerre a l’ out ranee, L., war to the uttermost. 

Hand possibles cequis, L., not with equal 
steps. 

Haul gout, F., fine or elegant taste; high 
flavor or relish. 

Ilic ct ubiqtee, L., here and everywhere. 

Hiefacet, L., here lies. 

Hie labor, hoc opus est, L., this is labor, this 
is work. 

Hie sepulttes, L., here buried. 

Hint illce lacrimce, L., hence proceed these 
tears. 

Hisloriette, F., a little or short history; a 
tale. 

Jloipolloi, Gr., the many; the rabble. 

Hombre de ten libro, Sp., a man of one book. 

Homme d’esprit, L., a man of talent; a witty 
man. 

Honi soft qui vialy pense, F., evil be to him 
who evil thinks. 

Honorarium, L., a fee paid to a professional 
man. 


Horribile dictu, L., terrible to be said. 

Hors de combat, F., out of condition to fight. 
Hortus siccus, L., collection of dried plants. 
Hotel de ville, F., a town hall. 

Hoteldes InvUlides, L., the military hospital 
in Paris. 

Humanum est errare, L., to err is human. 

Ich dien, Ger., I serve. 

Id est, L., that is—abbreviated to i.e. 
Imitatores Servian pecus, L., imitators; a ser¬ 
vile herd. 

Imperium in imperio, L., a government with¬ 
in a government. 

In externum, L., forever. 

In armis, L., under arms. 

In articulo mortis, L., at the point of death. 
Index expurgatorius, L., a list ot prohibited 
books. 

In esse, L., in being. 

In extenso, L., at full length. 

In extremis, L., at the point of death. 

In flagrante delictu, L., taken in the act. 

In forma pauperis, L., in the form of a poor 
person. 

In foro conscientiee, L., before the tribunal of 
conscience. 

Infra dignitatem, L., below one’s dignity. 

In hoc signo vinces, L., under this sign, or 
standard, thou shalt conquer. 

In hoc statu, L., in this state or condition. 

In limine, L., at the threshold. 

In loco, L., in the place. 

In loco parentis , L., in the place of a parent. 
In medias res, in the midst of things. 

In memoriam, L., to the memory of; in mem¬ 
ory. 

In nomine, L., in the name of. 

In nubibus, L., in the clouds. 

In pace, L., in peace. 

Inperpetuum, L., forever. 

In petto, L., within the breast; in reserve. 

Inpleno, L., in full. 

In posse, L., in possible existence; that may 
be possible. 

In pmsenti, L., at the present time. 

In propria persona, L., in one’s own person. 
In puris naturalibus, L., in naked nature; 
quite naked. 

In re, L., in the matter of. 

In rent, L., against the thing or property. 

In reruni natura, L., in the nature of things. 
In situ, L., in its original situation. 
Insouciance, F., indifference; carelessness. 

In statu quo, L., in the former state. 

Inter alia, L., among other things. 

Inter nos, L., between ourselves. 

Interpocula, L., between drinks. 

In terrorevi, L., as a warning. 

Inter se, L., among themselves. 

In totidem verbis, L., in so many words. 

In tolo, L., in the whole; entirely. 

Intra tnuros, L., within the walls. 

In transitu, L., on the passage; during the 
conveyance. 

In vacuo, L., in empty space; free, or nearly 
free, from air. 

In vino veritas, L., there is truth in wine. 
Invita Minerva, L., against the will of 
Minerva. 

Ipse dixit, L., he himself said it; dogmatism. 
Ipsissima verba, L., the very words. 
Ipsissimis verbis, L., in the very words. 

Ipso facto, L., in the fact itself. 

Ira furor brevis est, L., anger is a short mad¬ 
ness. 

facta est alea, L., the die is cast. 

Je ne sais quoi, F., I know not what. 

Jet d'eau, F., a jet of water. 

Jett de mots, F., a play on words; a pun. 

Jeu d’esprit, F., a play of spirit; a witticism. 
Jubilate Deo, L., be joyful in the Lord. 
Judicium Dei, I.., the judgment of God. 
Jupiter tonans, L., J upiter the thunderer. 
Jure divino, L., by divine law. 

Jure humano, L., by human law. 

Jus canonicum, L., canon law. 

Jus civile, L., civil law. 

Jus divinum, I-., divine law. 

Jus gentium, L., the law of nations. 


Justemilieu, F., the golden mean. 

Lahore et honore, L., by labor and honor. 

Labor ipse voltiplas, L., labor itself is a 
pleasure. 

Labor omnia vincit, L., labor conquers every¬ 
thing. 

La fame non vuol leggi, It., hunger obeys no 
laws. 

Laissezfaire, F., let alone; suffer to have its 
own way. 

Lapsus calami, L., a slip of the pen. 

Lapsus lingua, L., a slip of the tongue. 

Lapsus memorial, L., a slip of the memory. 

Lares et penates, L., domestic and household 
gods. . , . , 

Latet angitis in herba, L., a snake lies hid in 
the grass. 

Laudaria viro laudato, L., to be praised by a 
man who is himself praised. 

L'aveuir, F., the future. 

Latis Deo, L., praise to God. 

Le beau monde, F., the fashionable world. 

Le bon temps viendra, F., the good time will 
come. 

Le grand monarqtte, F., the great monarch— 
applied to Louis XIV. of France. 

Le pas, F., precedence in place or rank. 

Le roi le vent, F., the king wills it. 

Lese-majeste, L., high treason. 

L'etoi/e die nord, F., the star of the north— 
the motto of Minnesota. 

Le tout ensemble, F., all together. 

Lettre de cachet, F., a sealed letter; a royal 
warrant. 

Lettre de marque, F., a letter of marque or 
reprisal. 

Lex non scripta, L., the unwritten law. 

Lex scripta, L.,the written law; the statute 
law. 

Lex talionis, L., the law of retaliation. 

Liberum arbitrium, L., free will. 

Lima labor, I.., the labor of the file; the slow 
polishing of a literary composition. 

Lis sub judice, L., a case not yet decided. 

Lite pendente, L., the law-suit hanging; dur¬ 
ing the trial. 

Litera scripta manet, L., the written letter 
remains. 

Loci communes, L., common places. 

Locosy ninos dizen la verdad, Sp., children 
and fools speak the truth. 

Locum leuens, L., one holding the place; a 
deputy or substitute. 

Locus standi, L., a place for standing; a right 
to interfere. 

Locuspenitentia, L., place for repentance. 

Lusus natura, L., a sport or freak of nature. 

Ma chere, F., my dear—fern. 

Mafois, F., upon my faith. 

Magna est veritas et prevalebit, L., truth is 
great and it will prevail. 

Magnum bonum, L., a great good. 

Magnum opus, L., a great work. 

Maintien, F., deportment; carriage. 

Mat’s on de saute, F., a private hospital. 

Maitre d'hotel, F., a house-steward. 

Malade du pays, F., home-sickness. 

Mala fide, L., with bad faith; treacherously. 

Mai a propos, F., ill-timed. 

Male parla male dilabuntur, L., things ill 
gotten are ill spent. 

Malgre nous, F., in spite of us. 

Manibus pedibttsqiie, L., with hands and feet. 

Malum in se. L., bad in itself. 

Maim propria, L., with one’s own hand. 

Mardi Gras, F., Shrove Tuesday. 

Materfamilias, L., the mother of a family. 

Mauvaise honte, F., false shame. 

Mauvais si jet, F., a bad subject; a worthless 
fellow. 

Maximus in minimis, L., very great in trifling 
things. 

Medio tntissimus ibis, L., you will go most 
safely in a middle course. 

Mega biblion, mega falcon, Gr., a great book 
is a great evil. 

Me judice, L., I being judge; in my opinion. 

Memento mori, L., remember death. 

Mens Sana in corpore sano, L., a sound mind 
in a sound body. 

Mens sibi conscia recti, I-., a mind conscious 
of rectitude. 




























696 


A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES. 


Mens agitat molem, L., mind moves matter. 
Menu, F., a bill of fare. 

Mesalliance, F., improper association; mar¬ 
riage with one of lower station. 

Meum et tit urn, L., mine and thine. 

Mirabile dictu, L., wonderful to be told. 
Mirabile visa, I.., wonderful to be seen. 

Mise en scene, F., the getting up for the stage, 
or the putting in preparation for it. 

Modus operandi, L.,the manner of operation. 
Mollia temporafundi, L., times favorable for 
speaking. 

Mon ami, F., my friend. 

Mon cher, F., my dear—masc. 

Montani semper liberi, L., mountaineers are 
always freemen—the motto of West Vir¬ 
ginia. 

More majorum, L., after the manner of our 
ancestors. 

More suo, L., in his own way. 

Motuproprio, L., of his own accord. 

Mult urn in parvo, L., much in little. 

Mundus vult decipi, L., the world wishes to 
be deceived. 

Mutatis mutandis, L., the necessary changes 
being made. 

Natale solum, L., natal soil. 

Necessitas non /label legem, L., necessity lias 
no law. 

Nee, F., born, family or maiden name. 

Ne exeat, L., let him not depart. 

Nefronti crede, L., trust not to appearance. 
Nemine contradicente, L., without opposition. 
Nemine dissentiente, L., no one dissenting; 
without opposition. 

Nemo me impune lacessit, L., no one provokes 
me with impunity—the motto of Scotland. 
Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit, L., no 
one is wise at all times. 

Nemo repente fait turpissimus, L., no man be¬ 
comes a scoundrel at once. 

Ne plus ultra, L., nothing further. 

Ne quid detriment1 respublica capiat, L., lest 
the republic should receive harm. 

Ne sutor ultra crepidam, L., let the shoe¬ 
maker stick to his last. 

Nil admirari, L., to wonder at nothing. 

Nil desperandum, L., never despair. 
N’importe, F., nevermind. 

Nisi dominus,frustra, L., unless the Lord 
helps, nothing is gained. 

Nisi prizes, L., unless previously. 

Nit or in adversum, L., I strive against op¬ 
position. 

Noblesse oblige, F., nobility obliges; nobles 
must act nobly. 

Nolens volens, L., willy-nillv. 

Noli me tangere, L., don’t touch me; hands 
off. 

Nolteprosequi, L.,to abandon prosecution. 
Nolo episcopari, L., I am unwilling to be a 
Bishop. 

None deguerre, F., a war name; an assumed 
name. 

None de plume, F., a pen-name; name assumed 
by an author. 

Non compos mentis, L., not in one’s right 
mind. 

Non constat, L., it does not appear. 

Non est inventus, L., he has not been found. 
Non multa, sed multum, L., not many things, 
but much. 

Non nobis solum, L., not for ourselves alone. 
Non mi ricordo, It., I do not remember. 
Noscitur a sociis, L., he is known by his 
companions. 

Nota bene, L., markwell. 

Nous avons change tout cela, F., we have 
changed all that. 

Notes verrons, F., we shall see. 

Nunquam non paratus, L., never unprepared. 

Oderint deem meturant, L., let them hate, pro¬ 
vided they fear. 

Odiprofaniem, L., I hate the vulgar. 

Odium theologicum, L., theological hatred. 
Ollapodrida, Sp., a mixture. 

Omne ignotum pro magnifico, L., everything 
unknown is thought'magnificent. 

Omnia vincit amor , L., love conquers all 
things. 

On dit, F., they say; people say. 

^ 


Onusprobandi, L., the burden of proof. 

Ora pro nobis, L., pray for us. 

O temporal O moresl L., 0I1, the times! oh, 
the manners. 

Otieem cum dignitate, L., ease with dignity. 
Outre, F., extravagant; extreme. 


Palmam qui meruit ferat, L., who merits 
bears the prize. 

Par excellence, F.,by way of eminence; in the 
highest degree. 

Par hasard, F., by chance. 

Pari passu, L., with equal step. 

Parvenu, F., an upstart; a rich “snob.” 
Paterfamilias, L., the father of a family. 
Pater patriae, L., the father of his country. 
Pax vobiscum, L., peace be with you. 

Peccavi, L., I have sinned. 

Pendente lite, L., while the suit is pending. 
Per annum, L., by the year. 

Per capita, L., by the head ; on each person. 
Per contra, L., on the other hand. 

Per diem, L., by the day; every day. 
Pericielum in mora, L., danger in delay. 

Per se, L. by itself. 

Personnel, F., the staff; persons in any ser¬ 
vice. 

Petitioprincipii, L., begging the question. 
Petite, F., small; little-fein. 

Piece de resistance, F., a joint of meat. 

Pinxit, L., he (or she) painted it. 

Pis alter, F., a last expedient. 

Plebs, L., the common people. 

Poeta nascitur, non Jit, L., a poet is born, not 
made. 

Point d'appui, F., point of support. 

Populus vult decipi, L., the populace wish to 
be deceived. 

Posse comitatus, L., the power of the country; 
the force that may be summoned by the 
sheriff. 

Poste restante, F., to be left till called for. 
Post meridiem, L., afternoon. 

Post mortem, L., after death. 

Post obitum, L., after death. 

Pour purler, F., a consultation. 

Pour prendre conge, F., to take leave. 
Precietise, F., a blue stocking; a conceited 
woman. 

Preux chevalier, F., a gallant gentleman. 
Prima donna. It., the first lady; the princi¬ 
pal female singer in Italian opera. 

Prima facie, L., on the first face; at first 
sight. 

Primus inter pares, L., first among his peers. 
Pro bonopublico, L., for the public good. 
Proces verbal, F., verbal process; the taking 
of testimony in writing. 

Pro et con, L., for and against. 

Pro forma, L., for the sake of form. 

Propatria, L., for one’s country. 

Pro tempore, I.., for the time. 

Punica fdes, L., Punic faith, i.e., treachery. 


f uanlum sufficit, L., as much as is sufficient. 
juelque chose, F., something. 

i iiidnunc, L., what now ; a gossip. 
uidpro quo, L., an equivalent. 
uivive, F., who goes there? 
uod erat demonstrandum, L., which was to 
be demonstrated. 

Quondam, L., at one time; once. 


Kara avis, L., a rare bird. 

Rechauffe, F., warmed over; stale. 

Recherche, F., choice; elegant. 

Redacteur, F., an editor. 

Redivivus, L., restored to life. 

Reductio ad absurdum, L., reduction to an 
absurdity. 

Rentes, F., public funds; national securities. 

Requiescat in pace, L., may he (or she) rest 
in peace. 

Res angusta dorni, L., the narrow things at 
home; poverty. 

Resgestte, L., things done. 

Resurgam, L., I shall rise again. 

Revenons a nos moutons, F., let 11s return to 
our sheep ; come back to the subject. 

Robe de chambre, F., a dressing-gown. 

Roue, F., a rake. 

Rouge et noir, F., red and black; a game. 


Sanctum sanctorum, L., the holy of holies. 

Sangfroid, F., cold blood ; self-possession. 

Sans culottes, F., without breeches; red re¬ 
publicans. 

Sartor resartus, L., the tailor patched. 

Sauve quipeut, F.,save himself who can. 

Savoirfat re, F., knowing how to do things. 

Savoir vivre, F., knowledge of the world. 

Semper idem, L., always the same. 

Semper paratus, L., always prepared. 

Sequitur, L., it follows. 

Seriatim, L., in order. 

Sic ittir ad astra, L., thus the road to immor¬ 
tality. 

Sic semper tyrannis, L., thus always with 
tyrants. _ • 

Sic transit gloria ntundi, L., so passes the 
glory of the world. 

Sic volo, siejubeo, L., thus I will; thus I com - 
mand. 

Similia similibus curantur, L., like things are 
cured by like. 

Sintilis stmiligaudet, L., like is pleased with 
like. 

Si monumentum queer is, circumspice,’L.,ii you 
seek his monument, look around. 

Sine die, L., without a day appointed. 

Sine qua non, L., an indispensable condition. 

Siste, viator, L., stop, traveler. 

Si vis pacent, para helium, L., if you wish 
peace, prepare for war. 

Soi-disant, F., self-styled. 

Spero meliora, L., I hope for better things. 

Spirituel, L., intellectual; witty. 

Spolia opima, L., in ancient llome, the spoils 
of a vanquished general taken by the vic¬ 
torious general; a rich booty. 

Spottle sua, L., of one’s own accord. 

Statu quo ante bellum, L., in the state which 
was before the war. 

Status quo, L., the state in which. 

Slet, L., let it stand. 

Suaviter in modo,fortiter in re, L., gentle in 
manners, brave in deed. 

Sub judice, L., under consideration. 

Subpcena, L., under a penalty. 

Sub rosa, L., privately. 

Sub silentio, L., in silence or stillness. 

Suigeneris, L., of its own kind. 

Summum bonurn, L., the chief good. 

Summum jus, suntma injuria, L., the rigor 
of the law is the height of oppression. 

Surgit amari aliquid, L., something bitter 
arises. 

Sttum cuique, L., let each have his own. 

Tableau vivant, F., the representation of 
some scene by groups of persons. 

Tabula rasa, L., a smooth or blank tablet. 

Tcedium vitee, L., weariness of life. 

Taut pis, F., so much the worse. 

Te Deunt, L., a hymn of thanksgiving. 

Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis, 
L., the times are changed and we are 
changed with them. 

Tempus fugit, L., time flies. 

Terminus ad quern, L., the time to which. 

Terminus a quo, L., the time from which. 

Terra Jirma, L., solid earth. 

Terra incognita, L., an unknown country. 

Tertium quid, L., a third something. 

Tete-a-tete, F., head to head; a private con¬ 
versation. 

Toga virilis, L., the gown of manhood. 

To kalon, Gr., the beautiful; the chief good. 

Totidem verbis, L., in just so many words. 

To ties quoties, L., as many as. 

Toto ccelo, L., by the whole heavens; diamet¬ 
rically opposite. 

Toujours pret, F., always ready. 

Tour de force, F., a feat of strength or skill. 

Tout-a-fait, F., entirely; wholly. 

Tout ensemble, F., the whole taken together. 

Troja fuit, L., Troy was. 

Trottoir, F., a sidewalk. 

Tu qttoque. Brute! L., and thou, too,Brutus ! 

Tutor et ultor, L., protector and avenger. 

Tuurn est, L., it is your own. 

Ubimel, ibi apes, L., where honey is, there 
are bees. 

Ultima ratio regum, L., the last argument of 
kings; war. 




































A LEXICON OF FOREIGN PHRASES. 


697 


Ultima Thule, L., the utmost b oundary or 
limit. 

Ln bienfait n’esl jamais perdu, F., a kindness 
is never lost. 

Unfait accompli, L., an accomplished fact. 

Unguibus et rostro, L.., with claws and beak. 

Usque ad nauseam, L., to disgust. 

Us us loquendi, L., usage in speaking. 

Utile du/ci, L., the useful with the pleasant. 

Ut infra, L,., as below. 

Uti possidetis, L., as you possess; state of 
present possession. 

Ut supra, L., as above stated. 

Vade mecum, L., go with me. 

Vale, L., farewell! 

Valet de chambre, F., an attendant; a foot¬ 
man. 

Varite lectiones, L., various readings. 

Variorum nota, L., the notes of various 
authors. 

Veni, vidi, vici, L., 1 came, I saw, I conquered. 

Vera pro gratiis, L., truth before favor. 


Verbatim et literatim, L., word for word and 
letter for letter. 

Verbum sat sapienti, L., a word is enough for 
a wise man. 

Veritasprevalebit, L., the truth will prevail. 

Veritas vincit, L., truth conquers. 

Vestigia, L., tracks; vestiges. 

Vestigia nulla retrorsum, L., no footsteps 
backward. 

Vexata queeslio, L., a disputed question. 

Vice, L., in the place of. 

Vice versa, L., the terms being exchanged. 

Videlicet, L., to wit; namely. 

Vide ut supra, L., see what is stated above. 

Viet armis, L.,by force and by arms; by 
main force. 

Vincit qui se vincit, L., he conquers who 
overcomes himself. 

Vinculum matrimonii, L., the bond of mar¬ 
riage. 

Virtus laudatur, et alget, L., virtue is prais¬ 
ed, and is not cherished (is starved). 

Virtus semper viridis, virtue is ever green 
and blooming. 


Vis inertia?, L., the power of inertia; resist¬ 
ance. 

Vivat regina! L., long live the queen ! 

Vivat rex, L., long live the king. 

Viva voce, L., by the living voice; by oral 
testimony. 

Vivat respublica! L., long live the republic! 

Vive la republiquel F., long live the republic 

Vive I'empereur! F., long live the emperor! 

Vive le roi! F., long live the king/ 

Voila, F., behold ; there is or there are. 

Volens etpotens, L., able and willing; motto 
of Nevada. 

Volente Deo, L., God willing. 

Volenti non fit injuria, L., no injustice is done 
to the consenting person. 

Vox et prcetera nihil, L., a voice and nothing 
more; sound without sense. 

Vox populi, vox Dei, L., the voice of the peo¬ 
ple is the voice of God. 

Vulgo, L., commonly. 

Vultus esl index animi, L., the face is the in¬ 
dex of the mind. 





1 





*»«IfE L^NtjlL 

S!jE OF [jEl$.S«- 




SSIIiggsF 



AMETHYST, .PEACE OF MIND. 

Regarded by the ancients as having the power to dispel drunkenness. 

BLOOD-STONE, .1 mourn your absence. 

Worn by the ancients as an amulet or charm, on account of the medi¬ 
cinal and magical virtues it was supposed to possess. 

DIAMOND, .PRIDE. 

Awarded supernatural qualities from the most remote period down 
to the Middle Ages. Has the power of making men courageous 
and magnanimous. Protects from evil spirits. Influences 
the gods to take pity upon mortals. Maintains con¬ 
cord between husband and wife, and for this 
reason was held as the most appropriate 
stone for the espousal ring. 

EMERALD, .SUCCESS IN LOVE. 

Mentioned in the Bible as worn in the breast-plate of the High Priest 
as an emblem of chastity. 

"! 'I 


RUBY, .A CHEERFUL MIND. 

An amulet against poison, sadness, evil thoughts. A preservative of 
health. Admonishes the wearer of impending 


danger by changing color. 

SAPPHIRE, .CHASTITY. 

Procures favor with princes. Frees from enchantment. Prevents 
impure thoughts. 

TOPAZ, .FIDELITY. 

Calms the passions. 

TURQUOISE, .SUCCESS AND HAPPINESS. 

Preserves from contagion. 

GARNET, .FIDELITY IN EVERY ENGAGEMENT. 

ONYX, .RECIPROCAL LOVE. 

OPAL, .PURE THOUGHTS. 

PEARL, . PURITY AND INNOCENCE. 


-L c/ -jL 1. j 4 



























































698 


DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. 



^pfeAlLY is the use of abbreviations increasing in America. The demand for continual short-cuts in writing as well as in everything 
else has built a great number of logogriphs, which without a comprehensive glossary must be often unintelligible. Below will 
be found all the abbreviations in good English usage. 


a. In commerce, to. 

< 3 ). In commerce, at. 

A.A.G. Assistant Adjutant-Gen¬ 
eral. 

A.A.P.S American Association 
for the Promotion of Science. 

A.A.S. Academia Americana So¬ 
das, Fellow of the American 
Academy (of Arts and Sci¬ 
ences). 

A.A.S.S. Americana Antiquar¬ 
ians Societatis Socius, Member 
of the American Antiquarian 
Society. 

A.B. Artium Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Arts. 

A.B.C.F.M. American Board of 
Comissioners for Foreign Mis¬ 
sions. 

Abp. Archbishop. 

Abr. Abridgment. 

Abbr. Abbreviation. 

A.B.S. American Bible Society. 

A.C. Ante Christum, before 
Christ; Arch-Chancellor. 

Acad. Academy. 

Acct. Account; Accent. 

A.C.S. American Colonization 
Society. 

A.D. Anno Domini, in the year 
of our Lord. 

A.D.C. Aide-de-camp. 

Ad. Advertisement. 

Adi. Adjective. 

Adjt. Adjutant. 

Adjt.-Gen. Adjutant-General. 

Ad lib. Ad libitum, at pleasure. 

Adm. Admiral; Admiralty. 

Adm. Ct. Admiralty Court. 

Admr. Administrator. 

Admx. Administratrix. 

Ad v. Ad valorem, at (or on) the 
value. 

Adv. Adverb; Advent; Adver¬ 
tisement. 

Ah t. JEtatis, of age ; aged. 

A.F.&A.M. Ancient Free and 
Accepted Masons. 

A.F.B.S. American and Foreign 
Bible Society. 

A.G. Adjutant-General. 

Agr. Agriculture. 

A.G.S.S. American Geograph¬ 
ical and Statistical Society. 

Agt. Agent. 

A.H. Anno Hegirce, in the year 
of the Hegira. 

A.H.M.S. American Home Mis¬ 
sionary Siciety. 

Ala. Alabama. 

Aid. Alderman. 

A.L. of H. American Legion of 
Honor. 

Alex. Alexander. 

Alg. Algebra. 

Alt. Altitude. 

/ 


A.M. Anno mundi, In the year 
of the world; Artium Mag- 
isler, Master of Arts; Ante 
meridiem, Before noon, morn¬ 
ing. 

Amb. Ambassador. (See Emb.) 

Amer. American. 

AMM. Amalgama, Amalgama¬ 
tion. 

Amt. Amount. 

An. Anno, In the year. 

An.A.C. Anno ante Christum, 
in the year before Christ. 

An at. Anatomy. 

Anc. Ancient; anciently. 

And. Andrew. 

Ang. Sax. Anglo-Saxon. 

Anon. Anonymous. 

Ans. Answer. 

Ant. Antiquity. 

Anth. Anthony. 

Aor. or aor. Aorist. 

A.O.S.S. Americans Orientalis 
Societatis Socius, Member of 
the American Oriental Society. 

A.O.U.W. Ancient Order of 
United Workmen. 

Ap. Apostle; Applus. 

Ap. Apud, in the writings of; as 
quoted by. 

Apo. Apogee. 

Apoc. Apocalypse. 

App. Appendix. 

Apr. April. 

A.Q.M.G. Assistant Quarter¬ 
master-General 

A.R. Anna Regina, Queen Anne. 
Anno regni, year of the reign. 

A.R.A. Associate of the Royal 
Academy. 

Arab. Arabic, or Arabia. 

Ariz. Ter. Arizona Territory. 

Arg. Argumenlo, by an argu¬ 
ment drawn from such a law. 

Arith. Arithmetic. 

Ark. Arkansas. 

A.R.R. In the year of the reign 
of the king. 

A.R.S.S. b ellow of the Royal 
Society of Antiquaries. 

Art. Article. 

A.S. or Assist. Sec. Assistant 
Secretary. 

A.S. A. American Statistical As¬ 
sociation. 

Asst. Assistant. 

Asst. Surg. Assistant Surgeon. 

A.S.S.U. American Sunday- 
School Union. 

Astrol. Astrology. 

Astron. Astronomy. 

A.T. Arch-Treasurer. 

A.T.S. American Tract Society. 

Ats. At suit of. 

A tty. Attorney. 

Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General. 


A.U.A. American Unitarian As¬ 
sociation. 

Aub. Theol. Sem. Auburn Theo¬ 
logical Seminary. 

A.U.C. In the year of Rome. 
Aug. August. 

Aur. Gold, Aurum. 

Auth. Ver. Authorized version 
(of the Bible). 

Av. Average; Avenue. 

Avoir, Avoirdupois. 

A. Y.M. Ancient York Masons, 
b. Born. 

B. A. Bachelor of Arts. 

B.A. British America. 

Bal. Balance. 

Balt. Baltimore. 

Bar. Barrel; Barleycorn. 

Bart, or Bt. Baronet. 

Bbl. Barrel. 

B.C. Before Christ. 

B.C. Bachelor of the Classics. 

B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law. 

B.D. Bachelor of Divinity. 

Bd. Bound. 

Bds. orbds. Boards (binding). 

B.E. Bachelor of the Elements. 
Benj. Benjamin. 

Bk. Book. 

B. Lit. Bachelor of Letters. 

B.LL. Bachelor of Laws. 

Bl., Bis. Barrel, Barrels. 

B.M. Bachelor of Medicine. 

B. Mus. Bachelor of Music. 

Bor. Borough. 

Bost. Boston. 

Bot. Botany. 

Bp. Bishop. 

B.R. The King’s or Queen’s 
Bench. 

Brig. Brigade; Brigadier. 
Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General. 
Brit. British; Britain. 

Brit. Mus. British Museum. 
Bro., Bros. Brother, Brothers. 
Br. Univ. Brown University. 
Brus. Brussels. 

B.S. Bachelor of Science. 

Bu., Bush. Bushel. 

B.V. Blessed Virgin. 

B.V. Farewell. 

B. V.M. Blessed Virgin Mary. 

C. , Ch. orChap. Chapter; Consul. 

C. or Cent. A hundred, Centum. 

C.A. Commercial Agent. 

cat. par. Other things being 
equal, Coeterisparibus. 

Cad. Eng. Cadet Engineer. 

Cal. California; Calends; Cal¬ 
endar. 

Cam. Cambridge. 

Can. Canon ; Canada. 

Cant. Canticles. 

Cap, or c. Chapter, Caput, cap- 
itulum. 

Caps. Capitals. 


Capt. Captain. 

Capt.-Gen. Captain-General. 
Card. Cardinal. 

C.A.S Fellow of Conr^ecticut 
Academy, Conn. Academis So¬ 
cius. 

Cash. Cashier. 

ca. resp., ca. sa. A legal writ. 

Cath. Catholic. 

Cath. Inst. Catholic Institute. 

C.B. Companion of the Bath. 

C.B Common Benchi 

C.C. County Clerk; County 
Commissioner. 

C.C. Caius College; Account 
Current. 

C.C. Chancellor Commander; 
Consular Clerk. 

C.C.C. Corpus Christ! College. 

C.C.P. Court of Common Pleas. 

C.E. Civil Engineer; Canada 
East. 

Cel. or Celt. Celtic. 

Cen. Century; Centennial. 

Cf., or cf. Compare, Confer. 

C.G. Commissary-General; Con¬ 
sul-General. 

C.G.S. Commissary-General of 
Subsistence. 

C.H. Court-house. 

Ch. Church; Chapter; Charles; 
Chaldron. 

Chamb. Chamberlain. 

Chanc. Chancellor. 

Chap. Chapter; Chaplain. 

Chas. Charles. 

Chem. Chemistry. 

Chf. E. Chief Engineer. 

Chf. Con. Chief of Construction. 
Chf. Med. Pur. Chief Medical 
Purveyor. 

Chf. Orel. Chief of Ordance. 

Chr. Christopher. 

Chron. Chronicles. 

Cin. Cincinnati. 

C.J. Chief Justice. 

Cl. Clergyman. 

Cld. Cleared. 

Clk. Clerk. 

C.M. Vincentians or Lazarists. 
C.M. Master in Surgery. 

C.M. Common Meter. 

C.M.G. Companion of the Order 
of St. Michael and St. Georgq. 
Co. Company; County. 

Coad. Coadjutor. 

Coad. Bp. Coadjutor Bishop. 
Coad. cum jure sue. Coadjutor 
with right of succession. 

C.O.D. Cash (or collect) on de¬ 
livery. 

Col. Colonel; Colossians; Col¬ 
orado. 

Coll. Collector; Colloquial; Col¬ 
lege; Collection. 

Colo. Colorado. 







































































































































DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. 


699 


Com. Commerce; Committee; 
Commentay; Commissioner; 
Commodore; Community. 

Com. Arr. Committee of Ar¬ 
rangements. 

Comilg. Commanding. 

Comdt. Commandant. 

Comm. Commentary. 

Commo. Commodore. 

Comp. Compare; Compound. 
Com. Ver. Common Version (of 
the Bible). 

Con. Against; In opposition, 
Contra. 

Con. Cr. Contra, Credit. 

Con. Convent. 

Conch. Conchology. 

Cong. Congress ; Congregation ; 

Congregationalism 
Conj.orconj. Conjunction. 
Conn, or Ct. Connecticut. 

Const. Constable; Constitution. 
Cont. Contra. 

Conv. Convent. 

Cor. Corinthians; Corner. 

Corol. Corollary. 

Cor Sec Corresponding Secre¬ 
tary 

C.P. Common Pleas. 

• C.P. Court of Probate. 

C.P.S. Keeper of the Privy Seal. 
C.R. Keeper of the Rolls. 

Cr. Creditor; Credit. 

Crim. Con. Criminal conversa¬ 
tion, or Adultery. 

C.S. Court of Sessions; Com¬ 
missary of Subsistence. 

C.S. Keeper of the Seal. 

C.S.O. Chief Signal Officer. 

Ct., cts. Cent, Cents; Connec¬ 
ticut. 

C. Theod. In the Theodosian 
Code. 

C. W. Canada West. 

Cwt. Hundredweight. 

,Cyc. Cyclopedia. 

d. Penny or Pence, 
d. Died ; Day. 

D. Five hundred. 

Dak. Ter. Dakota Territory. 
Dan. Daniel; Danish. 

D.C. Again ; Deputy Consul. 
D.C. District of Columbia. 
D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law. 
D.D. Doctor of Divinity. 

D.D.S. Doctor of Dental Sur- 
gery. 

D.E. Dynamic Engineer. 

Dea. Deacon. 

Dec. December; Declaration. 
Deft, or Dft. Defendant. 

Deg. Degree or degrees. 

Del. Delaware; Delegate. 

Del. or del. He drew it. 

Dep. Deputy. 

Dep. Q.M.G. Deputy Quarter¬ 
master-General. 

Dept. Department. 

Deut. Deuteronomy. 

D.F. Dean of the Faculty. 

D.G. By God’s grace. 

D.G. Thanks to God. 

Diam. Diameter. 

Diet. Dictator; Dictionary. 
Dim. Diminutive. 

Dioc. Diocese. 

Dioc. Sem. Diocesan Seminary. 
Disc. Discount. 

Diss. Dissertation. 

Dist. District. 

Dist.-Atty. District-Attorney. 
Div. Dividend. 

D.M. Doctor of Music. 

D.M.D. Doctor Dental Med¬ 
icine. 

Do. The Same, Ditto. 

Dol., Dols., $. Dollars. 

Dom. To God, the best, the 
greatest. 

Dom. Prel. Domestic Prelate. 
Doz. Dozen. 

D.P. Doctor of Philosophy. 

Dr. Debtor; Doctor. 

D.S. From the sign. 


D.T. Doctor of Theology. 

D. V. God willing, Deo volente. 
Dub. Dublin. 

Dwt. Pennyweight. 

E. East, 
ea. Each. 

E. by S. East by South. 

Eben. Ehenezer. 

Eccl. Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus. 

Ed. Editor; Edition. 

Edin. Edinburgh. 

Edit. Edition. 

Edm. Edmund. 

Edw. Edward. 

E.E. Errors excepted. 

E.E. & M.P. Envoy Extraor¬ 
dinary and Minister Plenipo¬ 
tentiary. 

e.g. For example, Exempli gratia. 
e.g. From the flock, among the 
rest. 

E.I. East Indies or East India. 
Eliz. Elizabeth. 

E. Ion. East longitude. 

Emp. Emperor; Empress. 
Encyc. Encyclopedia. 

E.N.E. East-northeast. 

Eng. England; English. 

Eng. in Chf. Engineer in Chief. 
Ens. Ensign. 

Ent. Entomology. 

Env. Ext. Envoy Extraordinary. 
Ep. Epistle. 

Eph. Ephesians; Ephraim. 

Epis. Episcopal. 

Esd. Esdras. 

E.S.E. East-Southeast. 

Esq., Esqs. Esquire, Esquires. 
Esth. Esther, 
et al. And others, Et alii. 
etc. or &c. And other things; 
And so forth. 

et. seq. And what follows, Et 
sequentia. 

Evang. Evangelical; Evangelist. 
Ex. Example. 

Ex. Exodus. 

Exc. Excellency; Exception. 
Exch. Exchequer. 

Exec. Com. Executive Com¬ 
mittee. 

Execx. Executrix, 
ex. g. For example, Exempli 
gratia. 

Exr. or Exec. Executor. 

Ez. Ezra. 

Ezek. Ezekiel. 

E. & O.E Errors and omissions 
excepted. 

Fahr. Fahrenheit. 

F. A.M. Free and Acceped Ma¬ 
sons. 

Far. Farthing. 

F.A.S. Fellow of the Antiquar¬ 
ian Society. 

fcap. or fcp. Foolscap. 

F.D. Defender of the Faith. 

Fe. Iron, Ferrum. 

Feb. February. 

Fee. He did it, Fecit. 

Fern. Feminine. 

Fern. Ac. or Acad. Female Ac¬ 
ademy. 

F.E.S. Fellow of the Entomo¬ 
logical Society; of the Ethno¬ 
logical Society. 

Feud. Feudal. 

F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological 
Society. 

F.H.S. Fellow of the Horticul¬ 
tural Society. 

fi. fa. Cause it to be done, Fieri 
facias. 

Fid. Def. Defender of the Faith. 
Fig. Figure; figurative. 

Fir. Firkin. 

Fla. Florida. 

F.L.S. Fellow of the Linmean 
Society. 

Fol. Folio. 

For. Foreign. 

F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological 
Society. 


Fr. Franc; Francs; French; 
France. 

Fr. Fragment. 

Fr. Francis; Father; Friar; 
Frank. 

F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Astro¬ 
nomical Society. 

F.R.C.S.L. Fellow of the Royal 
College of Surgeons, London. 
Fred. Frederick. 

F'.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal 
Geographical Society. 

Fri. Friday. 

F'.R.S. Fellow of the Royal So¬ 
ciety. 

Frs. Frisian. 

F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal 
Society, Edinburgh. 

F.R.S.L. F'ellow of the Royal 
Society, London. 

F.R.S.L. F'ellow of the Royal 
Society of Literature. 

F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of 
Arts. 

F.S.A.E. Fellow of the Society 
of Antiquaries, Edinburgh. 

Ft. F'oot; F'eet; F ort. 

F'ur. Furlong. 

F. Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological 
Society. 

G. or g. Guineas. 

G.A. General Assembly. 

Ga. Georgia. 

Gal. Galatians; Gallon. 

G.B. Great Britain. 

G.C. Grand Chancellor. 

G.C. Grand Chapter. 

G.C.B. Grand Cross of the Bath. 

G.C.H. Grand Cross of FIanover. 

G.C.L.H. Grand Cross of the 
Legion of Honor. 

G.E. Grand Encampment. 

Gen. Genesis; General. 

Gent. Gentleman. 

Geo. George. 

Geog. Geography. 

Geol. Geology. 

Geom. Geometry. 

Ger. German; Germany. 

G.L. Grand Lodge. 

Gl. A gloss, Glossa. 

Glas. Glasgow. 

G.M. Grand Master. 

G.O. General Order. 

Goth. Gothic. 

Gott. Gottingen. 

Gov. Governor. 

Gov.-Gen. Governor-General. 

G. R. King George, Georgius 
Rex. 

Gr. Greek; Gross. 

Gram. Grammar. 

Gro. Gross. 

Grot. Grotius. 

h. Hour. 

h.a. This year, Hoc anno. 

Hab. Habakkuk. 

Hab. corp. You may have the 
body, Habeas corpus. 

Hag. Haggai. 

Ham. Coll. Hamilton College. 

H. B.C. Hudson’s Bay Companv. 

H.B.M. His or Her Britannic 

Majesty. 

H.C. House of Commons. 

Hdkf. Handkerchief. 

H.E. His Eminence. 

h.e. That is, or this is, Hoc est. 

Heb. Hebrews. 

Her. Heraldry. 

H. Exc. His Excellency. 

H.F. Holy Father. 

Hf.-bd. Half-bound. 

Hg. Mercury, Hydrargyrum. 

H.H. His Holiness. 

Hhd. Hogshead. 

Hist. History ; Historical. 

H.J.S. Flere lies buried. 

H.L. H ouse of Lords'. 

H.M. His or Her Majesty. 
H.M.P. Erected this monument. 
Hon. Honorable. 

Hort. Horticulture. 

Hos. Hosea. 


H.R. House of Representatives. 
H.R.E. Holy Roman Emperor. 
H.R.H. His or Her Royal High¬ 
ness. 

H.R.I.P. Here he rests in peace. 
H.S. Here lies, Hie situs. 

H. S.H. His Serene Highness, 
h.t. This title; In or under this 

title, Hoc titulo. 

h. v. This word, Hoc verbum; In 
these words, His verbis. 

Hund. Hundred. 

I, II, III. One, two, three, or, 
first, second, third. 

l a. Iowa. 

l b. or ibid. In the same place. 
Ich. Ichthyology. 

Ictus. Counselor at Law. 

Id. The same, Idem. 

Id. Ter. Idaho Territory. 

i. e. That is, Id est. 

I.H.S. Jesus the Savior of men. 
ij. Two (medical). 

III. Illinois. 

l n. Inch; Inches. 

incog. Unknown, Incognito. 
incor. Incorporated. 

Ind. Indiana; Index ; Indian. 
Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. 
Indef. Indefinite. 

Inf. Beneath or below, Dijra. 
in f. At the end of the title, law 
or paragraph quoted, InJine. 
in lim. At the outset, In limine. 
in loc. In the place; on the pas¬ 
sage, In locO. 

in pr. In the beginning and be¬ 
fore the first paragraph of law, 
In principio. 

I.N.R.I. Jesus of Nazarath, 
King of the Jews. 

Insp.-Gen. Inspector-General. 
Inst. Instant, of this month; 
Institute. 

in sum. In the summary, In 
summa. 

Int. Interest; Interpreter. 

Interj. Interjection. 

Intr. Introduction, 
in trans. In the passage, In 
transitu. 

Introd. Introduction. 

l o. Iowa. 

I.O.G.T. Independent Order of 
Good Templars. 

I.O.F. Independent Order of 
Foresters. 

I.O.O.F. Independent Order of 
Odd-Fellows. 

I.O.U. I owe you. 

I.q. Idem quod , the same as. 

Isa. Isaiah. 

Isl. Island. 

I. S.M. jestts Salvator mundi, 
Jesus the Savior of the world. 

Ital. Italic; Italian. 

Itin. Itinerant or Itinerary. 

IV. Four or fourth. 

IX. Nine or ninth. 

J. Justice or Judge. JJ. Jus¬ 
tices. 

j. One (medical). 

J.A. Judge-Advocate. 

Jac. Jacob. 

Jam. Jamaica. 

Jan. January. 

J as. J ames. 

J.C.D. y tin's Civilis Doctor , 

Doctor of Civil Law. 

J.D. yurum Doctor , Doctor of 
Laws. 

J er. J eremiah. 

Jno. John. 

Jona. Jonathan. 

Jos. Joseph. 

Josh. Joshua. 

J.P. Justice of the Peace. 

J.Prob. Judge of Probate. 
l.R. yacobus Rex, King James. 
Jr. orjun. Junior. 

J.U.D. or J.V.D. yuris utrius- 
que Doctor , Doctor of both 
Laws (of the Canon and the 
Civil Law). 































700 


DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. 


Jutl. Judith. 

Judg. Judges. 

Judge-Adv. Judge-Advocate. 

Jul. July; Julius. 

Jul. Per. Julian Period. 

Jun. June; Junius; Junior. 

Jus.P. Justice of the Peace. 

Just. Justinian. 

J. W. Junior Warden. 

K. Rung. 

K.A. Knight of St. Andrew, in 
Russia. 

K.A.N. Knight of St. Alexan¬ 
der Nevskoi, in Russia. 

Kas. Kansas. 

K.B. King’s Bench; Knight of 
the Bath. 

K.B.A. Knight of St. Bento 
d’Avis, in Portugal. 

K.B.E. Knight of the Black 
Eagle, in Russia. 

K.C. King’s Counsel; Knight 
of the Crescent, in Turkey. 

K.C.B. Knight Commander of 
the Bath. 

K.C.H. Knight Commander of 
Hanover. 

K.C.S. Knight of Charles III. 
of Spain. 

K.E. Knight of the Elephant, 
in Denmark. 

K.F. Knight of Ferdinand of 
Spain. 

K.F.M. Knight of St. Ferdin¬ 
and and Merit, in Sicily. 

K.G. Knight of the Garter. 

K.G.C. Knight of the Grand 
Cross. 

K.G.C.B. Knight of the Grand 
Cross of the Bath. 

K.G.F. Knight of the Golden 
Fleece, in Spain. 

K.G.H. Knight of the Guelphs 
of Hanover. 

K.G.V. Knight of Gustavus 
Vasa, in Sweden. 

K.H. Knight of Hanover; 
Knights of Honor. 

Ki. Kings. 

Kii. or kil. Kilderkin. 

Kingd. Kingdom. 

K.J. Knight of St. Joachim. 

K.L. or K.L.A. Knight of Leo¬ 
pold of Austria. 

K.L.H. Knight of the Legion 
of Honor; Knights and Ladies 
of Honor. 

K.M. Knight of Malta. 

K.Mess. King’s Messenger. 

K.M.H. Knight of Merit, in 
Holstein. 

K.M.J. Knight of Maximilian 
Joseph, in Bavaria. 

K.M.T. Knight of Maria Ther¬ 
esa, in Austria. 

K.N. Know-Nothing. 

Knick. Knickerbocker. 

K.N.S. Knight of the Royal 
North Star in Sweden. 

Knt. Knight. 

K.P. Knight of St. Patrick; 
Knight ofPythias. 

K.R.C. Knight of the Red Cross. 

K.R.E. Knight of the Red Ea¬ 
gle, in Prussia. 

K.S. Knight of the Sword, in 
Sweden. 

K.S.A. Knight of St. Anne, in 
Russia. 

K.S.E. Knight of St. Esprit, in 
France. 

K.S.F. Knight of St. Fernando, 
in Spain. 

K.S.G. Knight of St. George, in 
Russia. 

K.S.H. Knight of St. Hubert, 
in Bavaria. 

K.S.J. Knight of St. Januarius, 
of Naples. 

K.S.L. Knight of the Sun and 
Lion, in Persia. 

K.S.M. & S.G. Knight of St. 
Michael and St. George, in the 
Ionian Islands. 


K.S.P. Knight of St. Stanislaus, 
in Poland. 

K.S.S. Knight of the Southern 
Star, in Brazil; Knight of the 
Sword, in Sweden. 

K.S.W. Knight of St. Wladimir, 
in Russia. 

K.T. Knight of the Thistle; 
Knight Templar. 

Kt. Knight. 

K.T.S. Knight of the Tower 
and Sword, in Portugal. 

K.W. Knight of William, in 
the Netherlands. 

K. W.E. Knight of the White 
Eagle, in Poland. 

Ky. Kentucky. 

L. Fifty or 'fiftieth; Liber , 
book; Lake. 

L, £ or 1 . Libra or Librae, 
Pound or pounds in weight. 

L.C. Lord Chancellor; Lord 
Chamberlain; Lower Canada. 

l.c. Lower-case. 

L.C.B. Lord Chief Baron. 

L.C.J. Lord Chief-Justice. 

L.D. Lady-Day. 

Ld. Lord. 

Ldp. Lordship. 

Leg. Legate. 

Legis. Legislature. 

Lev. Leviticus. 

Lex. Lexicon. 

L.I. ’|Long Island. 

Lib. ™ Liber , book. 

Lieut. Lieutenant. 

Lieut.-Col. Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Lieut.-Gen. Lieutenant-General. 

Lieut.-Gov. Lieutenant-Gov¬ 
ernor. 

Linn. Linnaian. 

Liq. Liauidation. 

Lit. Literally; Literature. 

Liv. Livre, book. 

LL.B. Legum Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Laws. 

LL.D. Legum Doctor, Doctor 
of Laws. 

loc. cit. Loco citato , in the place 
cited. 

Lon. Longitude. 

Loud. London. 

L. S. Locus sigilli. Place of the 
seal. 

Lt. Lieutenant. 

LX. Sixty or sixtieth. 

LXX. Seventy or seventieth; 
The.Septuagint (Version of tne 
Old Testament). 

LXXX. Eighty or eightieth. 

M. Meridles, noon. 

M. Mille, a thousand. 

M. or Mons. Monsieur , Sir. 

M.A. Master of Arts. 

Macc. Maccabees. 

Mad. Madam. 

Mad.Univ. Madison University. 

Maj. Major. 

Mai.-Gen. Major-General. 

Mai. Malachi. 

Man. Manasses. 

Mar. March. 

March. Marchioness. 

Marg. Margin. 

Marg. Tran. Marginal Transla¬ 
tion. 

Marq. Marquis. 

Masc. Masculine. 

Mass. Massachusetts. 

Math. Mathematics; Mathema¬ 
tician. 

Matt. Matthew. 

Max. Maxim. 

M.B. Medicines Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Medicine. 

M.B. Musicte Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Music. 

M.B.G. et H. Magna Britannia, 
Gallia et Hibernia, Great Brit¬ 
ain, France, and Ireland. 

M.C. Member of Congress. 

Mch. March. 

M.D. Medicines Doctor, Doctor 
of Medicine. 


Md. Maryland. 

Mdlle. or Mile. Mademoiselle. 

Mdse. Merchandise. 

M.E. Methodist Episcopal; Mil¬ 
itary or Mechanical Engineer. 

Me. Maine. 

Mech. Mechanics, or Mechanical. 

Med. Medicine. 

Mem. Memorandum. Memento, 
remember. 

Merc. Mercury. 

Messrs, or MM. Messieurs, Gen¬ 
tlemen. 

Met. Metaphysics. 

Metal. Metallurgy. 

Meteor. Meteorology. 

Meth. Methodist. 

Mex. Mexico, or Mexican. 

M.-Goth. Mceso-Gothic. 

M.H.S. Massachusetts Histori¬ 
cal Society; Member of the 
Historical Society. 

Mic. Micah. 

Mich. Michigan. 

Mil. Military. 

Mil. Acad. Military Academy. 

Min. Mineralogy; Minute. 

Minn. Minnesota. 

Min. Plen. Minister Plenipoten¬ 
tiary. 

Miss. Mississippi. 

M.L.A. Mercantile Library As¬ 
sociation. 

MM. Their Majesties; Mes¬ 
sieurs, Gentlemen; Two thou - 
sand. 

M.M.S. Moravian Missionary 
Society. 

M. M. S. S. Massachusettensis 
Medicines Societatis Socius, 
Fellow of the Massachusetts 
Medical Society. 

Mo. Missouri; Month. 

Mod. Modern. 

Mon. Monday. 

Mons. Monsieur, Sir. 

Mos. Months. 

Mont.Ter. Montana Territory. 

M.P. Member of Parliament; 
Metropolitan Police. 

M.P.P. Member of Provincial 
Parliament. . 

M.R. Master of the Rolls. 

Mr. Mister. 

M.R.A.S. Member of the Royal 
Asiatic Society; Member of the 
Royal Academy of Science. 

M.R.C.C. Member of the Royal 
College of Chemistry. 

M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal 
College of Surgeons. 

M.R.G.S. Member of the Royal 
Geographical Society. 

M.R.I. Member of the Royal 
Institute. 

M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal 
Irish Academy. 

Mrs. Mistress. 

M.R.S.L. Member of the Royal 
Society of Literature. 

M.S. Memories sacrum. Sacred 
to the Memory; Master of the 
Sciences. 

MS. Manuscriptum, Manuscript. 

MSS. Manuscripts. 

Mt. Mount or Mountain. 

Mus.B. Bachelor of Music. 

Mus.D. Doctor of Music. 

M. W. Most Worthy; Most Wor¬ 
shipful. 

Myth. Mythology. 

N. North; Number; Noun; 
Neuter. 

n. Note. 

N.A. North America. 

Nah.' Nahum. 

N at. N atural. 

Nat. Hist. Natural History. 

Nath. Nathanael or Nathaniel. 

N.B. New Brunswick; North 
British; Nota bene, mark 
well, take notice. 

N.C. North Carolina; New 
Church. 


N.E. New England ; Northeast. 

Neb. Nebraska. 

Neh. Nehemiah. 

n.e.i. Non est inventus, He is 
not found. 

nem. con. or nem. diss. Neniine 
contradicente, No one oppos¬ 
ing ; Unanimously. 

Neut. Neuter (gender). 

Nev. Nevada. 

New Test, or N.T. New Testa¬ 
ment. 

N.F. Newfoundland. 

N.G. Now Grenada; Noble 
Grand. 

N.H. New Hampshire; New 
Haven. 

N.H.H.S. New Hampshire His¬ 
torical Society. 

Ni.pri. Nisiprius (law). 

N.J. New Jersey. 

n.l. Non liquet, It does not ap¬ 
pear. 

N.lat. North latitude. 

N.Mex. New Mexico. 

N.N.E. North-Northeast. 

N.N.W. North-Northwest. 

N.O. New Orleans. 

No. Numero, number. 

Nol.pros. Nolens prosequi, I am 
unwilling to prosecute. 

Nom. or nom. Nominative. 

Non con. Not centent; dissent- 
ing (House of Lords). 

Non cul. Non culpabilis, Not 
guilty. 

Non obst. Non obstante, not¬ 
withstanding. 

Non pros. Non prosequitur, Pie 
does not prosecute. 

Non seq. Non sequitur, It does 
not follow. 

Nos. Numbers. 

Nov. November. 

N.P. Notary Public; New 
Providence. 

N.S. New Style (after 1752); 
Nova Scotia. 

N.T. New Testament. 

N.u. Name or names, unknown. 

Num. Numbers; Numeral. 

N.V.M. Nativity of the Virgin 
Mary. 

N.W. Northwest. 

N.W.T. Northwestern Territory. 

N.Y. New York. 

N. Y.H.S. New York Plistorical 
Society. 

O. Ohio. 

Ob. Obiit, He (or she) died. 

Obad. Obadiah. 

Obj. Objection; Objective. 

O.K. A slang phrase for “All 
correct.” 

Obt. Obedient. 

Oct. October. 

0 . 1 '. Odd bellow, or Odd-Fel¬ 
lows. 

O.F.P. Order of Friar Preachers. 

Old Test, or O.T. Old Testa¬ 
ment. 

Olym. Olympiad. 

Ont. Ontario. 

Opt. Optics; Optical; Optional. 

Or. Oregon. 

Ord. Ordinance; Order; Ord¬ 
nance; Ordinary. 

Orig. Originally. 

Ornith. Ornithology. 

O.S. Old Style (before 1752). 

O.S.F. Order of St. Francis. 

O/r. Old Testament. 

O. U.A. Order of United Ameri¬ 
cans. 

Oxf. Oxford. 

Oxon. Oxoniensis, Oxonii, of 
Oxford, at Oxford. 

Oz. Ounce. 

P. Pondere, by weight. 

P. or p. Page; Part; Participle. 

Pa. Pennsylvania. 

Pal. Palaeontology. 

Par. Paragraph. 

Par. Pas. Parallel passage. 


























DICTIONARY OF ABBREVIATIONS. 


701 


4 


4 


Pari. Parliament. 

Pathol. Pathology. 

Payt. Payment. 

Pb. Plumbum, Lead. 

P.B. Philosophice Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor or Philosophy. 

P.C. Pat res Conscripti, Con¬ 
script Fathers; Senators. 

P.C. Privy Council; Privy Coun¬ 
cillor. 

P.D. Philosophies Doctor , Doc¬ 
tor of Philosophy. 

Pd. Paid. 

P.E. Protestant Episcopal. 

P.E.I. Prince Edward Island. 
Penn. Pennsylvania. 

Pent. Pentecost. 

Per. or pr. By the. 

Per an. Per annum, by the year. 
Per cent. Per centum, by the 
hundred. 

Peri. Perigee. 

Pet. Peter. 

P.G. Past Grand. 

Phar. Pharmacy. 

Ph.B. Philosphice Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor of Philosophy. 

Ph.D. Philosophies Doctor, Doc¬ 
tor of Philosophy. 

Phil. Philip ; Philippians; Phil¬ 
osophy; Philemon. 

Phila. or Phil. Philadelphia. 
Philom. Philomathes, Lover of 
learning. 

Philomath. Philomathematicus, 
A lover of mathematics. 
Phil.Trans. Philosophical Trgns- 
y- actions. 

Phren. Phrenology. 

P.H.S. Pennsylvania Historical 
Society. 

Pinx. Pinxit, He (or she) paint¬ 
ed it. 

Pk. Peck. 

PI. or plur. Plural. 

Plff. Plaintiff. 

P.M. Post meridiem. Afternoon, 
Evening; Postmaster; Passed 
Midshipman; Paymaster. 

* P. M. G. Postmaster-General. 

P.O. Post-office. 
iPoet. Poetical. 

Pop. Population. 

Port. Portugal; Portuguese. 

Pos. Position; Positive; Pos¬ 
session. 

P.P. Pafar Patrice, Father of 
his Country; Parish Priest. 

■ P.P.C. Pour prendre conge, to 
take leave. 

Pp. orpp. Pages. 

Pph. Pamphlet. 

Pr. By. 

P.R. Populus Romanies, the 
Roman People; Porto Rico; 
Proof-reader; Prize Ring. 
P.R.A. President of the Royal 
Academy. 

P.R.C. Post Romam conditam. 
After the building of Rome. 
Pref. Preface. 

Prep. Preposition. 

Prot. Protestant. 

Pro tern. Pro tempore, for the 
time being. 

Prov. Proverbs; Provost. 

Prox. Proximo, next (month). 
P.R.S. President of the Royal 
Society. 

P.S. Post scriptum. Postscript. 
P.S. Privy Seal. 

Ps. Psalm or Psalms. 

Pt. Part; Pint; Payment; Point; 

Port; Post-town. 

Pub. Publisher; Publication; 

Published; Public. 

Pub. Doc. Public Documents. 

P. v. Post-village. 

Pwt. Pennyweight; Penny¬ 
weights. 

Pxt. Pinxit, He (or she) painted 
it. 

Q. Queen. 

q. Quasi, as it were ; almost. 


Q.B. Queen’s Bench. 

Q.C. Queen’s College; Queen’s 
Counsel. 

q.d. Quasi dicat, as if he should 
say; quasi dictum, as if said; 
quasi dixisset, as if he had said, 
q.e. Quod est, which is. 
q.e.d. Quod erat demonstran¬ 
dum, which was to be proved, 
q.e.f. Quod erat faciendum, 
which was to be done, 
q.e.i. Quod erat inveniendum, 
which was to be found out. 
q.l. Quantum Zibet, as much as 
you please. 

Q M. Quartermaster, 
qm. Quomodo, how; by what 
means. 

Q.M.G. Quartermaster-General, 
q.p or q.pl. Quantum placet, as 
much as you please. 

Qr. Quarter. 

Q. S. Quarter-sessions; Quarter- 
section. 

q.s. Quantum sufficit, a sufficient 
quantity. 

Qt. Quart. 

qu. or qy. Qtecsre, inquire, 
query. 

Quar. Quarterly. 

Ques. Question, 
q.v. Quod vide, which see; 
quantum vis, as much as you 
will. 

R. Recipe, Take; Regina, Queen ; 
Rex, King; River; Rod; Rood; 
Rises. 

R.A. Royal Academy; Royal 
Academician; Royal arch; 
Royal Arcanum; Royal Artil¬ 
lery. 

R.C. Rescriptum, A rescript, Re¬ 
written. 

R.E. Royal Engineers. 

Rec. Recipe; Recorder. 

Reed. Received. 

Rec. Sec. Recording Secretary. 
Rect. Rector; Receipt. 

Ref. Reference; Reform. 

Ref. Ch. Reformed Church. 

Reg. Register; Regular. 

Reg. Prof. Regius Professor. 
Regr. Registrar. 

Regt. Regiment. 

Rel. Religion. 

Rep. Representative; Reporter; 
Republic. 

Rev. Reverend; Revelation 

(Book of); Review; Revenue; 
Revise. 

Rhet. Rhetoric. 

R.I. Rhode Island. 

Richd. Richard. 

R.I.H.S. Rhode Island Histori¬ 
cal Society. 

R.M. Royal Marines; Royal 

Mail. 

R.M.S. Royal Mail Steamer. 
R.N. Royal Navy. 

R.N.O. Riddare af Nordstjerne 
Orden, Knight of the Order of 
the Polar Star. 

Ro. Recto, Right-hand page. 
Robt. Robert. 

Rom. Romans (Book of). 

Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. 
R.P. Regius Professor, the 
King’s Professor. 

RR. Railroad. 

R.S. Recording Secretary. 

Rs. Responsum, Answer; Re¬ 
sponds re, To answer. 

R.S.A. Royal Society of Anti¬ 
quaries; Royal Scottish Acad¬ 
emy. 

R.S.D. Royal Society of Dub¬ 
lin. 

R.S.E. Royal Society of Edin¬ 
burgh. 

R.S.L. Royal Society of London. 
R.S.V.P. Respondez s'll votes 
plait, Answer if you please. 

Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. 

Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. 


Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful. 
R.W. Right Worthy. 

R. W.O. RiddareafWasa Orden, 
Knight of the Order of Wasa. 

S. South; Saint; Scribe; Sul¬ 
phur, Sunday; Sun; Series. 

S. Solidus, A shilling. 

S.A. South America; South 
Africa; South Australia, 
s.a. Secundum orient. According 
to art. 

Sam. Samuel. 

Sansc. Sanscrit. 

S.A.S. Societatis Antiquariorum 
Socius, Fellow of the Society 
of Antiquaries. 

Sat. Saturday. 

Sax. Saxon. 

Sax. Chron. Saxon Chronicle. 

S.C. Sena ties consultum, A de- 

dree of the Senate ; South Car¬ 
olina. 

Sc. He (or she) engraved it. 
sc. or scil. Namely. 

Scan. Mag. Scandal, Scattdu/um 
magnatum; or, Great scandal, 
Standalum magnum. 

S. caps. Small capitals. 

Schol. A note, Scholum. 

Schr. Schooner. 

Sci.fa. Make known (legal), 
Scire facias. 

Sclav. Sclavonic. 

Scot. Scotland. 

Sculp, or sculp. He (or she) 
engraved it, Sciilpsit. 

S.D. Sends health, Salutem dicit. 
S.D. Doctor of Science. 

S.E. Southeast. 

Sec. Secretary; Second; Sec¬ 
tion. 

Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation. 
Sec. leg. According to law. 

Sec. reg. According to rule. 

Sect. Section. 

Sem. It seems. 

Sen. Senate; Senator; Senior. 
Sept. September; Septuagint. 
Seq. Following, Sequential It 
follows, Sequitur. 

Ser. Series. 

Serg. Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj. Sergeant-Major. 
Servt. Servant. 

S.G. Solicitor-General. 

*Shak. Shakspere. 

S.H.S. Fellow of the Historical 
Society. 

Sing. Singular. 

S.Isl. Sandwich Islands. 

Sist. Sister. 

S.J. Society of Jesus. 

S.J.C. Supreme J udicial Court. 
Skr. Sanscrit. 

S.L. Solicitor at Law. 

Sid. Sailed. 

S.Lat. South Latitude. 

S.M. State Militia; Short Meter; 
Sergeant-Major; Sons of 
Malta. 

S.M. Lond. Soc. Cor. Corre¬ 
sponding Member of the Lon¬ 
don Medical Society, 
s.n. According to nature, Sectin- 
dam naturam. 

Soc. Isl. Society Islands. 

Sol. Solomon; Solution; Solici¬ 
tor. 

Sol.-Gen. Solicitor-General. 

S. of Sol. Song of Solomon. 

S.P. Without issue. Sine prole. 
Sp. Spain. 

S.P.A.S. Member of the Ameri¬ 
can Philosophical Society. 
S.P.G. Society for the Propaga¬ 
tion of the Gospel. 

Sp.gr. Specific gravity. 

S.P.Q.R. The Roman Senate 
and People. 

Sq.ft. Square foot or square 
feet. 

Sq.in. Square inch or inches. 
Sq.m, Square mile or miles. 
Sq.r. Square rood or roods. 


Sq.yd. Square yard. 

Sr. Sir or Senior; Sister. 

S.R.I. Holy Roman Empire. 
S.R.S. Fellow of the Royal 
Society. 

5.5. Sunday-school. 

SS. Saints. 

SS. or ss. To-wit, Scilicet. 
ss. Half, Semis. 

5.5. E. South-southeast. 

5.5. W. South-southwest. 

St. Saint, Street; Strait. 

Stat. Statute. 

S.T.D. Doctor of Sacred Theol¬ 
ogy. 

Ster.'or Stg. Sterling. 

S. T.P. Professor of Sacred 
Theology. 

Su. Sunday. 

Subj. Subjective. 

Subst. Substantive. 

Su.-Goth. Suio-Gothic. 

Sun. or Sund. Sunday. 

Sup. Supplement; Superfine; 
Superior. 

Supt. Superintendent. 

Surg. Surgeon; Surgery. 
Surg.^ien. Surgeon-General. 
Surv. Surveyor. 

Surv.-Gen. Surveyor-General. 
Sus. Susannah. 

s.v. Under the word or title, Sub 

verbo. 

S W. Southwest. 

Svn. Synonym; Synonymous. 

T. Territory. 

T. All together, Tutti. 

T. or Tom. Tome; Volume. 

T.E. Topographical Engineers. 
Tenn. Tennessee. 

Ter. Territory. 

Tex. Texas. 

Text. Rec. The Received Text. 
Th. or Thurs. Thursday. 

Theo. Theodore. 

Theol. Theology; Theological. 
Theoph. Theophilus. 

Thess. Thessalonians. 

Tho’. Though. 

Thos. Thomas. 

Thro’. Through. 

Thurs. Thursday. 

Tim. Timothy. 

Tit. Titus. 

T. O. Turn over. 

Tob. Tobit. 

Tom. Volume. 

Topog. Topography; Topo¬ 
graphical. 

Tr. Transpose; Translator; 
Translation. 

Tr., Trs. Trustee, Trustees, 
tr. A shake, Tnllo. 

Trans. Translator; Translation ; 

Transactions. 

Treas. Treasurer. 

Trin. Trinity. 

Tues. or Tu. Tuesday. 

Ty.p. Typographer. 

U. C. Year of Rome. 

U.E.I.C. United East India 

Company. 

U.J C. Doctor of both Laws 
(Civil and Canon). 

U.K. United Kingdom, 
ult. Last; of the last month, Ul¬ 
timo. 

Unit. Unitarian. 

Univ. University. 

U.S. United States, 
u.s. As above, Ut supra or uti 
supra. 

U.S.A. United States Army. 

U.S.A. United States of Amer¬ 
ica. 

U.S.M. United States Mail. 
U.S.M. United States Marine. 
U.S.M. A. United States Military 
Academy. 

U.S.N. United States Navy. 
U.S.N.A. United States Naval 
Academy. 

U.S.S. United States Senate. 
U.T. Utah Territory. 































702 

DICTIONARY OF 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

V. Five or fifth. 

Vil. Village. 

W.I.on. West longitude. 

V. Violin. VV. Violins. 

Vise. Viscount. 

W.M. Worshipful Master. 

v. or vid. See, Vide. 

viz. or vi. To wit; Namely; That 

Wm. William. 

v. or vs. Against; In such away: 

is to say: Videlicet. 

W.M.S. Wesleyan Missionary 

Versus ; Versiculo. 

Vo. Left hand page, Verso. 

Society. 

V.A. Vicar Apostolic. 

Vol. Volume. 

W.N.W. West-northwest. 

V. Adml. Vice-Admiral. 

V.R. Queen Victoria, Victoria 

Wpful. Worshipful. 

Va. Virginia. 

Retina. 

W.S. Writer to the Signet. 

Vat. Vatican. 

V.R. Very Reverend. 

W.S.W. West-southwest. 

V.C. Vice-Chancellor. 

V.S. Veterinary Surgeon. 

W.T. Wyoming Territory. 

V.C. Vice-Consul. 

Vt. Vermont. 

X. Ten or tenth. 

V.C.G. Vice-Consul-General. 

Vul. Vulgate (Latin version of 

X. or Xt. Christ. 

V.D.M. Minister of God's Word. 

the Bible). 

XI. Eleven. 

Ven. Venerable. 

W. West. 

XII. Twelve. 

Ver. Verse ; Version. 

Wash. Washington. 

XIII. Thirteen. 

V.F. Vicar-Forane. 

W.Ter. Washington Territory. 

XIV. Fourteen. 

V.G. Vicar-General. 

Wed. Wednesday. 

XV. Fifteen. 

v.g. As for example, Verbi Gratia. 

West. Res. Col. Western Reserve 

XVI. Sixteen. 

VI. Six or Sixth. 

College. 

XVII. Seventeen. 

VII. Seven or Seventh. 

w.f. Wrong font. 

XVIII. Eighteen. 

VIII. Eight or Eighth. 

Whf. Wharf. 

XIX. Nineteen. 

Vic.-Ap. Vicar-Apostolic. 

W.I. or W.Ind. West India. 

XX. Twenty. 

Vic.-Gen. Vicar-General. 

Wise. Wisconsin. 

XXX. Thirty. 

Vice-Pres., or V.P. Vice-Pres- 

Wisd. Wisdom (Book of). 

XL. Fortv. 

ident. 

Wk. Week. 

XC. Ninety. 


A 


Xmas or Xm. Christmas. 
XnorXtian. Christian. 

Xnty or Xty. Christianity. 

Xper or Xr. Christopher. 

Yd. Yard, 
y. or ye. The. 

ym. Them. 

yn. Then. 

yr. Their; Your. 

ys. This. 

yt. That. 

Y.M.C.A. Young- Men’s Chris¬ 
tian Association. 

Y. M. Cath. A. Young Men’s 
Catholic Association. 

Yrs. Years; Yours. 

Z ach. Zachary. 

Zech. Zechariah. 

Zeph. Zephaniah. 

Zool. Zoology. 

&. And. 

&c. And the rest; And so forth: 
Et ceetera. 



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